Getting into AS Level Philosophy - Plato

1. 1. Plato was the student of Socrates (c. 470 – 399), another well-known Greek philosopher.
Most of what we know about Socrates, comes from the writings of Plato. In Athens at the
time, the government was democratic but Socrates preferred a form of government where
one wise individual ruled. Socrates did not hide this belief so because of his free mindedness
and open opinions, he influenced many people, including Plato, but he also became
unpopular with others. As a result, Socrates was arrested on charges of corrupting the young
and sentenced to death by poison. Socrates could have appealed for leniency but he stood
for what he believed in and that the search for truth was more important than life itself.
Socrates died by drinking poisonous hemlock. Plato then wrote many philosophical writings
that were in the forms of dialogues and Socrates was always made to be the main character
and the wisest. Plato was a rationalist because he supported being rational and using our
minds (nous). He was also a dualist because he believed that the body (sarx) and soul
(psyche) exist separately but are linked in some way.
2. 2. Socrates believed that to be moral, you had to have true knowledge to know what is the
right thing to do. Plato believed there were two types of knowledge (episteme): • empirical
knowledge – knowledge that is gained through the senses. • innate knowledge – knowledge
that is gained through the mind (nous) rather than through the senses. It is an essential part
of our character which we have from birth. Plato did not believe that we gained knowledge
from our senses (empirical knowledge) because they cannot be trusted and is unreliable. It is
subject to change because the world is in a constant state of flux and can produce illusions
(eikasia). Heraclitus: “You cannot step into the same river twice” Because Plato was a
dualist, he believed that our innate knowledge is in our soul (psyche) and that the soul
comes from the world of the Forms (Noeton). Plato also believed that we are able to
remember and rediscover inner truth known within our souls from the world of the Forms
(Noeton), by the process of anamnesis.
3. 3. As a result, Plato believed in two worlds: • Horaton – world of appearances. • Noeton –
world of reality. Plato believed that there were two types of beings: • Spiritual beings (souls).
• Material beings (houses / chairs / dogs etc). In Horaton, everything is in a constant state of
flux, so empirical knowledge is not true knowledge, but just a set of subjective opinions
(doxa). In Noeton, there is true knowledge that will never change. The Noeton is also known
as the realm of the Forms (eidos). Noeton (world of reality) Horaton (world of appearances)
World of souls / Forms World we live in World of perfect concepts World of imperfect
phenomena Intelligible world Visible world World beyond the senses World of senses World
of true knowledge World of opinions Eternal and unchanging Decaying and changing
4. 4. Plato rejected art because it is a product of our senses which are capable of producing
illusions (eikasia)We all may agree that there is some degree of beauty in a painting or
masterpiece but Plato developed the idea that there is a Form called ‘beauty’, of which we
have a dim recollection from our prior existence in Noeton. Whenever we see something that
may contain elements of this Form, we recognise it as beautiful. According to Plato, Horaton
is a pale imitation of the real world. Because our world is in a constant state of flux, Plato
believed that there must be a world that is unchanging and contains perfect Forms of the
things we know on Earth, which he believed to be Noeton. Noeton contains fixed truths
which are absolutely true for all time, people and place, therefore it is objective. The Forms
are timeless / spaceless / perfect / eternal / divine The particulars participate in the Form. A
child may distinguish between a horse and a dog, showing that the child is recognising the
Form, yet older people may distinguish certain characteristics between the horse and dog,
focussing on more details.
5. 5. Plato said we recognise the Forms because we are born with a dim recollection of them
from our prior existence in Noeton. There is an inner part of us, perhaps the soul (psyche),
that does not change. It is eternal and before it became trapped in the body, it was
 connected with the real world of the Forms. It is because we have seen the Forms before,
that we can recognise them now. The most important Form (highest Form) is the Form of the
Good. In Horaton, we can label things as Good, yet we truly do not understand the what
Goodness is as it is subjective. Plato argues that Goodness is the most important Form and
this Form of the Good is the source of the other Forms. Good is objective/absolute and has
moral values as it comes from the Forms. Plato uses an analogy of sight to illustrate the
importance of the Form of the Good: • Sight requires both light and the eye to see clearly. •
Light symbolises the Form of the Good. • This implies that without the knowledge of the
Form of the Good, one cannot see clearly. • This is the same as trying to see in the dark.
Some Forms are greater than others, so they are ideal Forms, which have something in
common. They all have the presence of Good in them and are universal qualities. In this
way, because Good is the most important Form, it is the ‘Form of the Forms’. Once Good is
understood, other Forms such as Justice, Truth and Beauty can also be understood as they
are aspects of Goodness.
6. 6. • Form (eidos) – an idea of the appearance of something. e.g. Cats are different as there
are many types and species but overall, we have a basic idea of what a cat looks like as
anyone can distinguish between a cat and a dog. • Particulars – specific details which add to
the Form to make it what it is. Superficial details which overlay the Form, shows what makes
it unique and are pale copies of the Form. • The Form of the Good – most important / ideal
Form as Plato believes it to be ‘The Form of the Forms’. Does recognition of the Forms prove
we have an eternal soul? We are taught things through experience, such as names of
objects and animals. Everyone has different interpretations of hate / beauty / love as they are
subjective. We learn this through repetition and education, so we gain this through empirical
knowledge, therefore we may not have an eternal soul. Like Socrates believed that society
should be ruled by a wise individual instead of a democracy, Plato also believed that a
Philosopher should rule society because they would have a deeper understanding of the
Form of the Good. Along with this understanding, they therefore have a better idea of justice
and truth so they would be perfect at ruling society. On the other hand, Politicians are good
at lying and view their personal self-interest in the highest regard.
7. 7. Plato’s God was called the Demiurge (craftsman). The Demiurge is perfectly good but not
omnipotent. The Demiurge did not create the world creatio ex nihilo, but used pre-existing
matter. This raw, pre-existing matter had always existed in a state of chaos. e.g. A potter
moulds clay to make objects, however the potter does not make the clay. The potter simply
moulds it to make objects out of it. The Demiurge had a model to work from. The Forms are
timeless and spaceless so these acted like the blueprints to create the imperfect objects that
are not timeless or spaceless. The Demiurge did not create the Forms, nor did the Forms
create or do anything. The Forms were simply there. The Demiurge used them as a model
after which he made the universe, however, he had a problem: • Forms were timeless,
spaceless and immutable (unchangeable). • The material the Demiurge had to work with,
was not timeless, spaceless or immutable. • Therefore, the Demiurge had to use imperfect
materials to model something that resembled the perfect original. • Therefore, the universe
has to be an imperfect model.
8. 8. The Demiurge did the best he could, but given the imperfect material he was working with,
inevitably resulted in an imperfect world. Plato believed that this accounted for many of the
imperfections in the world. e.g. Evil and suffering. In this way, instances of beauty, truth,
justice and goodness are not found to be perfect in this world because we know people who
are truthful, yet it does not mean that they are perfectly truthful. The Demiurge – summary: •
Found in Timaeus. • Plato’s God, the Demiurge (meaning craftsman) is perfectly good but is
not omnipotent. • The Demiurge used pre-existing matter that he did not create, to
fashion/mould the universe. • The Demiurge did not create the universe creatio ex nihilo. •
Evil is present in the universe because: - the pre-existing matter resisted his will. - the
universe is within space and time, whereas the forms are beyond space and time. • The
Demiurge brings order out of chaos
9. 9. As Plato was a dualist, he believed the body (sarx) is a physical thing as it exists within
time and space. The mind (nous), however, is beyond time and space because it exists in
the realm of the Forms (Noeton), therefore, it can access universal truths from the world of
ideas. On the other hand, the soul (psyche) is immortal as it is also a part of the world of
ideas. The soul is the perfect, essential, immaterial part of a human which is within the
human temporarily as then it will return to the realm of the Forms (Noeton). Plato believed
that the body houses the soul but technically imprisons it so the soul is the prisoner of the
body. Plato uses an analogy of a chariot to compare the relationship of the soul with the
mind and body. The soul is compared to a chariot because the body and mind are two
horses being controlled and driven by the soul. Plato believed that the mind and body are
also often in opposition. The mind wants to understand ideas, to gain real knowledge of the
Forms, but the body is interested in only sense pleasures. e.g. The body constantly needs
food and sleep. This gets in the way of intellectual pursuits.
10. 10. Sometimes the demands of the body are so great that it clutters the minds with
unnecessary thoughts such as ‘What’s for lunch?’ / ‘Do I look ok?’ Plato: “The body is the
source of endless trouble” In connection with Plato’s concept that the soul is immortal, all
knowledge is recollected. He thought this because of the widespread belief that murder is
wrong, therefore these ideas must be with us from a previous existence. As a person
discovers different elements of the physical world, this begins a process of remembering.
The psyche begins to remember the World of the Forms (Noeton) which it once inhabited
and longs to return to this unchanging world. It becomes increasingly unsatisfied with the
limitations of the World of Appearances (Horaton). Plato again, uses the metaphor of light. In
Plato’s dialogue Phaedo, Socrates claims that doing philosophy is a rehearsal for death.
What he meant by this was that death separates the soul from the body and philosophy is
about trying to concentrate on the real truth rather than appearances. Plato argues that when
the Athenian Government caused the death of Socrates, they did not win because they
released his trapped psyche from the body, allowing it to return to Noeton to renew its
knowledge of the Form of the Good.
11. 11. Found in Plato’s Republic. It is used to explain his Theory of the Forms and Socrates is
the main character. • Prisoners are chained, facing a wall deep within a cave. • Puppeteers
cause shadows to fall on the wall in front of the prisoners by using puppets. • Prisoners think
the shadows they experience are true reality. • A prisoner is freed to the real spiritual world. •
He recognises the puppets in the shadows. • He sees the Sun giving life to all things and all
puppets. • When he returns to the cave to tell the other prisoners the truth, they try to kill him.
12. 12. 1. The cave and the prisoners: The cave represents Horaton and the prisoners are
humans who are trapped in this illusory world. The prisoners represent ordinary,
unenlightened people whose lives and minds are empty of philosophy. 2. The shadows:
Represent illusions (eikasia) within the cave (Horaton). Also symbolise the states of mind,
the lowest level of understanding based on opinion (doxa) because the prisoners are tricked
into believing that these illusions are real. 3. The puppeteers: Represent the powerful,
influential members of society. They use artificial surrounding to control and manipulate the
information the prisoners receive. Like the prisoners, they are also living in a false reality. 4.
The ‘released’ prisoner: Represents Socrates, who has no concern over popular beliefs of
his day, therefore, he died for his beliefs and values. Also represents every philosopher who
seeks truth and wisdom. They challenge the reality of this world and question where it may
come from. 5. The ‘released’ prisoners journey out of the cave: Represents the process of
anamnesis, the journey of the nous or psyche in pursuit of the examined life. Symbolically
shows the becoming of a true philosopher because it is difficult grappling with new ideas.
13. 13. 6. The world beyond the cave: Represents the real world – Noeton. The World of the
Forms are beyond the shadows. 7. The Sun: A metaphor representing the source of
absolute truth. The Sun represents the Form of the Good. When the ‘released’ prisoner sees
the sun, it represents the philosopher achieving enlightenment. 8. Return to the cave: When
the ‘released’ prisoner returns to the cave to tell the other prisoners the truth and wants to
free them, they say they will kill him because they