ELEC4810: Introduction to

Biosensors and Bioinstrumentation

Lecture Notes – Set #6

ELEC4810

Textbook: Chapter 4
 Chapter 2
Biopotentials: the Origin and Measurements

Main Topics:
Electrical Activity at Cellular Level
• bioelectric phenomena at the cellular level
• volume conductor potential distributions
• typical bioelectric sources: heart, brain, muscle, etc.

Recordings of bioelectric signals

• electrocardiogram (ECG)
• electromyogram (EMG)
• electroencephalogram (EEG)

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 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
• The electroencephalography (EEG) represents a technology that provides a real time window
of information on brain function.
• EEG transforms the potential signal arising from synaptic activity in the brain into
waveforms that map this activity over the surface of the skull. → "spontaneous signal"
• Evoked potentials or evoked response, which map conduction of neuronal activity along the
pathways in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and central nervous system (CNS) in
response to stimuli, provide information that complements the EEG. The common stimulation
site: visual, auditory, somatosensory. → "stimulated or specific signal"
• Together, EEGs and EPs provide an expanding window on brain function.

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 Cerebrum
2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Anatomy and functions of the brain

• The central nervous system

(CNS) is the part of the
nervous system consisting of
the brain and spinal cord.
• Brain makes the largest
portion of central nervous
system (CNS)
• Both brain and spinal cord are

Central nervous system (CNS)

immersed in cerebral spinal
fluid (CSF)
• Three main components:
brainstem, cerebellum and
cerebrum, a large part of the
brain containing the cerebral
cortex (of the two cerebral
hemispheres), as well as
several subcortical structures.
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 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Anatomy and functions of the brain

• The central nervous system

(CNS) is the part of the
nervous system consisting of
the brain and spinal cord.
• Brain makes the largest
portion of central nervous
system (CNS)
• Both brain and spinal cord are
immersed in cerebral spinal
fluid (CSF)
• Three main components: • Brain is protected by eight bones that
brainstem, cerebellum and surround your brain: one frontal bone; two
cerebrum, a large part of the parietal bones, two temporal bones, one
brain containing the cerebral occipital bone, one sphenoid bone and one
cortex (of the two cerebral ethmoid bone.
hemispheres), as well as • These eight bones make up the cranium.
several subcortical structures. • The skull is composed of two parts: the
cranium and the mandible.
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 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Anatomy and functions of the brain

• The central nervous system

(CNS) is the part of the
nervous system consisting of
the brain and spinal cord.
• Brain makes the largest
portion of central nervous
system (CNS)
• Both brain and spinal cord are
immersed in cerebral spinal
fluid (CSF) • The spinal cord is a bundle of nerve fibers,
no thicker than the human thumb, that links
• Three main components: the brain with the rest of the body.
brainstem, cerebellum and • The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral
cerebrum, a large part of the column.
brain containing the cerebral • The vertebral column usually consists of 33
cortex (of the two cerebral vertebrae: 24 presacral vertebrae (7 cervical,
hemispheres), as well as 12 thoracic, and 5 lumbar) followed by the
sacrum (5 fused sacral vertebrae) and the
several subcortical structures.
coccyx (4 frequently fused coccygeal
6 vertebrae).
 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Anatomy and functions of the brain

• The central nervous system

(CNS) is the part of the
nervous system consisting of
the brain and spinal cord.
• Brain makes the largest
portion of central nervous
system (CNS)
• Both brain and spinal cord are
immersed in cerebral spinal
fluid (CSF)
• Three main components:
brainstem, cerebellum and
cerebrum, a large part of the
brain containing the cerebral
cortex (of the two cerebral
hemispheres), as well as
several subcortical structures.
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 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Anatomy and functions of the brain
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
• The central nervous system
(CNS) is the part of the
nervous system consisting of
the brain and spinal cord.
• Brain makes the largest
portion of central nervous
system (CNS)
• Both brain and spinal cord are
immersed in cerebral spinal
fluid (CSF)
• Three main components:
brainstem, cerebellum and
cerebrum, a large part of the
brain containing the cerebral
cortex (of the two cerebral
hemispheres), as well as
several subcortical structures.
8
 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Anatomy and functions of the brain

• The central nervous system

(CNS) is the part of the
nervous system consisting of
the brain and spinal cord.
• Brain makes the largest
portion of central nervous
system (CNS)
• Both brain and spinal cord are
immersed in cerebral spinal
fluid (CSF)
• Three main components:
brainstem, cerebellum and
cerebrum, a large part of the
brain containing the cerebral
cortex (of the two cerebral
hemispheres), as well as
several subcortical structures.
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 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Anatomy and functions of the brain
Main structure:
Brainstem: the oldest part of the brain
• Passes all the nerve fibers that relay
signals between the spinal cord and the
forebrain or cerebellum .
• Contains the reticular formation and its
integrating centers for cardiovascular and
respiratory activity.
Cerebellum
• Coordinates movements, including those
for posture and balance etc.
• Receives and processes the information
from muscles, joints, skin, eye and ears, The human brain contains about 85-86
viscera, and parts of brain involved in billion neurons, of which 16.3 billion are in
control of movement; participates the cerebral cortex and 69 billion in the
learning. cerebellum

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 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Anatomy and functions of the brain
Main structure:
Thalamus:
• Is a synaptic relay station or gateway for
sensory pathways on their way to the
cerebral cortex.
• Participates in control of skeletal-muscle
activity.

Hypothalamus:
• Regulate body temperature, water
balance, eating/drinking behavior,
reproduction system and etc.
• Participates in generation of emotional
behavior.

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 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Anatomy and functions of the brain

Main structure:
Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres)
• Is a paired structure with right and left cerebral
hemispheres, each relating to opposite side of the
body. The hemispheres consist of several layers.
• Consist of the surface layer called cortex or gray
matter, which is rich in nerve cells and about
averaged 3~5mm thick and divided in four lobes:
frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal;
• The deeper layer consists of white matter or
axons.
• Contains the cerebral cortex, which
participates in perception, the generation
of skilled movement, reasoning, learning
and memory.
• Contains subcortical nuclei, which
participate in coordination of skeleton-
muscle activity
12 • Contains interconnecting fiber pathways.
 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Anatomy and functions of the brain

Cerebral cortex: functions

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 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Anatomy and functions of the brain

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 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Measurement of electric activities in brain

𝑃𝑃 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃
𝛷𝛷𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟⃑ =
4𝜋𝜋𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟 2

Biopotential signals measured

from skull must be dominated
by the activities in cortex!

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 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Histologic anatomy of the cerebral cortex
• The functional part of the cerebral
cortex is composed mainly of a thin
layer of neurons 2 to 5 mm in
thickness, covering the surface of
cerebrum. The total cerebral cortex
probably contains 16 billion
(~1.6×1010 ) or more neurons.

Most of the cells:

• Granular cells have short axons
radially arranged.
• Pyramidal and fusiform cells give sire
to almost all of the output fibers from
the cortex. Pyramidal cells are larger
and more numerous than fusiform
cells. They are the source of the long,
large nerve fibers that go all the way
to the spinal cord .
16 (a) Golgi stain, (b) Nissl cellular stain, and (c) myelin sheath stain
 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Histologic anatomy of the cerebral cortex
2 to 5 mm

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 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)

Neuroanatomy

18
 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)

• Neurons communicate with each

other through synapses, the space
between one nerve cell and the
beginning of another.
• Synapses include the presynaptic
terminal of one cell, which in
response to an action potential
conducted along its length, releases
small vesicles containing
neurotransmitters that, in turn, bind
to the membrane of the postsynaptic
terminal of the target cell. This
causes a postsynaptic potential
(PSPs) signal. The communication
between neurons is a chemical
process.

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 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)

• Neurons communicate with each other through synapses, the space between one nerve cell and the
beginning of another.
• Synapses include the presynaptic terminal of one cell, which in response to an action potential
conducted along its length, releases small vesicles containing neurotransmitters that, in turn, bind to
the membrane of the postsynaptic terminal of the target cell. This causes a postsynaptic potential
(PSPs) signal. The communication between neurons is a chemical process.

20
 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)

• Neurons communicate with each other through synapses, the space between one nerve cell and the
beginning of another.
• Synapses include the presynaptic terminal of one cell, which in response to an action potential
conducted along its length, releases small vesicles containing neurotransmitters that, in turn, bind to
the membrane of the postsynaptic terminal of the target cell. This causes a postsynaptic potential
(PSPs) signal. The communication between neurons is a chemical process.

21
 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
• Exitatory chemical synaptic transmission (positive
potential) and inhibitory transmission.
• Changes in membrane potential of the cell are
summed in the body (axon hillock region),
resulting in PSPs. When membrane potential
increases beyond a threshold value, an action
potential is generated. The AP depolarizes the
target cell, causing it to release
neurotransmitters from its presynaptic terminals
onto postsynaptic terminals of other cells.

Exitatory
• In summary, apical dendrite of pyramidal cells are
similarly oriented and densely packed in the
superficial layers of the cortex. The excitatory and
inhibitory synaptic terminals form different
dipoles with the cell body. The EEG signals are
originated from the constantly changing current
dipole based on the cell-dendrite relationship. The Inhibitory
observed EEG signal is the summation of all
dipole potentials.
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 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)

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 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Summation (signal processing in a neuron)
• Excitory PSPs summate to induce an action potential
• Summation of inhibitory PSPs and excitory PSPs cancel each other out

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 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Summation (signal processing in a neuron)
• Excitory PSPs summate to induce an action potential
• Summation of inhibitory PSPs and excitory PSPs cancel each other out

𝑁𝑁

𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = � 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑖𝑖

𝑖𝑖

When 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 > 𝑉𝑉𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

→ AP is sent out

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 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Brain's activity map makes stable 'fingerprint'
Presented in the journal Nature Neuroscience in 2015, neuroscientists have found that the
map is stable enough that the researchers could pick one person's pattern from a set of
126, by matching it to a functional MRI (fMRI) scan taken on another day. The findings
demonstrate a surprising stability in this "functional fingerprint" of the brain.

26
 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
The Source of Electroencephalographic potentials
• The cortical neurons are orderly arranged
along the axis normal to the cortical surface.
Cortex generally consists of six layers
containing neurons and bundle fibers.
• The electrical activity occurs along the
dendrite.
• Non-pyramidal cells are small and have their
dendrite radially arranged. → relatively
symmetrical distribution.
• Pyramidal cells consist of long apical
dendrite up to a few mm; The long apical
dendrites are almost parallel to each other
and vertical to the cortical surface; The base
of the cells have dense branches arranged
largely horizontally; Pyramidal cells are the
major sources of electrical signals of brain.
• If the cells are randomly arranged, do you
expect to observe the EEG signal?Why
electrical activity of pyramidal cell
27 contributes much more than other cells?
 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
The Source of Electroencephalographic potentials
• The cortical neurons are orderly arranged Granular cells: small, radically arranged
along the axis normal to the cortical surface.
Cortex generally consists of six layers 𝑃𝑃 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃
𝛷𝛷𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟⃑ =
containing neurons and bundle fibers. 4𝜋𝜋𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟 2
• The electrical activity occurs along the
dendrite.
• Non-pyramidal cells are small and have their (1)
Φ𝑒𝑒 = Φ𝑒𝑒 + Φ𝑒𝑒 + Φ𝑒𝑒
(2) (3)

dendrite radially arranged. → relatively (𝑖𝑖) (𝑁𝑁)

……+ Φ𝑒𝑒 + ⋯ + Φ𝑒𝑒
symmetrical distribution.
(𝑖𝑖)
• Pyramidal cells consist of long apical Φ𝑒𝑒 = 𝑐𝑐 cos 𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖
dendrite up to a few mm; The long apical
dendrites are almost parallel to each other r → size of cell body + length of apical dendrite
and vertical to the cortical surface; The base (1)
of the cells have dense branches arranged Φ𝑒𝑒 = 𝑐𝑐 cos 𝜃𝜃1
largely horizontally; Pyramidal cells are the = 𝑐𝑐 cos(𝜃𝜃1 +𝜋𝜋) ≈ −𝑐𝑐 cos 𝜃𝜃4
major sources of electrical signals of brain.
(4)
• If the cells are randomly arranged, do you ≈ −Φ𝑒𝑒
expect to observe the EEG signal?Why (1) (4)
Φ𝑒𝑒 + Φ𝑒𝑒 ≈0
electrical activity of pyramidal cell
28 contributes much more than other cells? → Canceled
 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
The Source of Electroencephalographic potentials
• The cortical neurons are orderly arranged Granular cells: small, radically arranged
along the axis normal to the cortical surface.
Cortex generally consists of six layers 𝑃𝑃 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃
𝛷𝛷𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟⃑ =
containing neurons and bundle fibers. 4𝜋𝜋𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟 2
• The electrical activity occurs along the
dendrite.
• Non-pyramidal cells are small and have their (1)
Φ𝑒𝑒 = Φ𝑒𝑒 + Φ𝑒𝑒 + Φ𝑒𝑒
(2) (3)

dendrite radially arranged. → relatively (𝑖𝑖) (𝑁𝑁)

……+ Φ𝑒𝑒 + ⋯ + Φ𝑒𝑒
symmetrical distribution.
(𝑖𝑖)
• Pyramidal cells consist of long apical Φ𝑒𝑒 = 𝑐𝑐 cos 𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖
dendrite up to a few mm; The long apical
dendrites are almost parallel to each other r → size of cell body + length of apical dendrite
and vertical to the cortical surface; The base
(3) (7)
of the cells have dense branches arranged Φ𝑒𝑒 ≈ −Φ𝑒𝑒 (𝜃𝜃7 ≈ 𝜃𝜃3 + 𝜋𝜋)
largely horizontally; Pyramidal cells are the
major sources of electrical signals of brain. (1) (2) (5) (4)
Φ𝑒𝑒 + Φ𝑒𝑒 ≈ −(Φ𝑒𝑒 + Φ𝑒𝑒 )
• If the cells are randomly arranged, do you
expect to observe the EEG signal?Why
electrical activity of pyramidal cell → Canceled
29 contributes much more than other cells?
 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
The Source of Electroencephalographic potentials
Pyramidal cells: Large, long
• The cortical neurons are orderly arranged dendrite vertically arranged
along the axis normal to the cortical surface.
Cortex generally consists of six layers 𝑃𝑃 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃
containing neurons and bundle fibers. 𝛷𝛷𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟⃑ =
4𝜋𝜋𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟 2
• The electrical activity occurs along the
dendrite.

Inhibitory
• Non-pyramidal cells are small and have their
dendrite radially arranged. → relatively
Net dipole= Σ dipole|i ≠ 0
symmetrical distribution.
• Pyramidal cells consist of long apical
dendrite up to a few mm; The long apical
dendrites are almost parallel to each other 𝑃𝑃 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃
𝛷𝛷𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟⃑ =
and vertical to the cortical surface; The base 4𝜋𝜋𝜎𝜎𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟 2
of the cells have dense branches arranged
largely horizontally; Pyramidal cells are the
major sources of electrical signals of brain.
Exitatory
• If the cells are randomly arranged, do you Net dipole= Σ dipole|i ≠ 0
expect to observe the EEG signal?Why
electrical activity of pyramidal cell
30 contributes much more than other cells?
 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
• Electrogenesis of cortical field potentials for a net excitatory input to the apical dendritic
tree of a typical pyramidal cell:

Net dipole 𝑃𝑃

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 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
• For the case of a net inhibitory input, polarity is reversed and the apical region becomes a
source (+):

Net dipole 𝑃𝑃

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 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)

• Scalp-recorded EEG signals (brain wave) are the result of summated field potentials generated
by EPSPs and IPSPs in vertically oriented pyramidal cells of the cortex.

• Much of the time, the brain waves are irregular, and no general pattern can be
discussed in the EEG.
• Sometimes, brain wave is undetectable. WHY?
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 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
• At other times, distinct patterns do appear. Both intensity and patterns of this electrical activity
are determined to a great extent by the overall level of excitation of the brain resulting from
sleep, wakefulness and brain diseases such a epilepsy and even some psychoses.
• Typical brain waves occur in normal person:
8~13 Hz
(b) Replacement of alpha rhythm by an asynchronous

14~30 Hz
(a) Different types of normal EEG waves,

discharge when patient opens eyes

4~7 Hz

< 3.5 Hz

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 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Typical brain waves occur in normal person:

“Alpha waves”: 8~13 Hz

• Are found in the EEGs of almost all normal
adult persons when they are awake in a quiet,
resting state of cerebration.
• Occur most intensely in the occipital region
but also can be recorded from parietal and
frontal regions of the scalp.
• Disappear entirely during deep sleep.
• Likely originate from the spontaneous activity
in the nonspecific thalamocortical system,
which causes both the periodicity of the alpha
waves and synchronous activation of millions
of neurons. Evidence: disconnect path to
thalamus causes disappearing of alpha waves.

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 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Typical brain waves occur in normal person:

“Beta waves”: 14~30 Hz

Mostly recorded from parietal and frontal
regions of the scalp during CNS activation and
during tension.

“Theta waves”: 4~7 Hz

Occur in the parietal and temporal regions in
children, but they also occur during emotional
stress in some adults, particularly during
disappointment and frustration.

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 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Typical brain waves occur in normal person:

“Delta waves”: < 3.5 Hz

• Include all the waves of the EEG below 3.5
Hz and sometimes as low as 1cycle every 2-3
seconds.
• Occur in very deep sleep, in infancy, and in
serious organic brain disease.
• Are caused by some synchronization
mechanism in the cortical neurons
themselves. Evidence : delta waves also occur
when the paths to lower regions of brain are
blocked.

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 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Origin in the brain of the brain waves: a summary

• The discharge of a single neuron or single nerve fiber in the brain can never be recorded
from the surface of the head.
• The EEG signal must be the summation of the potential of thousands, even millions of
neurons or fibers fired synchronously.
• Even very strong non-synchronous nerve signals can cancel each other and will not be
detected.
Example: replacement of the alpha rhythm by an asynchronous discharge
on opening the eyes

• The brain waves electrical potentials are generated mainly from cortical layers I and
II, especially from the large amount of dendrites of pyramidal cells locate deeper in
the cortex.

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2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Brain wave measurement system
• Standard noninvasive EEG record the potential
Map of field potentials on scalp difference, or voltage, between two locations on
the scalp.
• Typical amplitude: 50 to hundreds of µV;
several µI
• Frequency range: 0.5 - 100 Hz
• Electrode: Ag/AgCl

Electrode-scalp interface – equivalent circuit.

2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Brain wave measurement system

Electrodes:
2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Brain wave measurement system
• In clinical practice, EEG electrodes are arranged on the scalp according to a standard 10-20
system recommended by International Federation of EEG Societies.
• The system calls for placement of electrodes at distances of 10% and 20% of measured
coronal, sagittal and circumferential arcs between landmarks on the cranium.

Position names:
Fp – frontal polar; F – frontal; C –central; P –parietal; T –temporal; O –occipital.
Odd numbers refer to electrodes on the left side; even numbers refer to those on the right.
2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Brain wave measurement system
• EEG record the potential difference, or voltage, between two locations on the scalp.
2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Brain wave measurement system
• EEG record the potential difference, or voltage, between two locations on the scalp.
2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Brain wave measurement system
• EEG record the potential difference, or voltage, between two locations on the scalp.
2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Brain wave measurement system

Basic specifications:
• Gain: 5,000-100,000
(standard sensitivity: 7 µV;
minimal sensitivity: 1 µV.
• CMRR: 80-100 dB
2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Brain wave measurement system
Artifacts:
• EEG measurements are usually conducted when patient has eyes closed and in resting state
→ minimize the stimulation
2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Brain wave measurement system

Invasive EEG measurement for brain surgery or special treatment:

 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Making use of brain wave: study of sleep disorder

• Many study have indicated that sleep is an active period in which a lot of important
processing, restoration, and strengthening occurs.
• Exactly how this happens and why our bodies are programmed for such a long period of
slumber is still somewhat of a mystery. But scientists do understand some of sleep's critical
functions, and the reasons we need it for optimal health and wellbeing.
• A sleep disorder, or somnipathy, is a medical disorder of the sleep patterns of a person or
animal. Some sleep disorders are serious enough to interfere with normal physical, mental,
social and emotional functioning.
NREM – Non-rapid eye movement
REN – Rapid eye movement

48
 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Making use of brain wave: study of sleep disorder

49
 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Making use of brain wave: study of sleep disorder
Sleep-wakefulness stage Behavior EEG
Alert wakefulness Awake, alert with eye open. Beta rhythm (> 13 Hz)
Relaxed drowsiness Fatigued, tired, or bored; eyelids may Decrease in alpha-wave
narrow and close; head may start to droop; amplitude and frequency
momentary lapses of attention and
alertness. Sleepy but not asleep.
Slow-wave sleep Light sleep; easily arouse by moderate self or Continuous decreasing in
Stage I
environment stimuli. amplitude and frequency of
alpha wave (4-8 Hz).

Stage 2 Further lack of sensitivity to activation and

Alpha wave replaced by random
arousal
wave with greater amplitude

Stage 3 and 4 Deep sleep; in stage 4, activation and

arousal occur Much theta and delta activity
only with vigorous stimulation.

Paradoxical (REM) Deepest sleep; greatest relaxation and EEG resembles that of alert
sleep difficult of arousal; begins 50-90 min after awake state.
sleep onset, lasting about I 0 min and
repeated every 60-90 min. Dreaming
occurs, rapid eye movements behind closed
eyelids. Marked increase in brain oxygen
consumption.
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 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Making use of brain wave: diagnosis of brain disorders

Normal scalp EEG signals

• are an electrical signal that contains both frequency and spatial information. The main
components are activities in four major frequency ranges: alpha (8-12 Hz), beta (>12Hz),
theta (4-7 Hz) and delta (<4 Hz). A wide range of normal exists in the EEG.
• Are usually continuous, symmetric (between homologous areas), show standard reactivity in
response to specific states and do not display any of a number of clearly abnormal patterns.

Abnormal EEG Signals

• Include significant asymmetries between homologous areas.
• Show patterns taking the form of focally increased or decreased amplitude, frequency or
rhythmicity. These changes are frequently seen in focal cerebral injuries: stroke, trauma, focal
infectious, or neoplastic lesions.
• Correspond to the diagnosis of specific disease such as epileptic syndromes.

Examples:

• Application of EEG in diagnosis of different types of epilepsy and in localization of the focus in
the brain causing the disease.
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 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Making use of brain wave: diagnosis of brain disorders
Generalized epilepsy
• Is caused by extreme discharges of neurons
originating in the brainstem. Experiments on
animals have shown that grand mal epilepsy
attack is caused by intrinsic hyperexitability of
the neurons in the reticular activation system
(RAS) structures or by neural pathway in this
system.
• Generates the alpha wave like signal all over the
brain.
Partial epilepsy
• Is caused by a lesion in specific location of brain
such as cortex or deeper structure. The lesions
almost always result from a scar, tumor or
destroyed region of brain tissue.
• Can be localized by analyzing the EEG recorded
from different montages. Once the focus point is
located, surgical excision of the focus point may
52 prevent future epileptic seizure.
2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Brain wave measurement system
Processed brain wave:
Section of EEG:
a. A typical waveform broken down into its
frequency components.
b. Frequency spectrum for the waveform
2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Brain wave measurement system
Processed brain wave: Brain electrical activity mapping (BEAM)
• EEG data is divided into basic frequency bands such as alpha, beta, theta and delta by FFT
analysis.
• The power in each band is calculated.
• Each frequency band can be selected and assigned a color or shade of grey, and displayed over
the scalp map. → Easy to visualize the frequency band distribution over the scalp and localize
the signal source.
1-4 Hz 4-8 Hz 8-12 Hz 12-30 Hz
2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Brain wave measurement system
Processed brain wave: Brain electrical activity mapping (BEAM)
• EEG data is divided into basic frequency bands such as alpha, beta, theta and delta by FFT
analysis.
• The power in each band is calculated.
• Each frequency band can be selected and assigned a color or shade of grey, and displayed over
the scalp map. → Easy to visualize the frequency band distribution over the scalp and localize
the signal source.
 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Brain wave measurement system
Processed brain wave: Compressed Spectral Array (CSA)
• The frequency spectra of one or more channels of EEG is calculated periodically over
consecutive epochs of time, such as every five minutes (length of the segment), using FFT.
• The resulting spectra are displayed in a cascaded format vertically. → Allows easy identification
of change in frequency components over time.

Compressed spectral array (CSA)

data displayed on a head map
2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Brain wave measurement system
Processed brain wave: Compressed Spectral Array (CSA)
 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Example: Somatosensory EP recordings
Evoked Potential (EP) during median nerve stimulation

• Conduction along the sensory and motor

pathways of the nervous system can be
measured electrically by placing
electrodes over relevant neural
structures. The recorded neural sign,
when coupled to a sensory stimulus or
movement, are called evoked potential
(EP) or evoked responses.
• EP signals clinically evaluate the integrity
of various segments of the sensory or
motor-conducting pathway.
• The delay of EP signal at different
measurement locations reflects the
conduction velocity between various
neural structures.
 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Evoked Potential (EP)

Example: Visual evoked response recording

• Conduction along the sensory and motor
pathways of the nervous system can be
measured electrically by placing
electrodes over relevant neural
structures. The recorded neural sign,
when coupled to a sensory stimulus or
movement, are called evoked potential
(EP) or evoked responses.
• EP signals clinically evaluate the integrity
of various segments of the sensory or
motor-conducting pathway.
• The delay of EP signal at different
measurement locations reflects the
conduction velocity between various
neural structures.
 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Auditory event-related potential with
Evoked Potential (EP) number of averaged trial ~400

Difficulties in signal measurements

• EPs are very small, typically 0.2 to 5 µV in
amplitude, and over overshadowed by
background electroencephalographic activities,
with its usual amplitude of 20 to 100 µV and by
other sources of electric noises (muscle activity,
ECG, artifacts).
• Eps is correspondent to the stimulus. Therefore,
it is precisely synchronized to the stimulation.
Signals of other sources of noise are asynchronous
and irregular. → Extracting the Eps from the
large nose background by averaging:

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ∝ 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

• In general, EP amplitude often measures 1/10

that of background EEG and other unwanted
signals. To obtain SNR~2, a 20-times 20-times
enhancement of SNR is necessary.
 2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Evoked Potential (EP) Example: A general EP recording system

• Conduction along the sensory and motor

pathways of the nervous system can be
measured electrically by placing
electrodes over relevant neural
structures. The recorded neural sign,
when coupled to a sensory stimulus or
movement, are called evoked potential
(EP) or evoked responses.
• EP signals clinically evaluate the integrity
of various segments of the sensory or
motor-conducting pathway.
• The delay of EP signal at different
measurement locations reflects the
conduction velocity between various
neural structures.
2.8 Electroencephalography (EEG)
Evoked Potential (EP)
The recording techniques
• The EP signal amplitudes vary significantly between different sensory modalities,
requiring different parameters for various EP tests.

VER(VEP) –Visual evoked response (potential); BAER –Brainstem auditory evoked response
SEP –Somatosensory evoked potential; ERP –Event-related potential, psychological response to stimuli.