A nomogram (from Greek νόμος nomos, "law" and γραμμή grammē, "line"), also called a

nomograph, alignment chart, or abaque, is a graphical calculating device, a two-

dimensional diagram designed to allow the approximate graphical computation of a
mathematical function. The field of nomography was invented in 1884 by the French engineer
Philbert Maurice d'Ocagne (1862–1938) and used extensively for many years to provide
engineers with fast graphical calculations of complicated formulas to a practical precision.
Nomograms use a parallel coordinate system invented by d'Ocagne rather than standard
Cartesian coordinates.

A nomogram consists of a set of n scales, one for each variable in an equation. Knowing the
values of n-1 variables, the value of the unknown variable can be found, or by fixing the
values of some variables, the relationship between the unfixed ones can be studied. The result
is obtained by laying a straightedge across the known values on the scales and reading the
unknown value from where it crosses the scale for that variable. The virtual or drawn line
created by the straightedge is called an index line or isopleth.

Nomograms flourished in many different contexts for roughly 75 years because they allowed
quick and accurate computations before the age of pocket calculators. Results from a
nomogram are obtained very quickly and reliably by simply drawing one or more lines. The
user does not have to know how to solve algebraic equations, look up data in tables, use a
slide rule, or substitute numbers into equations to obtain results. The user does not even need
to know the underlying equation the nomogram represents. In addition, nomograms naturally
incorporate implicit or explicit domain knowledge into their design. For example, to create
larger nomograms for greater accuracy the nomographer usually includes only scale ranges
that are reasonable and of interest to the problem. Many nomograms include other useful
markings such as reference labels and colored regions. All of these provide useful guideposts
to the user.

An impedance Smith chart (with no data plotted)

Like a slide rule, a nomogram is a graphical analog computation device, and like the slide
rule, its accuracy is limited by the precision with which physical markings can be drawn,
reproduced, viewed, and aligned. While the slide rule is intended to be a general-purpose
device, a nomogram is designed to perform a specific calculation, with tables of values
effectively built into the construction of the scales. Nomograms are typically used in
applications where the level of accuracy they offer is sufficient and useful. Alternatively, a
nomogram can be used to check an answer obtained from another, more exact but possibly
error-prone calculation.

Other types of graphical calculators such as intercept charts, trilinear diagrams and
hexagonal charts are sometimes called nomograms. Other such examples include the Smith
chart, a graphical calculator used in electronics and systems analysis, thermodynamic
diagrams and tephigrams, used to plot the vertical structure of the atmosphere and perform
calculations on its stability and humidity content. These do not meet the strict definition of a
nomogram as a graphical calculator whose solution is found by the use of one or more linear
isopleths.

Description

Components of a parallel-scale nomogram

A nomogram for a three-variable equation typically has three scales, although there exist
nomograms in which two or even all three scales are common. Here two scales represent
known values and the third is the scale where the result is read off. The simplest such
equation is u1 + u2 + u3 = 0 for the three variables u1, u2 and u3. An example of this type of
nomogram is shown on the right, annotated with terms used to describe the parts of a
nomogram.

More complicated equations can sometimes be expressed as the sum of functions of the three
variables. For example, the nomogram at the top of this article could be constructed as a
parallel-scale nomogram because it can be expressed as such a sum after taking logarithms of
both sides of the equation.

The scale for the unknown variable can lie between the other two scales or outside of them.
The known values of the calculation are marked on the scales for those variables, and a line is
drawn between these marks. The result is read off the unknown scale at the point where the
line intersects that scale. The scales include 'tick marks' to indicate exact number locations,
and they may also include labeled reference values. These scales may be linear, logarithmic,
or have some more complex relationship.

The sample isopleth shown in red on the nomogram at the top of this article calculates the
value of T when S = 7.30 and R = 1.17. The isopleth crosses the scale for T at just under 4.65;
a larger figure printed in high resolution on paper would yield T = 4.64 to three-digit
precision. Note that any variable can be calculated from values of the other two, a feature of
nomograms that is particularly useful for equations in which a variable cannot be
algebraically isolated from the other variables.

Straight scales are useful for relatively simple calculations, but for more complex calculations
the use of simple or elaborate curved scales may be required. Nomograms for more than three
variables can be constructed by incorporating a grid of scales for two of the variables, or by
concatenating individual nomograms of fewer numbers of variables into a compound
nomogram.

Applications
Nomograms have been used in an extensive array of applications. A sample includes

 The original application by d'Ocagne, the automation of complicated cut and fill
calculations for earth removal during the construction of the French national railway
system. This was an important proof of concept, because the calculations are non-
trivial and the results translated into significant savings of time, effort, and money.
 The design of channels, pipes and wires for regulating the flow of water.
 The work of Lawrence Henderson, in which nomograms were used to correlate many
different aspects of blood physiology. It was the first major use of nomograms in the
United States and also the first medical nomograms anywhere. Nomograms continue
to be used extensively in medical fields.
 Ballistics calculations prior to fire control systems, where calculating time was critical.
 Machine shop calculations, to convert blueprint dimensions and perform calculations
based on material dimensions and properties. These nomograms often included
markings for standard dimensions and for available manufactured parts.
 Statistics, for complicated calculations of properties of distributions and for operations
research including the design of acceptance tests for quality control.
 Operations Research, to obtain results in a variety of optimization problems.
 Chemistry and chemical engineering, to encapsulate both general physical
relationships and empirical data for specific compounds.
 Aeronautics, in which nomograms were used for decades in the cockpits of aircraft of
all descriptions. As a navigation and flight control aid, nomograms were fast, compact
and easy-to-use calculators.
 Astronomical calculations, as in the post-launch orbital calculations of Sputnik 1 by
P.E. Elyasberg.[1]
 Engineering work of all kinds: Electrical design of filters and transmission lines,
mechanical calculations of stress and loading, optical calculations, and so forth.
 Military, where complex calculations need to be made in the field quickly and with
reliability not dependent on electrical devices.
 Seismology, where nomograms have been developed to estimate earthquake
magnitude and to present results of probabilistic seismic hazard analyses[2]
Examples
Parallel-resistance/thin-lens

Parallel electrical resistance nomogram

The nomogram below performs the computation

This nomogram is interesting because it performs a useful nonlinear calculation using only
straight-line, equally graduated scales. While the diagonal line has a scale times larger than
the axes scales, the numbers on it exactly match those directly below or to its left, and thus it
can be easily created by drawing a straight line diagonally on a sheet of graph paper.

A and B are entered on the horizontal and vertical scales, and the result is read from the
diagonal scale. Being proportional to the harmonic mean of A and B, this formula has several
applications. For example, it is the parallel-resistance formula in electronics, and the thin-lens
equation in optics.

In the example, the red line demonstrates that parallel resistors of 56 and 42 ohms have a
combined resistance of 24 ohms. It also demonstrates that an object at a distance of 56 cm
from a lens whose focal length is 24 cm forms a real image at a distance of 42 cm.

Chi-squared test computation

Chi-squared distribution nomogram

The nomogram below can be used to perform an approximate computation of some values
needed when performing a familiar statistical test, Pearson's chi-squared test. This nomogram
demonstrates the use of curved scales with unevenly spaced graduations.

The relevant expression is

The scale along the top is shared among five different ranges of observed values: A, B, C, D
and E. The observed value is found in one of these ranges, and the tick mark used on that
scale is found immediately above it. Then the curved scale used for the expected value is
selected based on the range. For example, an observed value of 9 would use the tick mark
above the 9 in range A, and curved scale A would be used for the expected value. An
observed value of 81 would use the tick mark above 81 in range E, and curved scale E would
be used for the expected value. This allows five different nomograms to be incorporated into a
single diagram.

In this manner, the blue line demonstrates the computation of

(9 − 5)2/ 5 = 3.2

and the red line demonstrates the computation of

(81 − 70)2 / 70 = 1.7

In performing the test, Yates's correction for continuity is often applied, and simply involves
subtracting 0.5 from the observed values. A nomogram for performing the test with Yates's
correction could be constructed simply by shifting each "observed" scale half a unit to the left,
so that the 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, ... graduations are placed where the values 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, ... appear on
the present chart.

Food risk assessment

Food risk assessment nomogram

Although nomograms represent mathematical relationships, not all are mathematically

derived. The following one was developed graphically to achieve appropriate end results that
could readily be defined by the product of their relationships in subjective units rather than
numerically. The use of non-parallel axes enabled the non-linear relationships to be
incorporated into the model.

The numbers in square boxes denote the axes requiring input after appropriate assessment.

The pair of nomograms at the top of the image determine the probability of occurrence and
the availability, which are then incorporated into the bottom multistage nomogram.

Lines 8 and 10 are ‘tie lines’ or ‘pivot lines’ and are used for the transition between the stages
of the compound nomogram.

The final pair of parallel logarithmic scales (12) are not nomograms as such, but reading-off
scales to translate the risk score (11, remote to extremely high) into a sampling frequency to
address safety aspects and other ‘consumer protection’ aspects respectively. This stage
requires political ‘buy in’ balancing cost against risk. The example uses a three-year
minimum frequency for each, though with the high risk end of the scales different for the two
aspects, giving different frequencies for the two, but both subject to an overall minimum
sampling of every food for all aspects at least once every three years.

This risk assessment nomogram was developed by the UK Public Analyst Service with
funding from the UK Food Standards Agency for use as a tool to guide the appropriate
frequency of sampling and analysis of food for official food control purposes, intended to be
used to assess all potential problems with all foods, although not yet adopted.

Sample size estimation

Nomogram for sample size estimation

This nomogram can be used to estimate the sample size requirements for statistical analyses.
It uses four parameters: α (fixed), effect size (ρ or δ), statistical power, and number of cases N
(two scales for α = .05 (liberal) or .01 (conservative)).

The hypothesized effect size in the population can either be expressed as a correlation
coefficient (ρ) or a normalized difference in means (δ) for a T-test. The normalized difference
is equal to the absolute value of the difference between two population means (μ₁ − μ₂),
divided by the pooled standard deviation (s).

The statistical power desired is estimated by 1 − β, where β is equal to the probability of

making a type II error. A type  II error is failing to reject the statistical null hypothesis (i.e., ρ
or δ is zero), when in fact the null hypothesis is false in the population and should be rejected.
Cohen (1977)[3] recommends using power equal to 0.80 or 80%, for a β = 0.20 .

The sample size or number of cases required is reported for two standard levels of statistical
significance (α = 0.01 or 0.05). The value of α is the probability of making a type I error. A
type  I error is rejecting the statistical null hypothesis (i.e., claiming that either ρ or δ is zero),
when in fact it is true (the value is zero) in the population and should not be rejected. The
most commonly used values of α are 0.05 or 0.01 .
To find the sample size requirements for a given statistical analysis, estimate the effect size
expected in the population (ρ or δ) on the left hand axis, select the desired level of power on
the right hand axis, and draw a line between the two values.

Where the line intersects with either the α = 0.05 or α = 0.01 middle axis will indicate the
sample size required to achieve statistical significance of α less than 0.05 or 0.01, respectively
(for the previously given parameters).

For instance, if one estimates the population correlation (ρ) to be 0.30, and desires statistical
power equal to 0.80, then to obtain a significance level of α less than 0.05, the sample size
requirement would be N = 70 cases rounded up (more precisely approximately 68 cases using
interpolation).

Other quick nomograms

Nomogram for the law of sines

Nomogram for solving the quadratric x^2+px+q=0

Nomogram for solving the cubic x^3+px+q=0

Using a ruler, one can readily read the missing term of the law of sines or the roots of the
quadratic and cubic equation.[4]

An Example:

Using the equation P = I2R

Here are the steps to follow if you want to make a nomogram that will solve for Power (P)
given values for Current (I) and Resistance (R), using the equation P=I2R. The first thing to do
is to know the type of expression you are going to use. Since this equation has exponents
involved, we will choose the exponential expression.
Now that you have the correct form chosen for the expression, you can fill in the text boxes
for the values of the constants, the value of the exponents, and then give names to each of the
variables.

The next step will be to enter in the units for each variable and the minimum and maximum
values. Some hints about making sure your units are correct can be found by CLICKING
HERE. It is very important to make sure that for your scales the units are correct so that the
tool is accurate. Another warning is to make sure that you enter different values for the
minimum and maximum.

In this example, the minimum for resistance is 1 Ω, and the maximum is 1000 Ω. For Power,
the min was 1 mW (or 0.001 W) and the max was 10 W.

Now, the nomogram is formed and ready to use. It will look like the following:
Now, the mouse can be used to draw a solution line across the nomogram, connecting the
values of the resistance and power to find the current. In this first example, the resistance
value is 100 Ω and the power is 1 Watt. If the exact value you had wanted when drawing the
line was not hit, go to the text box and enter the correct value, and hit the "Enter" key.

With the first line drawn, it can be saved on the graph by clicking the "Save Line" button
located under the value text boxes, which then keeps the line you have just drawn on the
nomogram when a new line is formed.

Now, the first line is drawn and saved so a new one can be formed. For this line, the
resistance value is 10 Ω and the power is 1*10-2 Watts, giving a current output of 0.032 Amps.
At first the line did not connect at exactly 10 Ω for resistance, but 9.972 instead, so I entered
10.0 Ω in the text box, highlighted below, and the program moved the line.
Now there are two lines, but what if the second one is seen as unnecessary? It can be removed
from the nomogram while keeping the first line in place. To do this, go to the top of the applet
where it says "Remove Lines" and then click "Delete Last Line". Just be sure that the last line
you want to remove has been saved. Otherwise a new line can be drawn and the previous will
disappear.
Now, the previously drawn line is removed.

The user can also control the spacing of the ticks on the nomogram, by changing the value in
the "Interval" text boxes. Here, I have entered 5 in the resistance interval.
There is also an option to add points to the line that can be used as a reference. I chose to use
the value of 300 Ohms, which is the resistance of the skin from ear to ear when wet with
perspiration. You first click on the Add Points button, and then select the line desired and fill
in the text boxes.
Now, on the resistance scale, the point we just added is shown. You can use this as a reference
for other input values.
Thus, you have made your first nomogram using the online interactive tool. If you have any
questions or comments, please feel free to send them to .

BACK MAIN.

Last updated by T. B. Jones on 03/02/2009 21:10:02.

The Art of Nomography I: Geometric Design
Posted by: Ron D. in mathematics

Nomography, truly a forgotten art, is the graphical

representation of mathematical relationships or laws
(the Greek word for law is nomos). These graphs are
variously called nomograms (the term used here),
nomographs, alignment charts, and abacs. This area
of practical and theoretical mathematics was invented
in 1880 by Philbert Maurice d’Ocagne (1862-1938) and
used extensively for many years to provide engineers
with fast graphical calculations of complicated
formulas to a practical precision.

Along with the mathematics involved, a great deal of

ingenuity went into the design of these nomograms to
increase their utility as well as their precision. Many
books were written on nomography and then driven out
of print with the spread of computers and calculators,
and it can be difficult to find these books today even in
libraries. Every once in a while a nomogram appears in
a modern setting, and it seems odd and strangely old-fashioned—the multi-faceted Smith
Chart for transmission line calculations is still sometimes observed in the wild. The theory of
nomograms “draws on every aspect of analytic, descriptive, and projective geometries, the
several fields of algebra, and other mathematical fields” [Douglass].

This essay is an overview of how nomograms work and how they are constructed from
scratch. Part I of this essay is concerned with straight-scale designs, Part II additionally
addresses nomograms having one or more curved scales, and Part III describes how
nomograms can be transformed into different shapes, the status of nomograms today, and the
nomographic references I consulted.

The simplest form of nomogram is a scale such as a Fahrenheit vs. Celsius scale seen
on an analog thermometer or a conversion chart. Linear spacing can be replaced with
logarithmic spacing to handle conversions involving powers. Slide rules also
technically qualify as nomograms but are not considered here. A slide rule is designed
to provide basic arithmetic operations so it can solve a wide variety of equations with
a sequence of steps, while the traditional nomogram is designed to solve a specific
equation in one step. It’s interesting to note that the nomogram has outlived the slide
rule.

Most of the nomograms presented here are the classic forms consisting of three or
more straight or curved scales, each representing a function of a single variable
appearing in an equation. A straightedge, called an index line or isopleth, is placed
across these scales at known values of these variables, and the value of an unknown
variable is found at the point crossed on that scale. This provides an analog means of
calculating the solution of an equation involving one unknown, and for finding one variable in
terms of two others it is much easier than trying to read a 3-D surface plot. We will see later
that it is sometimes possible to overlay scales so the number of scale lines can be reduced.
The Geometry of Nomograms

We can design nomograms composed of straight scales by analyzing their geometric

properties, and a variety of interesting
nomograms can be constructed from these
derivations. Certainly these seem to be the most
prevalent types of nomograms.

The figure on the right shows the basic parallel

scale nomogram for calculating a value f3(w) as
the sum of two functions f1(u) and f2(v):

f1(u)  +  f2(v) =  f3(w)

Each function plotted on a vertical scale using a

corresponding scaling factor (sometimes called a
scale modulus) m1, m2 or m3 that provides a
conveniently sized nomogram. The spacing of the
lines is shown here as a and b. Now by similar triangles, [m1f1(u) – m3f3(w)] / a =  [m3f3(w) –
m2f2(v)] / b. This can be rearranged as:

m1f1(u) +  (a/b) m2f2(v)   =  (1 + a/b) m3f3(w)

So to arrive at the original equation f1(u)  +  f2(v)  =  f3(w), we have to cancel out all the terms
involving m, a and b, which is accomplished by setting m1 = (a/b) m2 = (1 + a/b)m3.  The left
half of this relationship provides the relative scaling of the two outer scales and the outer parts
provide the scaling of the middle scale:

m1/ m2  =  a / b             m3 = m1m2 / (m1+ m2)

Also note that the baseline does not have to be perpendicular to the scales for the similar
triangle proportion to be valid. Now a = b for the case where the middle scale is located
halfway between the outer scales, and in this case m1 = m2 and m3 = ½m1. For a smaller range
and greater accuracy of an outer scale, we can change its scale m and move the middle line
away from it and toward the other outer scale. In fact, if the
unknown scale w has a very small range it can be moved
outside the two other scales to widen the scale. Additions to
u, v or w simply shift the scale values up or down.
Multipliers of u, v and w multiply the value when drawing
the scales (they are not included in the values of m in the
above calculations). Subtracting a value simply reverses the
up/down direction of the scale, and if two values are negative
their scales can simply be swapped. The example on the right
shows a parallel-scale nomogram for the equation (u–425) –
2(v–120) = w designed for ranges 530<u<590 and
120<v<180.

So this looks like a lot of work to solve a simple linear

equation. But in fact plotting logarithmic rather than linear
scales expands the use of parallel scale nomograms to very
complicated equations! The use of logarithms allows multiplications to be represented by
additions and powers to be represented by multiplications according to the following rules:

log(cd)  =  log c  +  log d           log cd  =  d log c

So if we have an equation such as f1(u) x f2(v) = f3(w), we can replace it with

log [f1(u) x f2(v)]  =  log f3(w)

or

log f1(u) + log f2(v) = log f3(w)

and we have converted the original equation into one without multiplication of variables. And
note that there is actually no need to solve symbolically for the variable (we just plot these
logs on the scales), a significant advantage when we come to more complicated equations.

Let’s create a nomogram for the engineering equation (u + 0.64)0.58(0.74v) = w as given in

Douglass. We assume that the engineering ranges we are interested in are 1.0<u<3.5 and
1.0<v<2.0.

0.58 log (u + 0.64) + log (0.74v) = log w

0.58 log (u + 0.64) + log (0.74) + log v = log w

0.58 log (u + 0.64) + log v = log w –  log (0.74)

We will directly plot the three components here as our u, v and

w scales. To find the scaling factors we divide the final desired
height of the u and v scales (say, 6 inches for both) by the
ranges (maximum – minimum) of u and v:

m1 =  6 / [0.58 log (3.5 + 0.64) – 0.58 log (1 + 0.64) ]  =  25.72

m2 =  6 / [log 2.0 – log 1.0]  =  19.93

m3 = m1m2 / (m1+ m2)  =  11.23

Let’s set the width of the chart to 3 inches:

a / b  =  m1 / m2  = 1.29    so  a = 1.29b

a + b  =  3   so  1.29b + b  =  3  yielding  b = 1.31 inches and a

= 1.69 inches

We draw the u-scale on the left marked off from u = 1.0 to u =

3.5.  To do this we mark a baseline value of 1.0 and place tick marks spaced out as 25.72
[0.58 log (u + 0.64) – 0.58 log (1.0 – 0.64)] which will result in a 6 inch high line. Then 3
inches to the right of it we draw the v-scale with a baseline value of 1.0 and tick marks spaced
out as 19.93 (log v – log 1). Finally, 1.69 inches to the right of the u-scale we draw the w-
scale with a baseline of (1.0 + 0.64)0.58(0.74)(1) = 0.98 and tick
marks spaced out as 11.23 (log w –  log 0.74). And we arrive at
the nomogram on the right, where a straightedge connecting
values of u and v crosses the middle scale at the correct
solution for w, and in fact any two of the variables will
generate the third. Flexibility in arranging terms of the
equation into different scales provides a means of optimizing
the ranges and accuracies of the nomogram. A larger scale and
finer tick marks can produce a quite accurate parallel scale
nomogram that is deceptively simple in appearance, and one
that can be manufactured and re-used indefinitely for this
engineering equation.

It is also possible to create a circular nomogram to solve a 3-variable equation. Details on

doing this from geometrical derivations are given in Douglass.

N or Z Charts

A nomogram like that shown in the figure on the

right is called an “N Chart” or more commonly a
“Z Chart” because of its shape. The slanting
middle scale joins the baseline values of the two
outer scales (which are now plotted in
opposition). The middle line can slant in either
direction by flipping the diagram, and it can be
just a partial section anchored at one end or
floating in the middle if the entire scale isn’t
needed in the problem, thus appearing, as
Douglass puts it,  “rather more spectacular” to the
casual observer. A Z chart can be used to solve a
3-variable equation involving a division:

f3(w) = f1(u) / f2(v)

By similar triangles, m1f1(u) / m2f2(v) =  Z / [L – Z]. Substituting f3(w) for f1(u) / f2(v) and
rearranging terms yields the distance along Z for tick marks corresponding to f3(w):

Z =  L f3(w) /  [(m2/m1) + f3(w)]

The f3(w) scale does not have a uniform scaling factor m3 as

before. We could have used a parallel scale chart with
logarithmic scales to plot this division, but the Z chart performs
this with linear scales for u and v and it was once a real chore to
calculate logarithms. But further, the linear scales of the Z Chart
are much more suitable for combining a division with an
addition or subtraction than compound parallel scales with their
logarithmic scales. And of course if the scale for the unknown
variable is an outside one, we have a Z chart for multiplication.
An example of a Z chart is shown here for the equation Q2 = (8R+4) / (P-3). To create this,
the desired height of the nomogram and the ranges of P and R provide their scaling factors m1
and m2 as done earlier. The desired width of the chart along with this height defines the length
L needed for the Q-scale (L2 = W2 + H2). The tick marks for Q are located a distance from the
end calculated from the formula for Z above, where f3(w) is replaced with Q2.  It is also
possible to slide the outer scales up or down without changing the tick mark spacing of the Z-
scale as it also rotates due to its endpoints (because similar triangles still result), yielding in a
nomogram with a perpendicular Z-scale as shown in an example in the second part of this
essay.

Proportional Charts

The proportional chart solves an equation in

four unknowns of the type

f1(u) / f2(v)  =   f3(w) / f4(t)

If we take our Z chart diagram and a second

isopleth that intersects the Z line at the same
point as the first, we have by similar triangles:

m1f1(u) / m2f2(v)  =  m3f3(w) / m4f4(t)

which matches our equation above if we choose the scaling of the outer scales such that

m1 / m2 = m3 / m4

We then overlay two variables on each outer scale

with this ratio of scaling factors, as shown in the
nomogram to the right from Josephs for the
approximate pitch of flange rivets in a plate girder,
where p is the rivet pitch in inches, R is the rivet
value in lbs, h is the effective depth of the girder in
inches, and V is the total vertical shear in lbs: p =
Rh/V.

Another type of proportional chart uses crossed

lines within a boxed area, as shown below. Again,
the scaling factors for the four variables are given
by m1 / m2 = m3 / m4 where these are related as before to the u, v, w and t scales, respectively.
(Actually, similar triangles still exist and the ratios still hold for any parallelogram, not just a
rectangle.)

But there are other types of proportional

charts as shown below. In the ones
labeled Type 3 an isopleth is drawn
between two scale variables, then moved
parallel until it spans the third variable
value and the fourth unknown variable.
The flange rivet example done in this
manner is shown here. In the Type 4
nomogram the second isopleth is drawn
perpendicular rather than parallel to the
first one; it’s actually easier to draw a
perpendicular than a parallel line if you
have a drafting square or even a rectangular sheet of paper.

Concurrent Scale Charts

The concurrent chart solves an equation of the

type

1/f1(u)  +  1/f2(v) =  1/f3(w)

The effective resistance of two parallel resistors is given by this equation, and a concurrent
scale nomogram for this is shown on the right.

The derivation is somewhat involved, but in the end the scaling factors m must meet the
following conditions:

m1 =  m2  =  m3 / (2 cos A)

where A is the angle between the u-scale and the v-

scale, and also the angle between the v-scale and
the w-scale. The scaling factor m3 corresponds to
the w-scale. The zeros of the scales must meet at
the vertex. If the angle A is chosen to be 60°, then
2 cos A = 1 and the three scaling factors are
identical, as is the case in this figure.

To solve the 4-variable equation 1/f1(u)  +  1/f2(v) 

+  1/f4(t)  =  1/f3(w), the equation is first re-
arranged as 1/f1(u)  +  1/f2(v)  =  1/f3(w)  –  1/f4(t).
Then the two halves are set equal to an
intermediate value f(q). A compound concurrent
chart is then created in a similar way to other compound charts as shown in this figure (here A
is chosen to be less than 60°).

4-Variable Charts

A 4-variable equation with one unknown can be represented as

a combination of two separate charts of any type.  The first step
is to break the equation into two parts in three variables that are
equal to one another. For f1(u)  +  f2(v) +  f3(w) = f4(t) and t
unknown, we can re-arrange the equation into f1(u)  +  f2(v) =
f4(t) –  f3(w) and create a new variable k to equal this sum.
Then a blank scale for k is created such that a parallel scale
nomogram for f1(u)  +  f2(v) = k marks a pivot point on the k-
scale, then a second straightedge alignment from this point is
used for a parallel-scale nomogram for f4(t) –  f3(w) = k to find
f4(t). The scaling for u, v and w and the position chosen for the
k-scale can be optimized to minimize errors at the pivot point
for small errors in the straightedge alignment. The figure on the
right shows a compound parallel scale nomogram. Below are
examples from Levens of compound nomograms of Z charts
and concurrent and proportional charts. A key often provides instructions on the use of a
compound nomogram as shown in the first figure. Of course, this concept can be extended to
equations with additional variables, where
color coding would be helpful.

Curved Scale Charts

It is possible to geometrically derive relationships for nomograms that have one or more
curved scales, but the design of these more complicated nomograms is so much easier using
determinants. Designing nomograms with determinants is the subject of Part II of this essay.

The Art of Nomography II: Designing with Determinants

Posted by: Ron D. in mathematics

The previous Part I of this essay described the construction

of straight-line nomograms using simple geometric
relationships. Beyond this, a brief knowledge of
determinants offers a powerful way of designing very
elegant and sophisticated nomograms. A few basics of
determinants are presented here that require no previous
knowledge of them, and their use in the construction of
straight line nomograms is demonstrated. Then we will see
how these determinants can be manipulated to create
extraordinary nomograms.

A matrix consists of functions or values arranged in rows

and columns, as shown within the brackets in the figure on the right. The subscript pair refers
to the row and column of a matrix element. A determinant represents a particular operation
on a matrix, and it is denoted by vertical bars on the sides of the matrix. The determinant this
3×3 matrix is given by

a11a22a33 + a12a23a31 + a13a21a32 – a13a22a31 – a11a23a32 – a12a21a33

But there are visual ways of deriving it. In the first figure
the first two columns of the determinant are repeated to the
right of the original, and then the products of all terms on
diagonals from upper left to lower right are added and the
products of all terms on diagonals from upper right to lower
left are subtracted. A
convenient mental shortcut
is to find these diagonal
products by “wrapping
around” to get the three components of each term. Here
the first product we add is the main diagonal a11a22a33, then
the second is a12a23a31 where we follow a curve around
after we pick up a12 and a23 to pick up the a31, then a13a32a21 by
starting at a13 and wrapping around to pick up the
a32 and a21. We do the same thing right-to-left for the
subtracted terms. This is much easier to visualize than to describe. Determinants of larger
matrices are not considered here.

There are just a few rules about manipulating determinants that we need to know:

1. If all the values in a row or column are multiplied by a number, the determinant value
is multiplied by that number. Note that here we will always work with a determinant
of 0, so we can multiply any row or column by any number without affecting the
determinant.
2. The sign of a determinant is changed when two adjacent rows or columns are
interchanged.
3. The determinant value is unchanged if every value in any row (or column) is
multiplied by a number and added to the corresponding value in another row (or
column).

That’s it. Now consider the general diagram to the

right from Hoelscher showing three curvilinear scales
and an isopleth. Similar triangle relations give

(y3-y1)/(x3-x1)  =  (y2-y1)/(x2-x1)  =  (y3-y2)/(x3-x2)

The first two parts of this can be rewritten as a cross

product:

(x3-x2) / (y2-y1)  =  (x2-x1) / (y3-y2)

and when this is expanded it is equal to the

determinant equation
We get this result regardless of which pair we choose to use in the cross product. The x and y
elements can be interpreted as the x and y values of f1(u), f2(v) and f3(w) if we don’t mix
variables between rows (the first row should only involve u, etc.) and if the determinant
equation is equivalent to the original equation. This is the standard nomographic form. Here y
is not expressed in terms of x as we normally have when we plot points at (x,y) coordinates,
but rather x and y are expressed in terms of a third variable, that is, x1 and y1 are expressed in
terms of a function of the variable u, x2 and y2 are expressed in terms of a function of the
variable v, and x3 and y3 are expressed in terms of a function of the variable w. These are
called parametric equations. One way to plot them is to algebraically eliminate the third
variable between x and y to find a formula for y in terms of x. Another way is to simply take
values of the third variable over some range, calculate x and y for each value, and plot the
points (x,y)—a more likely scenario when we have computing devices.

Let’s consider the equation (u + 0.64)0.58(0.74v) = w that we used earlier to create a parallel
scale nomogram. We converted this with logarithms: to 0.58 log (u + 0.64) + log v = log w +
log (0.74), or

0.58 log (u + 0.64) + log v – [log w + log (0.74)]  =  0

We could have grouped log (0.74) with any term, but we’ll stay consistent with our earlier
grouping. This is an equation of the general form f1(u) + f2(v) – f3(w) = 0, so let’s find a
determinant that produces this form. We want each row to contain only functions of one
variable of u, v or w, so we’ll start with f1(u) in the upper left corner and 1’s along its diagonal
so that the first term of the determinant will be f1(u).

Now let’s set the lower left corner to f3(u) and the upper right corner to 1 so the last term of
the determinant will be –f3(w):

Now we can place f2(v) in the middle row somewhere and fill in the rest of the determinant so
the terms involving these elements end up simply as f2(v). Here are a few possibilities that
work:

But the second determinant is simply the first one after the third column is subtracted from the
second column and the third determinant is simply the second one after the third column is
added to the second column. These are operations that will not change our determinant
equation as described in our earlier list, so they are all equivalent.
Now we want the flexibility to scale our f1(u) and f2(v) by m1 and m2 calculated for parallel
scale charts as the desired height of the nomogram divided by the ranges of the functions. If
we take the first determinant of the three possible ones shown, notice that we can introduce
the scaling values without changing the determinant equation if we write it as

So now we have to convert this to the standard nomographic form having all ones in the last
column (and continuing to isolate variables to unique rows). First we add the second row to
the third row, where 1/m1 + 1/m2 = (m1+m2)/m1m2:

Then we multiply the bottom row by m1m2/(m1+m2) and swap the first two columns so that
the y column (the middle column) contains the functions:

and we have the determinant in standard nomographic form. The

first column represents x values and the second column represents y
values of the functions. The scaling factors of m1 and m2 result in a
scaling factor m3 for the w-scale of m1m2/(m1+m2) as we found
earlier from our geometric derivation. We had calculated m1 =
25.72 and m2=19.93 before, giving m3=11.23. This determinant also
shows that we place the u-scale vertically at x=0 and the y-scale
vertically at x=1, with the w-scale at x= m (m1+m2) = 0.5634, but in
fact we can multiply the first column by 3 to get a scale of 3 inches,
and in this case the w-scale lies vertically at x=1.69 inches, and so
we end up with exactly the same nomograph we found in Part I
using geometric methods.

This was a bit of work, but we have found a universal standard

nomographic form for the equation f1(u) + f2(v) – f3(w) = 0
including scaling factors.
Let’s derive a Z chart for division using determinants. For v = w/u, we rearrange the equation
so the right-hand term is 0, or uv – w = 0. One possible
determinant we can construct is

      
which graphs to the nomogram on the right, a Z chart
with a perpendicular middle line. A different
determinant would result in a Z chart of the more
familiar angled middle line. An interesting aspect of
such a chart is that the u-scale and v-scale have different
scaling factors despite the fact that they can be
interchanged in the equation.

There is a definite knack to all of this, and at this point

I’d like to recommend the webpages on nomography by Winchell D. Chung, Jr. at this site.
His webpages are quite interesting to read—there are quite a few examples of nomograms,
and the determinant approach is used throughout. In particular, he provides other examples of
expressing an equation into determinant form here. He also gives a few examples of
converting the determinant to the standard nomographic determinant form here, where
examples 2 and 3 are from Hoelscher. Most importantly, for equations of several standard
formats Chung also reproduces tables that map these equations directly to standard
nomographic determinant forms here.
Determinants are most useful when one or more of the u, v and w scales is curved. The
quadratic equation w2 + uw + v = 0 can be represented as the first equation below, and
dividing the last row by w-1 we immediately arrive at the standard nomographic form shown
in the second equation:

The u-scale runs linearly in the negative direction along the line y=1. The v-scale runs linearly
in the positive direction with the same scale along the line y=0. The x and y values for the
curve for w can be plotted for specific values of w (a parametric equation), or w can be
eliminated to express the curve in x and y as

x/y = w

y  =  (x/y) / [(x/y) – 1]  =  x / (x – y)

resulting in the figure at the right in which the positive root w1 of the quadratic equation can
be found on the curved scale (the other root is found as u – w1).

Hoelscher presents the equation for the projectile trajectory Y =  X tan A  –  gX2 /
(2V02cos2A) where A is the initial angle, V0 is the initial velocity, and g is the acceleration due
to gravity. There are four variables X, Y, V0 and A, so nomographic curves are plotted for
different values of A. For an angle of 45º, the equation reduces to

Y =  X  –  0.0322X2 /V02

One determinant for this is shown in the first equation below, which can be manipulated into
the standard nomographic form shown in the second equation:
Hoelscher assumes -2000<Y<7000 ft and 800<V0<4000 fps and a chart of 5 inches square, so
after some more manipulations (including the swapping of the first two columns) we arrive at
the final form:

This is shown as the curve for A=45º along with curves for other angles in this figure (a grid
nomogram such as this can be used to handle an equation with more than 3 variables).

It’s possible to have two or three scale curves depending on how the determinant works out,
and it is possible to have two or all three curves overlap exactly. The equation for the
equivalent radius of the friction moment arm for a hollow cylindrical thrust bearing is R = 2/3
[R13 – R23] / [R12 – R22] or 3RR12/2 – 3RR22/2 – R13 + R23 = 0, yielding the determinant

Here the R1 and R2 scales lie exactly on the same curve. They could have separate tick marks
on this curve if they had a different scale, but here they have the same scaling factor. The
figures here show the plotted nomogram for perpendicular x and y axes, and also for oblique
axes that expand the R-scale to the full height of the nomogram for greater accuracy.

              

Otto provides an interesting alternate

determinant for the equation f1(u) + f2(v) +
f3(w) = f1(u) f2(v) f3(w).

The nomogram for the particular equation

of this type u + v + w = uvw is shown in
this figure, where again two of the three
scales overlap. Eliminating f1(u) from the x
and y elements in the first row we find that
u lies along the circle given by (x – ¼)2 + y2 = 1/(42), and this is correspondingly true for v as
well (although in general we have to separately calculate x and y tick marks based on f1(u) or
f2(v) values).

Finally, Otto describes a very interesting determinant that can be created for the equation f1(u)
f2(v) f3(w) = 1.

For uvw=1, all three scales coincide and have the

same scaling factor, and it turns out that the equation
for this curve is x3 + y3 – xy = 0 (called the folium of Descartes). This nomogram is shown as
the curled figure to the right.

Determinants provide a creative way of generating nomograms whose designs are varied and
interesting.  We can also apply transformations to the x and y elements of the determinants to
morph nomograms into shapes that are most accurate for given ranges of the variables or that
utilize the available space most efficiently (or are simply more pleasing to the eye). 
Transforming nomograms is the subject of Part III of this essay.

[Please visit the new home for Dead Reckonings: http://www.deadreckonings.com]

The Art of Nomography III: Transformations

Posted by: Ron D. in mathematics

In addition to providing sophisticated nomograms, the use

of determinants as described in the previous Part II offers
one other huge advantage. Often the scaling factors of
variables have to be manipulated to get a nomogram that
uses all the available area and yet stretches portions of the
curves that are most in need of accuracy; alternatively,
there may be a need to bring distant points (even at
infinity) into a compact nomogram. This can be done by
morphing the nomogram with any transformation that
maps points into points and lines into lines. It is also
intriguing to consider the aesthetics of such transformations, creating eye-catching
nomograms as an artistic process.

This final part of the essay reviews the types of transformations that can be performed on a
nomogram, and it concludes by considering the roles of nomograms in the modern world and
providing references for further information.

There are several standard transformations of the Cartesian coordinate system that preserve
the functionality of nomograms. After they are presented we will walk through a sequence of
these to see their effects on the shape and scales of a nomogram.

Translation

We can translate the nomogram laterally, which is equivalent to translating the x-y axes to
new x’-y’ axes. We can add c to all determinant elements in the x column and d to all
determinant elements in the y column to shift the axes left by c and down by d (or in other
words shift the nomogram right by c and up by d).

xn‘ =  xn + c

yn‘ =  yn + d

Rotation
We can rotate the nomogram about the origin of the axes by an angle θ (positive for counter-
clockwise rotation) by replacing each determinant element xn in the x column and the each
determinant element yn in the y column with

xn‘ =  xn sin θ  +  yn cos θ

yn‘ =  xn cos θ  –  yn sin θ

Stretch

We can stretch a nomogram in the x direction by multiplying each determinant element in the
x column by a constant, and likewise for the y direction.

xn‘ =  cxn

yn‘ =  dyn

Shear

Shear is a slewing of perpendicular axes to oblique axes or

vice-versa. This is perhaps best understood by referring to
this figure showing a shear from one set of axes x-y to
another set x’-y’ in which the x’ axis is canted at an angle
θ to the x axis but the y’ axis aligns with the y axis. For
this case,

xn‘ =  xn cos θ

yn‘ =  yn + xn sin θ

Shear can be used to convert a traditional Z chart with a slanting middle line to one with a
perpendicular middle line and vice-versa. It could have been used to convert the determinant
for the earlier nomogram of equivalent friction radius to plot it relative to the oblique x’-y’
axes rather than to the perpendicular x-y axes.

Projection

Referring to the first figure below, a projection uses a point P (called the center of
perspectivity) to project rays through points of a nomogram in the x-y plane to map them onto
the z-y plane (also called the x’-y’ plane), foreshortening or magnifying lines in varying
amounts in the x’ and y’ directions. It is also possible for P to lie above the x-y plane, where
rays from points on the nomogram pass through P to the x’-y’ plane as shown in the second
figure. (This can be used to convert a nomogram in the shape of a trapezoid to a rectangular
one, changing scale resolutions to maximize the available space, but we will see an easier
method later.) In either case, for a P location (xP,yP,zP) and a nomogram x-element xn and y-
element yn,

xn‘ =  zP xn / (xn – xP)

yn‘ =  (yP xn – xP yn) /  (xn – xP)

The line BD under P in the second figure never maps onto the x’-y’ plane because it is
parallel to that plane—it is a “straight line at infinity” and will become important in our
example below.

A Transformation Example

Epstein outlines a sequence of transformations to convert a nomogram for the equation q2 –

aq + b = 0 to a more convenient circular form. Unfortunately, he provides only the final
nomogram, so I have taken up his challenge and traced through the details of each step while
creating my own intermediate nomograms. These nomograms were created using the freely-
available LaTeX typesetting engine and the free vector drawing package TiKz, which
supports plotting parametric functions and has enough flexibility to draw and nicely label tick
marks on the curves. Excel and MATLAB, for example, can plot parametric functions but do
not appear to support labeled tick marks on the curves corresponding to the parametric
variable. Chung uses Python code to create his nomograms (described here) and there is a
very powerful Python program to plot nomograms here. An online tool to create custom,
interactive parallel scale nomograms only can be found here. I find that the LaTeX code is
quite simple and very flexible and is especially convenient for those of us who already use
LaTeX to create technical articles. My LaTeX code that created the nomograms below can be
found here.

A determinant representing the equation q2 – aq + b = 0 can be constructed (and verified it by

multiplying it out) as

(Note: In all determinants in this essay the x

elements are in the first column and the y
elements in the second column, which
follows most presentations but is reversed
from Epstein’s.)

This nomogram is plotted in the figure to the

right (the x-y axes and grid would be deleted
from the final nomogram). The q-scale is
found in practice by taking a range of q
values and calculating x = q / (q+1) and y = q2 / (q-1) as a coordinates to plot, but if we
eliminate q between the two parametric equations we arrive at x2 – xy + y = 0, demonstrating
that the q-scale is in fact a hyperbola. A straightedge placed across any two values of a and b
will intersect the q-scale in two points if there are two real solutions, one point if there is a
double real root, and no points if there are no real roots. However, the layout of the q-scale is
problematic, as the two halves stretch toward infinity very quickly and it is not possible to
accurately locate q points for isopleths near the asymptotes of the hyperbola. So we will
transform this nomogram into one in which the q-scale is finite. The labels for the tick marks
will not be displayed on the following plots, but the tick mark spacing and colors will provide
a guide for how the curves are re-mapped.

First we will rotate this nomogram clockwise

by 45° (or θ = -45°) and stretch it in both
dimensions by 21/2 for a reason that will become
apparent in the next transformation. Since cos
-45° = 2-1/2 and sin 45° = -2-1/2, the earlier
rotation formulas after the stretch become

xn‘ =  xn  +  yn

yn‘ =  –xn +  yn

Performing this substitution for the x element

and y element of each row of the determinant,
we arrive at

which is plotted on the right.

We rotated the nomogram because we wanted a

vertical line (say, x=1) that does not intersect
the hyperbola. A projection transformation can
convert a scale with two branches like this
hyperbola into a single connected scale (an
ellipse) if a straight line separating the two
branches is projected to infinity, that is, if the
line is parallel to the y-z axis (which x=1 is) and
the projection point P is located directly above
or below it in its z value (as the line BD in the
earlier projection figure). Choosing P = (1,-1,1),
the earlier projection formulas become

xn‘ =  xn / (xn – 1)

yn‘ =  (-xn – yn) /  (xn – 1)

and the determinant becomes

and the ellipse magically appears in the plot on

the right.

Now let’s shear the nomogram so the green b-

scale lies on the y-axis while keeping the red a-
scale parallel to the x-axis. The shear formulas
are slightly different as we are shearing to the y-
axis, and for a b-scale slope of –½ they reduce to:

xn‘ =  xn  + yn / 2

yn‘ =  yn

and the determinant becomes

which is plotted on the right.

Now we’ll translate the nomogram upward by 2 to

place the intersection point on the origin.

xn‘ =  xn

yn‘ =  yn + 2

This is plotted on the right.

And finally we shrink the nomogram in the y

direction by a factor of 2 to get a circular scale for
q.

xn‘ =  xn

yn‘ =  yn / 2
yielding

The figure on the right is the plot of my final

determinant, and by changing the scales of the
axes we arrive at Epstein’s figure below.

The entire range of q from -∞ to +∞ is now represented in a finite area, and certainly the
range less than 1.5, which veered to infinity in our original nomogram, is nicely accessible.
The larger numbers are not as accessible, but the ranges can be skewed to spread out any
range by multiplying the original equation by a constant. We could have stopped at any of the
nomograms containing an ellipse, but it is easier to draft the circle. An elliptical nomogram
for the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is shown here for comparison.

It’s interesting to play around with a straightedge on the circular nomogram we derived above
to see that it works. In particular, an isopleth through an a-value and b-value will just touch
the q-circle if the discriminant from the quadratic formula is 0 (for the equation Ax2 +Bx + C
= 0, the discriminant is the value B2-4AC whose square root is taken in the quadratic formula,
or a2-4b here). When the discriminant is less than zero the isopleth misses the q-circle,
denoting no real roots, and when it is greater than zero it crosses two real roots on the q-circle.

And in fact if you eliminate the a-scale, then the b-

scale represents the product of two numbers on the
q-circle. This is because if we have two solutions
q1 and q2 of q2 – aq + b = 0, then the equation can
be written as (q – q1)( q – q2) = 0. Multiplying this
out and equating terms to the original equation, we
find that b = q1q2 and a = q1+q2. The geometric
layout of this nomogram is really the traditional
meaning of a circular nomogram (two scales on
the circle, one on a nearby line), and it turns out
that any three-line parallel scale nomogram can be
transformed into a circular nomogram. Generally
the two scales on the circle do not have the same values, so tick marks on both sides of the
circumference are needed.

The transformations we have discussed can also be represented as matrices. Transformations

are performed by matrix multiplication of the transformation matrix and the nomogram
determinant. Two or more transformations can be combined by multiplying their
transformation matrices. It often happens after such a matrix multiplication that the
nomogram determinant needs to be manipulated again into the standard nomographic form.
For example, the transformation matrices for rotation and projection are

It is possible to use matrix multiplication to map a trapezoidal shape (such as the boundaries
of a nomogram that does not occupy a full rectangle) into a rectangular shape. This would
increase the accuracy of the scales that can be expanded to fill the sheet of paper. Consider the
following matrix multiplication:

By the rules of matrix multiplication and some manipulation of the result, each y’ and x’ in
the resulting matrix can be represented as

x’ =  (xk11 + yk21 + k31) / (xk13 + yk23 + k33)

y’ =  (xk12 + yk22 + k32) / (xk13 + yk23 + k33)

Now if we want to remap an area such that the points (x1,y1), (x2,y2), (x3,y3) and (x4,y4) map to,
say, the rectangle (0,0), (0,a), (b,0) and (b,a), we insert the final and initial x’s and y’s into the
formulas above, giving us eight equations in nine unknown k’s. So we choose one k, solve for
the other eight k’s and multiply the original nomogram determinant by the k matrix and
convert it back to standard nomographic form, then replot the nomogram—a fun way to spend
an afternoon.

There are non-projective transformations as well that can be used to create nomograms in
which all three scales are overlaid onto one curve (although the third will have different tick
marks). This is highly mathematical and involves things called Weierstrass’ Elliptic
Functions, so Epstein is a resource if there is interest in the details. Epstein provides
nomograms of this sort for the equation u + v + w = 0 (which can be generalized to any
equation of this form, including ones in logarithms). In the first figure below, the isopleth
must cross two numbers on one scale and a third number on the other overlaid scale (such as u
= +0.2524, v = +0.3842 and w= -0.6366). In the second figure the isopleth crosses two curves
containing three scales. Ignore the numbers on the x-axis and y-axis—these relate to the
function used to derive the nomograms. I’m showing these simply to demonstrate the
advanced mathematics that was targeted at nomographic construction at one time. (Please see
my later essay A Zoomorphic Nomogram for a detailed discussion on using these elliptic
functions to create a nomogram.)

Transformations provide a creative way of morphing nomograms into designs that are most
useful, such as increasing the accuracies of particular ranges of variables. They also allow us
to create nomograms that are eye-catching and artistic.

The Status of Nomograms

Today the use of nomograms seems scattered at best. Chung’s interest in nomograms shown
here grew from his desire to provide quick and easy calculations of hit strength, etc., in
strategic wargaming. There are many simple nomograms that exist for doctors to quickly
assess attributes and probabilities, such as here (or here if you can’t draw a line), here, here,
and here. A Body Mass Index (BMI) nomogram is common (such as here) and is derived in
this PowerPoint presentation on nomograms. There are also some engineering nomograms
found here and there online (such as here, here, here, here, here, and there).
I first heard of nomograms in the
context of sundials. As Vinck and
Sawyer describe (see references),
Samuel Foster published a treatise
in 1638 titled “The Art of
Dialling” that contained a dialing
scale for the construction of
horizontal, vertical and inclining
sundials as shown in the figure
from Vinck to the right. Foster’s
construction scale is actually a
circular nomogram, a tool
discovered nearly 300 years
earlier than its attributed
discovery by J. Clark in 1905!
Sawyer writes that Foster did
write of the more general computing
applications of his scale. Here an isopleth
from one point on a perimeter scale through
a point on the middle scale will cross their
product on the other perimeter scale, and
with suitable trigonometric scaling one can
lay out hour lines on a wide variety of
sundials. Certainly many sundial designs
(nearly all) rely on graphical plots with the
gnomon shadow or a weighted, hanging
string serving as the isopleth. Card dials are
particularly complicated because they map
a 3-D geometry to a 2-D plane, as you can
see on this webpage. Sawyer has designed a
few dials that employ nomograms, two of
which are shown below.

Masse uses the same projection transformation method as we did to create a sundial in which
the gnomon tip shadow during the day traces a circle rather than a hyperbola on the face of
the dial. My interest in nomography (including the transformation techniques) and my efforts
to plot nomograms using the LaTeX typesetting engine are partly due to my intention to
create new sundial designs based on nomograms.

The use of analog graphic calculators is actually much older—the quite complicated grids and
curves on old astrolabes and quadrants, as shown below, effectively serve as nomograms.
There are also curves on the backs of most astrolabes to convert equal hours to unequal hours
using the alidade (the sight on the back) as an isopleth, and the qibla diagram on the back of
Islamic astrolabes provides the direction to Mecca for any hour of any day by using the
alidade when the astrolabe is aligned correctly.

                 

And I think there could be more applications today. I was at a picture framing store while I
was writing this essay to get a matte board cut as a frame for some calligraphy created by my
son. The pricing was based on three variables (the window height, the window length and the
border width) and possibly the matte board type. Everyone who came up to get a price for a
certain configuration or a variety of configurations had to wait while the clerk wrote down the
three parameters, punched them into some formula on a calculator, and referred to a chart to
find the corresponding price in quarter-dollars. I was thinking the whole time that having
photocopies of a nomogram laying around would let customers use a straightedge (and there
are a lot of those in a framing store!) to figure the pricing out and quickly optimize their
parameters without having to wait in line, and it would certainly be faster for the clerk.

But nomograms have their own intrinsic charm. As a calculating aid a nomogram can solve
very complicated formulas with amazing ease. And as a curiosity a nomogram provides a
satisfying, hands-on application of interesting mathematics in an engaging, creative activity.

References

Update 10/17/2008: Leif Roschier, author of the powerful Pynomo software for creating
nomograms, has updated his site found here with beautiful nomograms he has created. Be
sure to visit the Basics and Examples links on his site. If you click on the Software
Documentation link you can select nomograms by type to view as well. Leif also maintains a
forum on nomography found here.

Douglass, Raymond D. and Adams, Douglas P. Elements of Nomography. New York:

McGraw-Hill (1947). This book is as concerned about the drafting aspects of nomograms as
with their (exclusively geometric) derivations. The printed forms it champions for calculating
nomograms are more trouble than they are worth, in my opinion.

Epstein, L. Ivan. Nomography. New York: Interscience Publishers (1958). An advanced

book that treats determinants throughout as well as projective transformations. It should not
be the first book or two to read on nomography.

Hoelscher, Randolph P. et al. Graphic Aids in Engineering Computation. New York:

McGraw-Hill (1952). The best all-around book on nomography of the ones listed here.
Geometric derivations are given first and determinants introduced later in a very
understandable presentation. It also contains a very interesting chapter on special slide rules
created for solving particular engineering equations.

Johnson, Lee H. Nomography and Empirical Equations. New York: John Wiley and Sons
(1952). A good, solid reference that is very readable. Uses geometric derivations throughout
(no determinants) and treats all the common nomographic forms.

Levens, A.S. Nomography. New York: John Wiley and Sons (1937). A very readable book
that is organized in a very convenient manner based on equation types. A very nice collection
of nomogram examples of various types is presented in the Appendix. For nomograms created
from geometric derivations only (and only the most sophisticated nomograms types really
require solutions by determinants) this is an excellent reference book with many examples.

Masse, Yvon. Central Projection Analemmatic Sundials, The Compendium, Journal of the
North American Sundial Society, Vol. 5, No. 1, Mar. 1998, pp.4-9.

Otto, Edward. Nomography (International Series of Monographs in Pure and Applied

Mathematics).New York: Macmillan (1963). An advanced but (with some work) a readable
book that uses determinants throughout to create nomograms as well as projective
transformations to square them up or expand scales for greater accuracy. There is a long,
interesting chapter on problems of theoretical nomography, such as determining what
equation forms can be expressed as nomograms.

Sawyer, Fred. Ptolemaic Coordinate Sundials, The Compendium, Journal of the North
American Sundial Society, Vol. 5, No. 3, Sep. 1998, pp.17-24. Describes three sundials
incorporating nomograms.

Sawyer, Fred. A Universal Nomographic Sundial, Bulletin of the British Sundial Society, Oct.
1994. 94(3):14-17, also in Sciatheric Notes, a collection of sundial articles by Fred Sawyer
from this publication. This collection and all the sundial-related articles referenced here can
be found in the outstanding North American Sundial Society Repository CD orderable on the
NASS site.

Vinck, Rene J. Samuell Foster’s Circle, The Compendium, Journal of the North American
Sundial Society, Vol. 8, No. 3, Sep. 2001, pp.7-10. Also see Fred Sawyer’s The Further
Evolution of Samuel Foster’s Dialing Scales that follows this article in the same issue of the
journal.

 
Blog Update (not yet in the current PDF file):  Google has digitized the entire book
Graphical and Mechanical Computation (1918) by Joseph Lipka that can be read or
downloaded here (link updated 1/27/08). Chapters 3-5 on nomography have example after
example of creating nomograms from the geometrical formulas.

[Please visit the new home for Dead Reckonings: http://www.deadreckonings.com]