materials

Article
The Effect of an External Magnetic Field on the Aspect
Ratio and Heat Input of Gas-Metal-Arc-Welded
AZ31B Alloy Weld Joints Using a Response
Surface Methodology
Pankaj Sharma 1 , Somnath Chattopadhyaya 1 , Nirmal Kumar Singh 1 ,
Marta Bogdan-Chudy 2 and Grzegorz Krolczyk 2, *
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (ISM), Dhanbad 826004, India;
shampan3@rediffmail.com (P.S.); somuismu@gmail.com (S.C.); nks_221@yahoo.co.in (N.K.S.)
2 Department of Manufacturing Engineering and Automation, Opole University of Technology, 45758 Opole,
Poland; m.bogdan-chudy@po.edu.pl
* Correspondence: g.krolczyk@po.opole.pl




Received: 21 September 2020; Accepted: 18 November 2020; Published: 21 November 2020


Abstract: This study attempted to analyze and optimize the effect of an external magnetic field (EMF)
on the aspect ratio and heat input for AZ31B weld joints that were welded using the gas metal arc
welding (GMAW) process. The response surface methodology (RSM) was adopted for the critical
analysis, and subsequently, mathematical models were developed based on the experimental results.
It was observed that the EMF and its interaction with the wire feed rate significantly affected the
aspect ratio and heat input, respectively. At 119 G (magnetic field), 700 mm/min (welding speed),
5.8 m/min feed rate, and 11.5 L/min (gas flow rate), the aspect ratio was 2.26, and the corresponding
heat input factor (HIf ) was 0.8 with almost full weld penetration.

Keywords: aspect ratio; AZ31B; EMF; GMAW; HIf ; RSM

1. Introduction
Nowadays, petrochemical fuel availability, global warming, and environmental pollution are
critical issues for debate and discussion. The Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) estimates that on-road
vehicles cause one-third of air pollution and are responsible for 27% of greenhouse gas emissions.
This serious environmental issue can be controlled via intentional and valid cuts in vehicle weight.
An approximately 100 kg cut in vehicle weight can reduce fuel consumption by 5% (magnesium alloy
manual). Furthermore, a 10% reduction in average vehicle weight can lead to reductions in CO2
emission by approximately 13% [1].
Magnesium alloys have some inherent characteristics, such as low weight and compatible specific
strength compared to its market competitor, namely, cold-rolled carbon–hot rolled carbon (CRC–HRC).
The availability and recyclability make it a “green material” of the 21st century. Magnesium is
ranked as the eighth-most abundant element on the Earth’s surface, and fifth in seawater [2]. However,
its commercial viability in vehicle manufacturing depends upon good quality weld joints [3]. It is
predicted to be one of the most used materials for next-generation automobiles to substitute CRC–HRC
and other non-ferrous alloy sheets. Magnesium alloys (AZ31B) would enable us to achieve weight
reduction and fuel efficiency. To attain these features, having reliable and robust methods of assembly of
adequate numbers of such magnesium (AZ31B) components in an economically viable way is required.
Magnesium alloy (AZ31B) is an exotic metal for coalescence via the fusion welding process and calls for
appropriate control of the heat input and arc stability. Out of various metal joining processes, metal inert

Materials 2020, 13, 5269; doi:10.3390/ma13225269 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2020, 13, 5269 2 of 18

gas (MIG) or gas metal arc welding (GMAW) has been recommended as an economical and suitable
process for joining metals used in the body-in-white (BIW) parts due to them having high melting
points, and soon, no other process can replace this process on the grounds of economic production and
ease of use. However, GMAW in its present state is unsuitable for welding magnesium alloys.
Thus, to avoid the challenges offered by the GMA process for the joining of magnesium alloys
and to deny any possibility of the replacement of this joining process for welding magnesium (AZ31B),
a process modification is desired. Chai et al. [4] observed that the problems of welding come up as a
distorted bead of magnesium alloy while performing GMA welding on butt joints due to uncontrolled
heat input. Zhang et al. [5] observed large size spatter at high heat input with globular and spray
transfer for joining magnesium alloys. The low melting and boiling point of the AZ31B alloy may be
the reasons for the distorted bead or large size spatter while joining using the GMA welding process.
Thus, the GMA welding process needs better control of the heat input and arc stability while welding
magnesium alloys.
The past research in the direction of controlling the arc density and stability using an additional
magnetic field (EMF) opens the scope for this process and material in a way to get good welds.
The susceptibility of the arc toward the external magnetic field has led to extensive investigations
over the past many years. The debate over the dynamic effect of the magnetic field was started with
Sir Michael Faraday (1821) and states that magnetic fields generate a directional force on the flow of
electrons (electric current); with time, the concept switched from the macrolevel (electric motors and
generators) to the microlevel in a way to control the flow of electrons or arc plasma to regulate the arc
shape and arc density.
Its application in the field of welding around the weld zone was initiated in circa 1962. The study
estimated the effect of a magnetic field on the molten metal pool. Since 2000, a magnetically controlled
welding method has widely been used in inert gas welding {tungsten inert gas (TIG)/metal inert
gas(MIG)/metal active gas(MAG)}, resistance welding, submerged arc welding, laser beam welding,
and hybrid welding. Therefore, this type of controlled arc welding is a favorable welding process.
Bachmann et al. [6] found that the EMF controls the flow of the metal, the weld pool temperature
distribution, and the shape of the weld cross-section. The supplementary electromagnetic force alters
the flow conditions of the molten metal. The optimized magnetic field intensity can effectively diminish
the charged particle density by altering moving charged particles under the Lorentz force. Nomura et
al. [7] investigated permanent magnets’ effect on the plasma arc shape of TIG welding arc and observed
a controlled weld arc and subsequently achieved a sound weld shape.
However, an uncontrolled external magnetic field may lead to a poor weld. Thus, an optimized
EMF has been strongly recommended for process modification due to the widely accepted susceptibility
of the arc to an EMF. The design of experiment (DOE) with the central composite design has been
investigated in detail by many researchers, such as Montgomery [8] and Giridharan [9], for the
optimization and the development of the mathematical model.
In previous experiments [10], as a strategic process modification, an EMF has been used to control
the mechanical properties and microstructure of GMA butt welds. This experimental work intended to
analyze the effect of an EMF on the bead geometry in terms of the aspect ratio (AR), which is based
on the bead width (W) and bead penetration (P), along with the development of robust mathematical
models to estimate the optimized conditions. This dimensionless number can be directly associated with
the weld quality. A higher value signifies a poor weld penetration depth (P) or a large bead width (W).
Simultaneously, there is no known mathematical relation between the heat input and the external
magnetic field. Thus, based on statistical data, mathematical modeling was done to relate the heat
input with the external magnetic field. In this study, the heat input factor (HIf ) was used as another
response parameter instead of the heat input to interpret the effect on the bead geometry in terms of
the minimum aspect ratio (AR). The experimental results obtained were used for statistical modeling
and a study of the influence of the welding process parameters on the bead geometry characteristics,
including the aspect ratio (AR), bead penetration (P), and bead width (W), along with the heat input.
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18

characteristics, including
characteristics, including the
the aspect
aspect ratio
ratio (AR),
(AR), bead
bead penetration
penetration (P),
(P), and
and bead
bead width
width (W),
(W), along
along with
with
Materials
the heat 2020,
heat input. 13,
input. 5269 3 of 18
the

2. Materials
2. Materials and Methods
Methods
2. Materialsand
and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.1. Materials of the Plates
Plates and Wire
Wire
2.1. Materialsofofthe
the Platesand
and Wire
The specimens
The specimens were dissected
dissected using wire
wire cut EDM(electric
EDM(electric discharge machine),
machine), per thethe ASTM
The specimenswere were dissectedusingusing wire cut
cut EDM(electric discharge
discharge machine),per per the ASTM
ASTM
E140-05e1 standard
E140-05e1 standard [11]. The
The specimen surfaces
surfaces were cleaned
cleaned with acetone,
acetone, sandpaper, and and a wire
E140-05e1 standard[11]. [11]. Thespecimen
specimen surfaceswere were cleanedwith
with acetone,sandpaper,
sandpaper, andaa wirewire
brush to
brush to remove impurities.
impurities. The filler
filler wire used
used was ER-AZ61A,
ER-AZ61A, with aa diameter
diameter of size
size 1.6 mm
mm and
brush to remove
remove impurities. The The fillerwire
wire usedwas
was ER-AZ61A,with with a diameter of of size1.6
1.6 mmand and
an
an aluminum content of 5.8–7.2%, compared to the 2.5–3.5% of AZ31B to avoid intermetallic weld
an aluminum
aluminum content
content ofof 5.8–7.2%,
5.8–7.2%, compared
compared toto the
the 2.5–3.5%
2.5–3.5% of
of AZ31B
AZ31B toto avoid
avoid intermetallic
intermetallic weld
weld
cracking [2,10]. The
cracking The magnesium
magnesium alloy
alloy (AZ31B)
(AZ31B) thin
thin plates
plates were
were welded
welded as as aa square
square butt
butt joint,
joint, as
as
cracking [2,10]. The magnesium alloy (AZ31B) thin plates were welded as a square butt joint, as shown
shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 1.
1.
in Figure 1.

Figure 1.
Figure1. Weld specimen,
Weldspecimen,
1.Weld HAZ (heat-affected zone).
specimen,HAZ
Figure (heat-affected zone).

2.2. Experimental
2.2. Experimental Setup
Setup
2.2. Experimental Setup
The experiments
The experiments were
were performed
performed onon aa constant
constant voltage
voltage digital
digital power
power source
source EWM-Taurus-505
EWM-Taurus-505
The experiments were performed on a constant voltage digital power source EWM-Taurus-505
GMAW welding
GMAW welding machine
welding machine (Mundersbach,
machine (Mundersbach,
(Mundersbach, GermanyGermany)
Germany )) in in the
in the presence
the presence of
presence of EMF
of EMF
EMF byby applying
by applying
applying an an
an
GMAW
electromagnetic setup
electromagnetic setupthat
thatwas
was designed
designed and and fabricated
fabricated to generate
togenerate
generate a magnetic zone around the
electromagnetic setup that was designed and fabricated to aamagnetic
magnetic zonearound
zone around theweld.
the weld.
weld. The
The magneticmagnetic
magnetic field’sfield’s intensity
field’s intensity
intensity was was measured
was measured
measured using using a digital
using aa digital gauss
digital gauss meter
gauss meter (DGM-102,
meter (DGM-102, range
(DGM-102, range 0–2.0
range 0–2.0 T,
0–2.0 T,
T,
The
Roorkee, Uttarakhand,
Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India).
India). The
The whole
whole setup
setup for
for the
the experimentation
experimentation is is shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 2.
2.
Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India). The whole setup for the experimentation is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2.
Figure2. Schematic of
Schematicof
2.Schematic the
ofthe experimental
theexperimental setup
experimentalsetup [10].
setup[10].
[10].
Figure

2.3. External
2.3. External Magnetic
Magnetic Field
Field and
and the
the Arc
Arc Shape
Shape
2.3. External Magnetic Field and the Arc Shape
Yibo et
Yibo al.
al. [12]
et al. [12] discussed
discussedthe theeffect
effectofof
ofan
anEMF
EMFononona welding arcarc
in in
metal arcarcjoining in terms of the
Yibo et [12] discussed the effect an EMF aa welding
welding arc in metal
metal joining
arc joining in terms
in terms of
of
longitudinal
the longitudinalexternal magnetic
external magneticfieldfield
(LEMF) or a or
(LEMF) transverse
a external
transverse magnetic
external field field
magnetic (TEMF). The EMF
(TEMF). The
the longitudinal external magnetic field (LEMF) or a transverse external magnetic field (TEMF). The
inevitably
EMF changes
inevitably the intensity
changes of the magnetic
the intensity
intensity of the field around
the magnetic
magnetic the arc, the
field around
around resulting in a change
arc, resulting
resulting in aain the arc’s
change in
EMF inevitably changes the of field the arc, in change in
shape.
the arc’sThe magnitude
shape. The of the
magnitude EMF of and
the the
EMF change
and in
the the
changearc shape
in the are
arc causally
shape arerelated
causallyto each other.
related to
the arc’s shape. The magnitude of the EMF and the change in the arc shape are causally related to
The EMF strength depends upon the excitation current. Wang et al. [13] discussed the effect of an EMF
Materials 2020, 13, 5269 4 of 18

on the backward flow of molten metal during welding and controlled the humping bead issue by
increasing the welding speed and cooling rate.

2.3.1. Longitudinal and Transverse External Magnetic Fields

Naomi et al. [14] discussed the effect of alternating the LEMF and TEMF on the arc behavior. In the
LEMF, the EMF is in the direction of the weld, as well as at right angles to the axis of the welding arc,
while in the TEMF, the EMF is at right angles to both the axis of the welding arc and the weld direction.
Shuyuan et al. [15] introduced an adscititious longitudinal magnetic field to control the CO2
welding process, believing that the welding arc can act with the magnetic field. The results show that
the optimal excitation current resulted in a smaller droplet size and a stable welding process without
an adscititious magnetic field. The tangential electromagnetic force (Ft) due to the TEMF on the metal
drops from electrode wire resulted in an elongated ellipsoid shape.
However, many characteristics of the TEMF are like the LEMF. In this investigation, a TEMF was
used so that the Lorentz force acted in the direction of weld to elongate the arc shape along weld
length such that the heat-dissipating area increased along the weld length but constricted the width.
The optimal EMF was favorable for keeping the aspect ratio (AR) at a minimum. A suitable magnetic
field also suppressed the weld flow, reduced the spatter, and produced an acceptable weld appearance.
The EMF increased the magnetic density, supported the disconnection of the short circuit liquid bridge,
and decreased the instantaneous short-circuiting spatter. The intensity and direction of the magnetic
field had a significant influence on the welding quality and heat input only when the parameters of the
EMF, namely, the welding speed (S), wire feed rate (F), and gas flow rate (G), were matched optimally.
The strength of the magnetic field is usually expressed in terms of the magnetic flux density measured
in units of gauss (G) or milli-gauss (mG) (1 gauss = 10−4 tesla).

2.3.2. Heat Input Factor and the Transverse External Magnetic Field
Given the low melting point and boiling point of AZ31B, control of the heat input plays a vital
role when controlling the weld quality. There is no direct mathematical relation to relate the external
magnetic field (M) with heat input. Thus, control over the heat input due to an external magnetic field
(M) along with the relative influence of the wire feed rate (F), welding speed (S), and gas flow rate (G)
was generalized. The heat input is an incredibly vital aspect, which affects the bead geometry and
characteristics of the weld. The effect of the welding speed (S) and feed rate (F) on the heat input per
unit length is given below:
1
H ∝ I ∝ , (1)
S
F ∝ I. (2)

To improve the control over this heat input in the weld zone, Nosov and Peremitko [16] studied
the effect of an EMF on the heat of the weld zone and established the heat source model and the molten
pool model. This EMF exerts a force on the arc in a forward direction, making the arc an elliptical
shape. As a result, the heat-dissipating area increases, and heat input per unit length decreases. It was
found that under an EMF, charged particles of arc plasma experience a force known as the Lorentz
force, which is given by one of Maxwell’s equations (Equation (3)) as:

F = q(V × M), (3)

where F is the Lorentz force, q is the charge on particle, V is the velocity of the particle, and M is
the EMF.
Figure 3 shows the path of charged particles of an arc plasma under an EMF shown about the
Y-axis. The resultant Lorentz force will be about the X-axis, as the direction of charged particles of arc
plasma is perpendicular to both the velocity and magnetic field (as V and M are in a cross product),
as described in the Equation (3).
Materials 2020, 13, 5269 5 of 18
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 18

Figure
Figure 3.
3. The
Themagnetic
magneticfield
fieldisis about
about the
the Y-axis,
Y-axis, the
the Lorentz
Lorentz force
force about
about the
the X-axis,
X-axis, rrgg is
is the
the radius
radius of
of
gyration
gyration (i.e.,
(i.e., movement
movement ofof the
the arc
arc plasma)
plasma) [17].

This results
This results in
in the
the gyration
gyration of
of the
the particles
particles (i.e.,
(i.e., they
they move
move inin aa circle)
circle) and
and may
may change
change the
the arc
arc
shape and
shape and arc
arc density,
density, and thus, the temperature gradient. This This gyro-radius
gyro-radius or radius
radius ofof the
the circle
circle (r
(rgg))
can be
can be obtained
obtained bybycomparing
comparing the
the Lorentz
Lorentz force
force of
of Equation
Equation (3)(3) with
with the
thecentripetal
centripetal force
force on
onaacharged
charged
particle, as
particle, as shown
shown inin Equation (4):
Mp V 2
q(V × M) = , (4)
× = rg , (4)
where Mp is the mass of the charged particle and rg is the radius of gyration. Therefore, for any
where
charged p is the mass
Mparticle, of the charged
if the magnetic particle
field (M) and the
increases, rg isradius
the radius of gyration.
of gyration Therefore,
(rg ) decreases, for any
as shown in
charged particle, if the
Equations (5) and (6): magnetic field (M) increases, the radius of gyration (r g) decreases, as shown in
Equations (5) and (6): Mp V
rg = , (5)
qM
= 1 , (5)
rg ∝ . (6)
M
1
Furthermore, the radius of gyration (rg ) directly affects the length (l) of the arc on the workpiece, as
∝ .a simple geometrical calculation with reference
shown in Equation (10). The relation is obtained using
(6)
to Figure 3 and using Equations (7)–(9). To get the relation between the arc radius (rg ), the arc length
Furthermore,
on the theand
workpiece (l), radius
theof gyration
distance (rg) directly
between affects
the top theworkpiece
of the length (l) of
andthethe
arcbottom
on the of
workpiece,
the torch
as shown in Equation (10). The relation is obtained using a simple geometrical
(D), from the geometry shown in the figure, for any angle θ using Pythagoras’s theorem: calculation with
reference to Figure 3 and using Equations (7)–(9). To get the relation between the arc radius (rg), the
r2g = between
arc length on the workpiece (l), and the distance D2 + X2 , the top of the workpiece and the bottom (7) of
the torch (D), from the geometry shown in the figure, for any angle θ using Pythagoras’s theorem:
or:
= + , (7)
X2 = r2g − D2 , (8)
or: q
X = r2g − D2 , (9)
= − , (8)
where X = r2g − l, thus l = r2g − X:
= q− , (9)
l = r2g − r2g − D2 . (10)
where = − , thus = − :
Therefore, from this relation between the arc length (l), arc radius (rg ), and D, it is observed that
for a given value of D when the radius of gyration (rg ) reduces from the radius of an infinite circle
= − − . (10)
for an arc without an external magnetic field to a radius of gyration (rg ) equal to D, then l will be at a
maximum. Thefrom
Therefore, arc radius (rg ) cannot
this relation be reduced
between the arctolength
less than D or
(l), arc the arc
radius (rgwill
), andbeD,
unstable. The length
it is observed that
of the arc on the workpiece is inversely proportional to the magnetic field. Figure 4 depicts
for a given value of D when the radius of gyration (rg) reduces from the radius of an infinite circle for the length
of the
an arc arc (l) on an
without theexternal
workpiece under the
magnetic fieldinfluence of an
to a radius ofEMF and without
gyration (rg) equal antoEMF.
D, then l will be at a
maximum. The arc radius (rg) cannot be reduced to less than D or the arc will be unstable. The length
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 18

of the arc
Materials on 13,
2020, the5269
workpiece is inversely proportional to the magnetic field. Figure 4 depicts the length
6 of 18
of the arc (l) on the workpiece under the influence of an EMF and without an EMF.

Figure
Figure4.
4.Length
Lengthof
ofaaplasma
plasmaarc
arcin
inan
anexternal
externalmagnetic
magnetic field
field [17].
[17].

Ghosh et
Ghosh et al.
al. [18]
[18]observed
observed the the elliptical
elliptical shape
shape ofof the
theheat
heatdistribution
distribution on on the
the welded
welded plate
plate for
for the
the
SAW (submerged
SAW (submerged arc arc welding)
welding) process
process for for aa particular
particular input
input parametric
parametric setting
setting thatthat was
was measured
measured
in terms
in terms ofof the
the dimensions
dimensions of of the
the bead
bead geometry.
geometry. Furthermore,
Furthermore, Ghosh Ghosh et et al.
al. [19]
[19] observed
observed that
that the
the
temperature distribution
temperature distribution is is essential
essential for for controlling
controlling the
the heat-affected
heat-affected zone zone (HAZ)
(HAZ) dimensions
dimensions and and toto
get the
get therequired
required beadbead size
size and
andquality
qualityin inthe
theSAW
SAW process,
process, which
which waswas achieved
achieved by by using
using an
ananalytical
analytical
solution for
solution for moving
moving the the heat
heat source
source with
with aa Gaussian
Gaussian distribution
distribution of of the
the inside
inside volume
volume of of the
the central
central
conical shape.
conical shape.
Ghosh et
Ghosh et al. [20] also attempted
attempted to to find
findout
outthe
theanalytical
analyticalsolution
solutionofofthe thethermal
thermal field
fieldinduced
induced in
a semi-infinite
in a semi-infinite bodybodyby a by
moving heat source
a moving heat with
sourcea Gaussian distribution
with a Gaussian by selecting
distribution byanselecting
appropriate an
inside volume
appropriate for the
inside SAW process.
volume for the SAW The study showed
process. that forshowed
The study the submerged
that for arc the welding
submerged process
arc
for the heat
welding input,
process for the heat
best input,
suitable theheat
bestsource
suitableshape is in the
heat source form
shape is of an oval.
in the form of Kumar
an oval.et Kumar
al. [21]
investigated
et the temperature-dependent
al. [21] investigated the temperature-dependent propertiesproperties
on a commercial 3D finite element
on a commercial 3D finitemodel and
element
observed
model andan observed
appreciableanagreement
appreciable between the experimental
agreement between the and the simulated temperature
experimental fields in
and the simulated
most cases. fields in most cases.
temperature
Meng and Dong
Meng Dong [17]
[17]developed
developeda amathematical
mathematical model
model forfor
heat input
heat (Qin(Q
input ), shown
in), shownin Equation
in Equation(11),
which
(11), statesstates
which that the
thatheat inputinput
the heat is inversely proportional
is inversely proportionalto thetoarc
thelength on the
arc length onworkpiece:
the workpiece:
.
x T.W
Qin =
= . ,
22lo Ro dR.dx,
(11)
(11)

where
where T is the time, W is thethe total
total heat flux,RRoo isisthe
heatflux, theradius
radiusof ofthe
thearc
arcwithout
withoutananEMF,
EMF,l isl is the
the length
length of
thethe
of arcarc
onona workpiece
a workpiecefromfrom thethe
center
centerof of
thethe
arcarc (Ro(R+o +lo ).
lo).
Because the increase in l increases the heat distribution
Because the increase in lo increases the heat distribution
o area, under boundary
area, under conditions
boundary keeping
conditions
arc stable, the heat input per unit length is inversely proportional to the EMF.
keeping arc stable, the heat input per unit length is inversely proportional to the EMF. Thus, underThus, under boundary
conditions,conditions,
boundary the EMF increases
the EMFthe heat-dissipating
increases area, thus reducing
the heat-dissipating area, thusthe heat input
reducing the per
heatunit length,
input per
as shown in Equation (12):
unit length, as shown in Equation (12):
1
H ∝ 1 (12)
∝ M (12)
Furthermore, the flow rate of the inert gas affects the density of the inert environment over the
weld.Furthermore,
The shielding theby
flow
therate of theinert
ionized inertgas
gashinders
affects the
the density of the inert
heat dissipation environment
rate. over the
As an increased gasweld.
flow
The shielding by the ionized inert gas hinders the heat dissipation rate. As an increased
rate accelerates the plasma velocity, the radius of the heat flux distribution decreases. Thus, the heatgas flow rate
accelerates
flux of the the plasma
plasma arcvelocity, the radius of
on the workpiece the heat
surface flux distribution
is more concentrated decreases.
with anThus, the heat
increase flux
in the gasofflow
the
plasma arc on the workpiece surface is more concentrated with an increase in the gas flow
rate. Therefore, the shielding of the inert gas over the weld area increases the heat input per unit rate. Therefore,
the shielding
length, of the
as shown ininert gas over
Equation (13):the weld area increases the heat input per unit length, as shown in
Equation (13): H ∝ G. (13)
∝ . (13)
Materials 2020, 13, 5269 7 of 18

The combined influence of these variables on the quantity of the heat input is taken as the response
heat input factor (HIf ), where there is a lack of an analytical equation for this combination. Based on
experimental data, a general equation was formulated, as shown in Equation (14):

1 1
HI f ∝ F ∝ ∝ ∝G (14)
S M
or:
F×G
HI f = K . (15)
S×M
A higher aspect ratio (AR), large size bead width (W), burn out, evaporation of alloying elements,
porosity, and weld crack are the side effects of unoptimized heat input. Thus, just like the aspect
ratio (AR) number, this heat input factor (HIf ) number may also reflect some information about the
weld quality and optimization. Thus, the heat input factor (HIf ) as a dimensionless number shows
the cumulative effect of the process parameters (F, M, S, and G) on the aspect ratio (AR) for the
bead width (W) and penetration depth (P). Thus, data were recorded for the heat input factor (HIf ),
per Equation (15).
Further statistical modeling and optimization were done for Equation (15) to relate the outcomes
of this response with other weld characteristics. The results so obtained were analyzed based on
the criterion that heat input was increasing or decreasing for a given aspect ratio (AR). From a
literature study and pre-investigation experiments, the boundary conditions obtained for these process
parameters were divided into five levels for the further design of a matrix to perform experiments,
which are shown in Table 1 with levels and ranges.

Table 1. Welding parameters and their levels and ranges.

Parameters Units −2 −1 0 1 2
M G 90 105 120 135 150
F m/min 5 5.5 6 6.5 7
S mm/min 500 550 600 650 700
G L/min 9 10 11 12 13

2.4. Response Surface Methodology (RSM)

The RSM has been used for experimentation and optimization of this multi-objective process
due to the widely known application and characteristics of the DOE, with four factors and five levels.
This helps to reduce the number of experiments, achieve an optimal process output, and minimize,
maximize, or target the output in any statistical and experimental study to predict responses. The DOE
was used to produce 31 sets, including 16 factorial designs, 7 center runs, and 8 star runs to optimize the
experimental conditions. The second-order statistical model for the process parameters was developed
in the following form of a general equation [8], as shown below:

k
X k
X XX
Yij = β0 + β i Xi + βii Xi2 + βij Xi X j + εij (16)
i=1 i=1 i<j

where Yij is the expected process yield, β0 is constant regression coefficient, βi are regression coefficients,
Xi and Xj denote the direct process parameters, k stands for the number of variables, and ε is the
inherent experimental error.
The run order design matrix was used to perform the experiments. In this welding experiment,
popular butt weld joints were considered to be welded as the plate thickness was less than 5.00 mm,
where a square groove butt joint was used for experimental work. The literature recommends a
0.80 mm to 1.0 mm gap for a square groove. Since a single-pass, full penetration weld is recommended
for thin plates, the same was applied here. A groove of depth 1.5 mm on the base plate as a backing
Materials 2020, 13, 5269 8 of 18

plate helped to control the bead formation on the rear side, which is recommended in the ASME
(American Society
Materials 2020, of Mechanical
13, x FOR PEER REVIEWEngineers) handbook. The specimen surfaces were cleaned with acetone, 8 of 18
sandpaper, and a wire brush to remove any traces of oil, oxides, and other impurities before welding.
welding. Furthermore,
Furthermore, rough edges rough
dueedges
to the due to theaction
shearing shearing action on workpieces
on workpieces were smoothened
were smoothened using
using sandpaper
sandpaper
for a better for a better result.
result.
Since magnesium alloy (AZ31B) has a low melting point (660 ◦°C) C) and boiling point (1100 ◦°C), C),
care was
care was taken
taken to to avoid
avoid burning
burning andand vaporizing
vaporizing thethe molten
molten metal.
metal. For this reason, a low arc voltage
voltage
i.e., 18 V.
is preferred, i.e., V. Dong
Dong etet al.
al. [22]
[22]performed
performed experimentation
experimentation with
with aa 26
26 V
V arc
arc voltage
voltage without
without a
magnetic field and and reported
reported porosity
porosity andand weld
weld cracks.
cracks. Thus, in this experiment, the arc arc voltage
voltage was
was
kept at around 18 V, V, which
which considerably
considerably reduced
reduced thethe heat
heat input
input by
by about
about 25%
25% and
and induced
induced localized
localized
heating of the workpiece under EMF. Therefore, Therefore, aa weld
weld with
with deep
deep penetration,
penetration, even at a lowlow heat
heat
input, was observed.
observed. This Thistrend
trendwaswasfound
foundtotobebeconsistent
consistentwith
withthe earlier
the findings
earlier findingsbyby
Nomura
Nomura et al.
et
[7],[7],
al. while controlling
while controlling thethe
shape
shapeof of
thethe
arcarc
in in
TIG welding.
TIG welding.
Furthermore, 31 weld specimens were machined on the wire cut machine to prepare for the the
measurement of the the corresponding
corresponding responses due to to the
the geometrical
geometrical characteristics,
characteristics, as shown
shown in in
Figure 5a.
Figure 5a.

Figure 5. (a)
(a) Macrostructure
Macrostructureof
ofthe
thebead
beadand
and(b)
(b)the
thebead
beadprofile
profilewithout
withoutaamagnetic
magneticfield
fieldand
and(c)(c)with
witha
amagnetic
magneticfield.
field.

Figure 5b,c shows

shows a typical
typical weld
weld bead
bead contour,
contour, showing
showing the
the magnetic
magnetic field’s
field’s influence
influence on
on the
the
bead’s
bead’s surface.
surface. The bead’s surface provides a vital sign of the process’s steadiness and can be seen by
bare
bare eyes.
eyes. A smooth surface denotes a steady process, while an uneven and irregular surface indicates
a flawed
flawed process.
process.
The further
further dimensions of the weld bead
bead geometry,
geometry, including
including the
the bead
bead width
width (W)
(W) and
and bead
bead
penetration
penetration depth
depth (P),
(P), were
were measured
measured and
and recorded
recorded with
with the
the help
help of built-in linear measuring devices
in the optical
optical microscope
microscope with
with an
an accuracy
accuracy of
of 0.001
0.001 mm.
mm. Later,
Later, aspect
aspect ratios
ratios (ARs)
(ARs) based on the bead
width
width (W)
(W) and
and bead
bead penetration
penetration (P)
(P) were
were calculated
calculated and
and recorded,
recorded,as
asshown
shownin inTable
Table2.2.

Table 2. The
Table 2. The design
design and
and response
response parameters.
parameters.

InputInput
Parameters
Parameters Responses
Responses
Run Order
Run Order MM FF SS G
G HIHI
f f AR AR P PW W
1 1 105
105 6.5
6.5 650
650 12
12 1.14
1.14 3.19 3.192.38 2.38
7.6 7.6
2 2 120
120 6.0
6.0 600
600 11 0.91
0.91 3.13 3.132.36 2.36
7.4 7.4
3 3 105
105 5.5
5.5 550
550 10 0.95
0.95 4.50 4.501.68 7.6
1.68 7.6
4 4 120
120 6.0
6.0 600
600 99 0.75
0.75 2.93 2.932.76 8.1
2.76 8.1
5 120 6.0 600 11 0.91 3.10 2.58 8.0
5 120 6.0 600 11 0.91 3.10 2.58 8.0
6 120 6.0 600 11 0.91 3.45 2.20 7.6
6 120 6.0 600 11 0.91 3.45 2.20 7.6
7 120 6.0 600 11 0.91 3.24 2.28 7.4
8 150 6.0 600 11 0.73 4.93 1.48 7.3
9 120 6 700 11 0.785 2.05 3.7 7.6
10 135 6.5 650 12 0.89 3.51 2.22 7.8
11 105 5.5 550 12 0.92 5.83 1.32 7.7
12 120 6.0 600 11 0.85 3.10 2.58 8.0
Materials 2020, 13, 5269 9 of 18

Table 2. Cont.

Input Parameters Responses

Run Order M F S G HIf AR P W
7 120 6.0 600 11 0.91 3.24 2.28 7.4
8 150 6.0 600 11 0.73 4.93 1.48 7.3
9 120 6 700 11 0.785 2.05 3.7 7.6
10 135 6.5 650 12 0.89 3.51 2.22 7.8
11 105 5.5 550 12 0.92 5.83 1.32 7.7
12 120 6.0 600 11 0.85 3.10 2.58 8.0
13 105 6.5 650 10 0.95 2.83 2.82 8.0
14 135 6.5 650 10 0.74 3.09 2.72 8.4
15 120 6.0 600 11 0.92 3.12 2.40 7.5
16 105 6.5 550 10 1.125 2.93 3.00 8.8
17 105 5.5 650 10 0.80 2.74 2.84 7.8
18 120 6.0 600 11 0.92 3.31 2.38 7.9
19 90 6.0 600 11 1.2 3.90 2.00 7.9
20 135 5.5 650 10 0.63 3.50 2.12 7.4
21 135 5.5 550 10 0.74 5.41 1.20 6.5
22 105 5.5 650 12 0.97 3.80 1.92 7.3
23 135 6.5 550 12 1.05 3.78 2.38 9.0
24 105 6.5 550 12 1.35 3.63 2.42 8.8
25 120 6.0 600 13 1.08 4.73 1.52 7.2
26 120 5.0 600 11 0.76 6.50 1.00 6.5
27 120 7.0 600 11 1.07 3.81 2.36 9.0
28 135 5.5 550 12 0.89 6.80 1.00 6.8
29 135 5.5 650 12 0.75 4.78 1.42 6.78
30 120 6.0 500 11 1.1 4.50 1.82 8.2
31 135 6.5 550 10 0.875 3.06 2.94 9.0

2.5. Development of the Mathematical Model

The mathematical models for the responses were developed and modified using the backward
elimination method to remove insignificant terms from the model’s equations. The terms with their
probability level (p > 0.05) (more than 5%) were removed from the model. The regression analysis
was again carried out and the adequacy of the model was checked. Equations (17)–(20) show the new
second-order polynomial regression models for the responses.

AR = 126.6 − 0.1181M − 26.33F − 0.1146S + 0.158G + 0.001143M2 + 1.769F2

(17)
+0.1109G2 − 0.02300M × F + 0.01735F × S − 0.3575 F × G,

HI f = 0.01183M + 0.595F + 0.00357S − 0.172G − 0.00317M × F − 0.000825F × S

(18)
+0.0412F × G − 1.79,

P = −54.66 + 0.0528M + 11.99F + 0.0595S − 0.2808G − 0.000605M2 − 0.605F2

(19)
+0.01383M × F − 0.00925 F × S,

W = −31.9 –0.2047M + 4.01F + 0.0976S + 1.743G + 0.03267M × F − 0.0112F × S

(20)
−0.00315 S × G.

2.5.1. Acceptability of the Developed Models

The outcomes of the ANOVA regression models for heat input factor (HIf ) and aspect ratio (AR)
in terms of the F ratio (74.91 and 125.36) compared with the tabulated F ratio values (F0.05,10,20 = 2.34
and F0.05,7,23 = 2.44) showed that the observed values of the F ratio were found to be more than the
tabulated values. While for a lack of fit for the HIf and AR, the observed values of the F ratios (1.83
and 1.87) were less than the tabulated values (F0.05, 17,23 = 2.28 and F0.05, 14,20 = 2.22); thus, the lack
Materials 2020, 13, 5269 10 of 18

of fit was insignificant. Furthermore, multiple correlation coefficients R2 , adjusted for HIf and AR,
were 94.52 and 97.64%, respectively. Thus, the models were adequate. Equation (21) estimates the
precision of the errors to predict the accuracy of the models, including errors that occurred due to
random reasons. The uncertainty for the responses were ∆AR = ±0.35, ∆HIf = ±0.08, ∆P = ±0.37,
and ∆W = ±0.42, respectively. p
∆t = ±tα/2,DF Ve (21)

where ∆t is the error range of predicted models, t is the statistical value of horizontal coordinate on
the t distribution corresponding to the specified degrees of freedom, α/2 is the level of the confidence
interval, DF represents the degrees of freedom, i.e., the value of the horizontal coordinate of the t
distribution, α is the level of the confidence interval, and Ve is the variance of the residual error of the
predicted model.

2.5.2. Validation of the Model

Furthermore, experiments were performed to confirm the accuracy of the models. For the validity
tests, the process parameters were selected randomly in the given range, and tests were performed.
The values of the process parameters and responses are listed in Table 3. It was seen that the models
could predict the responses and the experimental results were within the error range calculated using
Equation (21).

Table 3. Model validation and confirmation.

Trial Process Parameters Responses

Nos. M S F G ARPred ARobs HIf,Pred HIf,obs PPred Pobs WPred Wobs
1. 120 700 6 9 1.74 ± 0.35 2.05 0.63 ± 0.08 0.64 3.4 ± 0.37 3.7 8.0 ± 0.42 7.6
2. 130 600 7 10 3.70 ± 0.35 3.6 0.87 ± 0.08 0.89 1.2 ± 0.37 1.5 5.1 ± 0.42 5.4
3. 150 600 7 10 4.52 ± 0.35 4.2 0.70 ± 0.08 0.77 0.7 ± 0.37 1.2 4.9 ± 0.42 5.0

2.5.3. Optimization of Bead Parameters

The responses of the welding process were multi-objective and the responses, such as the HIf ,
AR, P, and W, were related to a high-quality bead; thus, the optimal solution found a middle ground.
The aspect ratio (AR) depended upon the bead width (W) and the weld penetration (P) ratio. In general,
for the optimal value of AR, the boundary condition varied between the minimum bead width (Wmin )
and the maximum weld penetration depth (Pmax ), and in this experiment, the bead width (W) should
be more than the diameter of the filler wire (1.6 mm) and the penetration depth should be greater than
or equal to the plate thickness (3 mm). Thus, lower values of AR signified a good penetration depth (P)
that led to better bead geometry.
Theoretically, the process parameters were optimized using the software tool “optimizer,” which
is available in Minitab (17, State college, PA, USA), with the objective function as the aspect ratio (AR) to
be minimized, as shown in Equation (22), keeping an eye on the heat factor, as shown in Equation (23).
The corresponding inputs are shown in Equation (24).

Minimize f (x) = AR
= 126.6 − 0.1181M − 26.33F − 0.1146S + 0.158G
(22)
+0.001143M2 + 1.769F2 + 0.1109G2 − 0.02300M × F
+0.01735F × S − 0.3575 F × G

MInimize f (x) = HI f
= 0.01183M + 0.595F + 0.00357S − 0.172G − 0.00317M × F (23)
−0.000825F × S + 0.0412F × G − 1.79
given 90 ≤ M ≥ 150, 5.0 ≤ F ≥ 7.0, 500 ≤ S ≥ 700, 9 ≤ G ≥ 13 (24)
Materials 2020, 13, 5269 11 of 18

The predicted and optimized results of the process parameters using the response “optimizer”
tool were M as 119 G, F as 5.8 m/min, S as 700 mm/min, and G as 11.5 L/min. The predicted responses
were 0.8 for
Materials the
2020, 13,HI f , and
x FOR for the AR. Furthermore, the GMA welding parameters were set11close
2.4REVIEW
PEER of 18 to
the optimized combination and experiments were performed. The experimental result for the aspect
thewas
ratio optimized
2.26 withcombination and experiments
a corresponding were performed. The experimental result for the aspect
full penetration.
ratio was 2.26 with a corresponding full penetration.
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results and Discussion
The developed model correlated the input variables with the bead characteristics and heat input
Themagnesium
factor for developed model correlated
alloy welds. Thethe input
direct variables
and withoutcomes
interaction the bead characteristics and heat
of the parameters input
on the bead
factor for magnesium alloy welds. The direct and interaction outcomes of the parameters on the bead
geometry were analyzed.
geometry were analyzed.
3.1. Effect of the EMF (M) on HIf , AR, P, and W
3.1. Effect of the EMF (M) on HIf, AR, P, and W
The functional behavior of the EMF on HIf , AR, P, and W is shown in Figure 6a–d. The HIf
The functional behavior of the EMF on HIf, AR, P, and W is shown in Figure 6a–d. The HIf
decreased as the magnetic field (M) increased. It decreased steadily for all values of the magnetic field
decreased as the magnetic field (M) increased. It decreased steadily for all values of the magnetic field
(M) from 1.2 to 0.7. The higher values of M negatively affected the bead characteristics, as initially,
(M) from 1.2 to 0.7. The higher values of M negatively affected the bead characteristics, as initially,
the penetration depth (P) was low, increases till 120 G for M, and then again, P started reducing.
the penetration depth (P) was low, increases till 120 G for M, and then again, P started reducing. The
The variation
variation ARAR
in in (3.9(3.9
to to
3.5)3.5)
waswas
notnot significant
significant untiluntil M reached
M reached 120 120 G, because
G, because in range,
in this this range,
P
P increased while the change in the bead width (W) was insignificant or
increased while the change in the bead width (W) was insignificant or decreased. decreased.

Figure (a–d).
6. 6.
Figure (a–d).Effect
Effectofofthe
theEMF
EMFon the HI
on the AR, P,
HIff, AR, P, and
andWWwhile keepingF,F,S,S,and
whilekeeping andGG
at at 6 m/min,
6 m/min, 600600
mm/min,
mm/min, andand1111 L/min.
L/min.

AA further increaseininM
furtherincrease Mbeyond
beyond 120
120 G
G caused decreaseininWWtotobebemore
the decrease
caused the more significant
significant P, P,
than
than
and hence AR varied substantially. P increased
and hence AR varied substantially. P increased from 2 to 3 mm till the M reached 120 G, but beyond
2 to 3 mm till the M reached 120 G, but beyond
120120
G,G, it decreased.The
it decreased. Theeffect
effectof
ofMM on
on W
W was
was nearly
nearly the
the same
samefrom
from9090toto105
105G,G,and
anda further rise
a further rise
resulted
resulted in in a reducedWWtill
a reduced till150
150G.
G.
The EMF controlled the density of the charged particles in the arc column by reducing
vaporization. It gave a higher deposition rate, controlled the deviation in the arc column, and
restricted the variation in W. However, at the elevated EMF, the arc column was restricted more,
Materials 2020, 13, 5269 12 of 18

Materials
Materials 2020,
2020, 13,
13, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 12
12 of
of 18
18
The EMF controlled the density of the charged particles in the arc column by reducing vaporization.
resulting
It gave
resulting in
in aa higher
a higher arc
arc instability
deposition
higher near
near 150
rate, controlled
instability the G.
150 G. Figure
deviation
Figurein 55 compares
the arc column,
compares the
the weld appearance
and restricted
weld appearance thewith and
variation
with and
without
without the
the EMF.
in W. However, EMF. atFrom Figure
Figure 5b,
the elevated
From EMF,
5b, it
it is
theobserved
is arc column
observed that the
thatwas weld
weld appearance
the restricted was
was rough
more, resulting
appearance roughin aand erratic
higher
and arc
erratic
layers
layers were
instability
werenear observed
150 G.at
observed aa very
Figure
at very short
short distance.
5 compares Figure
the weld
distance. 5c
5c shows
appearance
Figure showswith aa goodandwetting
good withoutbehavior,
wetting the EMF.which
behavior, From
which
resulted
Figure 5b,
resulted in
in ait
a smooth
is observed
smooth weld
weldthat appearance
the weld
appearance when the
the EMF
appearance
when EMFwaswas applied.
wasrough
applied.and A
A low
low heat
erratic
heat input
layers
inputwereeffect was
was found
effectobservedfoundat
from
a verythe
from the weld
shortweld cross-section,
distance. Figure demonstrating
cross-section, 5c shows a good
demonstrating an inferior
anwetting average
average heat
inferiorbehavior, heat input
which into
resulted
input into inthe
the AZ31B
AZ31B sheet
a smooth weld
sheet
throughout
appearance when
throughout the
the welding
the EMF
welding process.
was applied. A low heat input effect was found from the weld cross-section,
process.
The
The Lorentz
demonstratingLorentz an force
inferior
force of the
the EMF
of average EMFheat (LEMF
(LEMFinputor TEMF)
orinto generates
the AZ31B
TEMF) sheetturbulence
generates throughout
turbulence in
inthethe molten
thewelding pool,
pool, as
molten process. as
shown
shown Thein Figure
inLorentz
Figureforce 7b,c
7b,c ofcompared
the EMF (LEMF
compared to
to Figure
Figure 7a
7a with
or TEMF) with no
no external
generates field,
turbulence
external field, inwhich accelerates
the molten
which the
pool, as
accelerates heat
shown
the heat
dissipation
in Figure 7b,c
dissipation rate
rate along
along the
compared thetoweld length
Figure
weld 7a with
length in
in the
no molten
the externalpool
molten field,
pool due to
to constriction
which
due accelerates of
constriction of the
the arc
heat
the in
in the
the vertical
arcdissipation rate
vertical
direction,
along the weld
direction, resulting
length
resulting in the
inin the
the elliptical shape
molten pool
elliptical shape of
due the
of to arc
arc along
along the
theconstriction weld
of the
the arclength.
weld As
As the
in the vertical
length. external
external magnetic
the direction, resulting
magnetic
field
in theintensifies,
field elliptical shape
intensifies, the
the resultant
of the arc
resultant force
force also
along
alsotheincreases and
and the
weld length.
increases theAsdeflecting
the external
deflecting magnitude
magnetic
magnitude of
of the
fieldwelding
the arc
intensifies,
welding arc
increases.
the resultant
increases. force also increases and the deflecting magnitude of the welding arc increases.

Figure7.
Figure
Figure 7. Weldarcs
7.Weld
Weld arcs(a)
arcs (a)without
(a) withoutaaa magnetic
without magnetic field
magnetic field (b)
field (b) with
(b) with the
with the TEMF,
the TEMF, and
TEMF, and (c)
and (c) with
(c) with the
with the LEMF
the LEMF [23].
LEMF [23].
[23].

This localized
This
This localized heating
localized heating of
heating of the
of the workpiece
the workpiece resulted
workpiece resulted in
resulted in deep
in deep penetration
deep penetration and
penetration and aaa low
and low bead
low bead width
bead width in
width in aaa
in
weld
weld joint
weld joint even
joint even
even atat
at aaa low
low heat
low heat input.
heat input. Furthermore,
input. Furthermore,
Furthermore, the the temperature
the temperature gradient
temperature gradient influenced
gradient influenced
influenced the the cooling
the cooling
cooling
rate
rate and
rate and grain
and grain size,
grain size, and
size, and under
and under a forced
under aa forced weld
forced weld arc
weld arc deflection,
arc deflection, significant
deflection, significant changes
significant changes were
changes were observed
were observed
observed in in the
in the
the
microstructure,
microstructure,
microstructure, as as shown
as shown
shown inin Figure
in Figure 8a,b.
Figure 8a,b. The EMF
8a,b. The
The EMFinfluenced
EMF influenced the weld
influenced the metal’s
the weld surface,
weld metal’s thus increasing
metal’s surface,
surface, thus
thus
the effective
increasing
increasing the contact
the effective area
effective contactand the
contact area stability
area and
and theof the welding
the stability
stability of of theprocess
the welding was improved.
welding process
process was As the magnetic
was improved.
improved. As
As the
the
field strength
magnetic
magnetic fieldincrementally
field strength increases, the
strength incrementally
incrementally resultantthe
increases,
increases, force
the is increased,
resultant
resultant force and
force is
is the deflecting
increased,
increased, and
and themagnitude
the deflecting
deflecting of
the welding
magnitude
magnitude of arc
of thealso
the weldingincreases
welding arc [24].
arc also Reddy
also increases et
increases [24].al. [25] adroitly
Reddy et
[24]. Reddy et al. demonstrated
al. [25}
[25} adroitly the effect
adroitly demonstrated
demonstrated theof an external
the effect
effect of
of
magnetic
an
an external field on
external magnetic grain
magnetic field refinement
field on
on grain in gas
grain refinementtungsten
refinement in in gasarc (GTA)
gas tungsten welding.
tungsten arc arc (GTA)
(GTA) welding.
welding.

Figure
Figure 8.
8. Optical
Figure Optical
8. micrograph
micrograph
Optical of the
ofof
micrograph theweld
the weldzone:
weld zone:(a)
zone: (a)with
(a) withthe
with themagnetic
the magnetic field
magnetic field and
field (b)
and (b)
and of
(b)of the
ofthe base
thebase metal
basemetal [10].
metal[10].
[10].

3.2.
3.2. Interaction
Interaction Effect
Effect of
of the
the EMF
EMF (M)
(M) and
and FF on
on the
the HI
HIff,, AR,
AR, P,
P, and
and W
W
The
The three-dimensional
three-dimensional (3D)
(3D) and
and two
two dimensional
dimensional (2D)
(2D) plots
plots show
show the
the dimensional
dimensional relationship
relationship
between
between the
the responses
responses and
and variables.
variables. These
These plots
plots are
are also
also known
known asas interaction
interaction effect
effect plots.
plots. Here,
Here, the
the
Materials 2020, 13, 5269 13 of 18

3.2. Interaction Effect of the EMF (M) and F on the HIf , AR, P, and W
The
Materials three-dimensional
2020, (3D)
13, x FOR PEER REVIEW and two dimensional (2D) plots show the dimensional relationship 13 of 18
between the responses and variables. These plots are also known as interaction effect plots. Here,
2D
the plot shows
2D plot shows the the
behavior
behavior of aof3D plot
a 3D through
plot throughthethecutcutsection
sectiontotogetgeta adeep
deepinsight
insightintointo the
the
relationship
relationship between
between the magnetic field field (M)
(M) and
andwire
wirefeed
feedrate
rate(F)
(F)for
forthethecorresponding
corresponding responses
responses of
of the
the heat
heat input
input factor
factor (HI (HI
f ), f ), aspect
aspect ratio
ratio (AR),
(AR), weld
weld penetration
penetration (P),
(P), andand bead
bead width
width (W).
(W).
Figure
Figure 99 shows
shows the
the critical
critical 3D 3D and
and 2D2D relationships
relationships between
between the the heat
heat input
input regulation
regulation (HI (HIf),f ),
magnetic
magnetic field
field (M),
(M), and
andwire
wirefeed feedrate
rate(F).
(F).ItItwas
wasobserved
observedthat thatthe
theheat
heatinput
inputfactor
factor(HI
(HIf)f )continuously
continuously
decreased
decreased as as the
the magnetic
magneticfield field(M)
(M)increased
increasedfrom from9090to to150
150GG and
andhigher
highervalues
valuesof offeed
feedrate
rate(F)(F)
resulted
resulted in a higher
higher HI HIff for
for given
givenvalues
valuesofofM. M.Thus,
Thus,forfor
thethe different
different combination
combination of feed
of feed rates
rates (F)
(F) and
and magnetic
magnetic fieldsfields
(M),(M), HIf varied
HIf varied fromfrom 0.71.3.
0.7 to to 1.3.

Figure
Figure9.9.Sectioned
Sectioned3D
3Dand
and2D
2Dplots
plotsfor
forthe
theinteraction
interactioneffects
effects of M and
of M and FF on HIf.f .
on HI

Furthermore, Figure
Furthermore, Figure 1010shows
showsthethecritical
critical3D3Dand
and2D 2Drelationships
relationshipsbetween
betweenthe theaspect
aspectratio
ratio(AR),
(AR),
magneticfield
magnetic field(M),
(M),andandwire
wirefeed
feedrate
rate (F).
(F). It was
It was observed
observed thatthat
as M M increased
as increased fromfrom
90 to90110
to G,
110ARG,
AR decreased
decreased forvalues
for all all values
of F.of F. The
The slopeslope
of AR AR was
ofwas negative
negative untiluntil
M wasM 110
wasG.110 G. However,
However, beyondbeyond
110
G110
forGM, M, started
forAR AR started increasing,
increasing, andand
the the
slopeslope
waswas positive
positive andand steeper.
steeper. ForFor a good
a good quality
quality weld,
weld, a
a low
low value
value ARAR
of of is considered
is considered a desirable
a desirable quality.
quality. Thus, Thus,
thisthis undesirable
undesirable rise rise
in AR AR may
in may hamperhamper
the
the quality
quality of theofweld,
the weld,
and itand
wasitbecause
was because of theof
of the effect effect of the magnetic
the higher higher magnetic
field (M)field (M)arc
on the ondensity
the arc
density and the effect of the wire feed rate (F) on HI . It also resulted in significant
and the effect of the wire feed rate (F) on HIf. It falso resulted in significant changes in the bead changes in the bead
geometry. At
geometry. an FF of 5.5 m/min,
At an m/min, ARAR was
was about
about4.5 anM
4.5atatan Mofof9090G, butasasFFincreased,
G,but increased,AR ARdecreased
decreased to
3.0 at an M of 120 G. Thus, experimentally, it was observed that higher F values
to 3.0 at an M of 120 G. Thus, experimentally, it was observed that higher F values till 120 G for M till 120 G for M were
were desirable for the good quality weld. However, beyond 120 G, the objective function used to
minimize the AR was hampered.
Materials 2020, 13, 5269 14 of 18

desirable for the good quality weld. However, beyond 120 G, the objective function used to minimize
AR was
theMaterials hampered.
2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 18

Figure 10.10.Sectioned
Figure Sectioned3D
3Dand
and2D
2Dplots
plots for
for the
the interaction effects of
interaction effects ofMMand
andFFon AR.
onAR.

Furthermore,
Furthermore, Figure
Figure1111shows
showsthethecritical
critical3D3D and
and 2D relationships between
2D relationships betweenthe theweld
weldpenetration
penetration
(P),(P),
magnetic
magnetic field (M),
field and
(M), wire
and feed
wire rate
feed (F).(F).
rate It was observed
It was in in
observed Figure 10 10
Figure that as as
that thethe
magnetic
magnetic field (M)
field
increased from 90 to 120 G, the weld penetration (P) increased significantly for all
(M) increased from 90 to 120 G, the weld penetration (P) increased significantly for all values of thevalues of the wire
feed
wireratefeed
(F).rate
The(F).
further
The rise in Mrise
further resulted in a decreasing
in M resulted trend of the
in a decreasing P curve.
trend of the P It was at It
curve. a maximum
was at a
when F was awhen
maximum maximumF wasand M was in the
a maximum andrange
M was of 110–120 G, where
in the range the minimum
of 110–120 G, where occurred when M
the minimum
was at a maximum
occurred when M and was F atwas at a minimum.
a maximum and F was Theat changes in F The
a minimum. relative to Minfrom
changes 5.5 toto6.5
F relative M m/min
from
significantly changed
5.5 to 6.5 m/min P.
significantly changed P.
Materials 2020, 13, 5269 15 of 18
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 18

Figure 11. Sectioned

Figure 11. 3D and
Sectioned 3D and 2D
2D plots
plots for
for the
theinteraction
interactioneffects
effectsof Mand
ofM andFFon
onP.P.

Furthermore, Figure 12 shows the critical 3D and 2D relationships between the bead width (W),
Furthermore, Figure 12 shows the critical 3D and 2D relationships between the bead width (W),
magnetic
magnetic field
field (M),
(M), and
and wire
wire feedfeed rate (F). It
rate (F). It is
is observed
observed from
from Figure
Figure11 11that
thatthe
thebead
beadwidth
width(W)(W)
increased values of M from 90 to 150 G for F
increased for all values of M from 90 to 150 G for F as 6.5 m/min or above. This may have been dueto
for all as 6.5 m/min or above. This may have been due
the dominating
to the dominating effect of HI
effect off for
HIf higher wirewire
for higher feedfeed
rate rate
(F), along withwith
(F), along the magnetic
the magneticfieldfield
(M). (M).
The slope
The
of the bead
slope of thewidth (W) significantly
bead width (W) significantly decreased at a 5.5
decreased at am/min wirewire
5.5 m/min feedfeed
raterate
(F) (F)
for for
all all
values of the
values of
magnetic fieldfield
the magnetic (M).(M).
The The
trend of the
trend of plot confirmed
the plot confirmedthe the
previously discussed
previously discussed behavior
behavior of AR forfor
of AR the
interaction of Mof
the interaction andM F. Thus,
and it wasitalso
F. Thus, wasobserved that the
also observed direct
that effect of
the direct the wire
effect of thefeed
wirerate (F)rate
feed was(F)the
most vital. Still, at the same time, the magnetic field’s (M) direct effect and its interaction
was the most vital. Still, at the same time, the magnetic field’s (M) direct effect and its interaction along with
wire
alongfeed
withrate (F)feed
wire could not(F)becould
rate ignored.
not be ignored.
Materials 2020, 13, 5269 16 of 18
Materials 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 18

Figure 12.Sectioned
Figure12. Sectioned3D
3Dand
and2D
2Dplots
plots for
for the interaction effectsof
interaction effects Mand
ofM andFFon W.
onW.

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
• • The The investigation
investigation for
forthe
theeffect
effectofofthe
theEMFEMFon onthe the aspect
aspect ratio (AR) and
ratio (AR) andheat
heatinput
inputfactor
factor(HI (HI ) for
f) ffor
a magnesium
a magnesiumalloy alloy(AZ31B)
(AZ31B)showed
showedthat that the
the effect
effect of the EMF
of the EMF on on the
thearc
arcconfiguration
configurationand andarc arc
energy affected the weld quality and the process. The effects of
energy affected the weld quality and the process. The effects of the interaction of the EMF and the interaction of the EMF and
wire
wire feedfeedraterate(F)(F)ononthe
theheat
heatinput
inputfactor
factor(HI
(HIff),), aspect ratio (AR),
aspect ratio (AR),weld
weldpenetration
penetration(P), (P),and
andbead bead
width (W) were significant. 2
width (W) were significant.The TheR-squared
R-squared valuevalue (R (R2)) for
for the
the aspect
aspectratio
ratio(AR)
(AR)waswas97.64%,
97.64%,and and
forfor
thethe heat input factor
heat input factor (HI (HI ), it was (94.52%),
f f), it was (94.52%), showingshowing a good correlation for the process.
correlation for the process.
• • The The predicted
predictedresults results were in inconsonance
consonancewith with experimental
experimental results
results usingusing conformity
conformity tests. The tests.
Theoptimized
optimized values
values of of
the process
the process parameters
parameters forforthis multi-objective
this multi-objective process
process were
were119119GG forforthe the
magnetic
magnetic field,
field, 700700 mm/min
mm/min forforthethe welding
welding speed,
speed, 5.85.8 m/min
m/min forfor
thethe feed
feed rate,
rate, and and
a gasa gas
flow flow rate
of rate
11.5 of 11.5 L/min.
L/min. This resulted
This resulted in a fullin weld
a full penetration
weld penetration (P) awith
(P) with a corresponding
corresponding heat input
heat input factor
(HIfactor
f ) of (HI
0.8 f) of aspect
and 0.8 and aspect
ratio (AR)ratioof (AR)
2.26. of 2.26.
• • The The aspect
aspect ratio(AR),
ratio (AR),which
whichisisaadimensionless
dimensionless number, number, can can be
be directly
directlyassociated
associatedwithwiththe theweldweld
quality. A higher value signifies a poor weld penetration (P) or
quality. A higher value signifies a poor weld penetration (P) or a large bead width (W). The risea large bead width (W). The risein
theinmagnetic
the magnetic fieldfield
fromfrom90 to90120to 120 G produced
G produced a decline
a decline in AR.
in AR. However,
However, a further
a further increase
increase in inthe
the magnetic field (M) till 150 G caused a sharp increase in the aspect ratio. It was observed that
magnetic field (M) till 150 G caused a sharp increase in the aspect ratio. It was observed that as M
as M increased from 90 to 115 G, AR decreased for all values of the wire feed rate (F). The slope
increased from 90 to 115 G, AR decreased for all values of the wire feed rate (F). The slope of the
of the aspect ratio (AR) was negative for the magnetic field (M) until 115 G. However, beyond
aspect ratio (AR) was negative for the magnetic field (M) until 115 G. However, beyond 115 G,
115 G, the aspect ratio (AR) started increasing and the slope was steeper.
the aspect ratio (AR) started increasing and the slope was steeper.
• Like the aspect ratio number (AR), the heat input factor (HIf) may also reflect some information
• Like
aboutthe theaspect
weld ratio number
quality (AR), the heatofinput
and optimization factor parameters.
the process (HIf ) may also reflect
Thus, the some information
heat input factor
about
(HIf), a dimensionless number, similarly shows the cumulative effect of the magneticinput
the weld quality and optimization of the process parameters. Thus, the heat field factor
(M),
(HIwire
f ), a feed
dimensionless number,
rate (F), welding speed similarly
(S), andshows
gas flowthe cumulative
rate (G) on theeffect of the
aspect magnetic
ratio field (M),
(AR) regarding
wire feed rate (F), welding speed (S), and gas flow rate (G) on the aspect ratio (AR) regarding the
Materials 2020, 13, 5269 17 of 18

bead width (W) and penetration (P). The heat input factor varied from 0.7 to 1.3 for the given
range of magnetic fields from 90 to 150 G with a simultaneous variation in the feed rate from 5.0 to
7.0 m/min. For a higher magnetic field (150 G), a frequent arc extinction with a large size spatter
and the explosion of melting drops was observed.
• The EMF up to 120 G showed an increase in penetration (P) up to the full depth, i.e., 3.7 mm,
and supported the arc stability. In comparison, above 120 G, the penetration (P) decreased as low
as 33% of the sheet thickness (1.0 mm), and frequent arc extinguishing was observed.
• The appearance of weld metals under the EMF was more regular, smooth, and straight than
without the EMF.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, P.S. and S.C.; methodology, P.S. and N.K.S.; software, P.S.; validation,
P.S., S.C. and N.K.S.; formal analysis, S.C. and N.K.S.; investigation, P.S.; resources, S.C. and N.K.S.; data curation,
P.S.; writing—original draft preparation, P.S.; writing—review and editing, P.S., S.C., N.K.S G.K. and M.B.-C.;
visualization, M.B.-C. and G.K.; supervision, M.B.-C. and G.K.; project administration, G.K.; funding acquisition,
M.B.-C. and G.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This study was supported by the program of the Polish Minister of Science and Higher Education
under the name “Regional Initiative of Excellence” in 2019–2022, project no. 003/RID/2018/19. Measurements were
supported by the Regional Operational Programme for the Opole Voivodeship financed by the Structural Funds
of the European Union and the State budget of Poland: RPOP.01.01.00-16-0016/16.
Acknowledgments: Authors are thankful to the Indian Institute of Technology(ISM), Dhanbad, India for providing
support in establishing experimental setup in their central workshop.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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