ELEC4810: Introduction To Biosensors and Bioinstrumentation: Lecture Notes - Set #8

ELEC4810: Introduction to
Biosensors and Bioinstrumentation

Lecture Notes – Set #8
ELEC4810
Textbook: Chapter 8, 2
Chapter 3
Measurements of Blood Pressure and Blood Flow
Main Topics:
• Present the principles of hemodynamic pressure measurements
of human cardiovascular system.
• Discuss the interpretation of the results of current blood
pressure and flow measurement techniques.
2
Noninvasive measurement of blood flow: Ultrasonic Flowmeter
• Measure time-varying flow of blood.
• Penetrate the tissue → making the non-invasive monitoring practical.
3
Doppler Ultrasonic Flowmeters:
Doppler effect
Blood flow in vessel
4
Doppler Geometry
• In most Doppler sensors both the transmitter (or transducer) and receiver are
stationary, and they illuminate a moving target to measure its velocity.
• Radar speed guns, like other types of radar, consist of a radio transmitter and
receiver. They send out a radio signal in a narrow beam, then receive the same signal
back after it bounces off the target object.
• Due to a phenomenon called the Doppler effect, if the object is moving toward or
away from the gun, the frequency of the reflected radio waves when they come back is
5
different from the transmitted waves.
Doppler effect
6
Human Vocal Sound Production
• The vocal folds (vocal cords) are composed of twin infoldings of mucous membrane
stretched horizontally, from back to front, across the larynx.
• Sound is the generalized name given to “acoustic waves” that is basically a waveform of energy
that is produced by some form of a mechanical vibration.
• Diaphragm action pushes air from the lungs through the elastic vocal folds to producing audible
vibrations or sound. The process is called phonation.
• The acoustic waves have frequencies ranging from 1Hz up to many tens of thousands of Hz with
7
the upper limit of human hearing being around the 20 kHz, (20,000Hz) range.
Sound is a pressure wave

• Sound waves traveling through air are longitudinal waves with compressions and rarefactions.
• The sound pressure or acoustic pressure caused by a sound wave is, the local pressure deviation
from the ambient atmospheric pressure, is high in the compression regions and low in
rarefaction regions.
Rarefaction Compression
(low pressure) (high pressure)
𝑽𝑽
Wavelength 𝝀𝝀 = → spatial period of a wave.
𝒇𝒇
8
The transducer:
• Generation of ultrasound wave: a piezoelectric material converts power from electric
to acoustic form.
 Piezoelectric Effect is the ability of certain materials to generate an electric charge
in response to applied mechanical stress.
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 0 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑉𝑉 = 0 𝑉𝑉 → " − "
𝑉𝑉 → " + "
9
The transducer:
to acoustic form.
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 0 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝐴𝐴
𝐶𝐶 = 𝜀𝜀
𝑑𝑑
𝑄𝑄
𝐶𝐶 =
𝑉𝑉
𝑑𝑑 � 𝑄𝑄
𝑉𝑉 =
𝜀𝜀𝜀𝜀
V = “0” V = “–” V = “+”

10
The transducer:
to acoustic form.
 One of the unique characteristics of the piezoelectric effect is that it is reversible,
meaning that materials exhibiting the direct piezoelectric effect (the generation of
electricity when stress is applied) also exhibit the converse piezoelectric effect (the
generation of stress when an electric field is applied).
Repulsive force Attractive force
𝑽𝑽−
𝑽𝑽+
𝑽𝑽−
Contracts
𝑽𝑽+ Expands
11
The transducer:
to acoustic form.
Driving signal
+ + + + + +
0
− − − − − −
"+: 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓
"−: 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄
A realistic transducer
12
The ultrasound sensor or receiver:
• Generation of voltage signal when pressure is applied: a piezoelectric material converts
power from acoustic to electric form.
"𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄: − "
Received signal
"𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓: + "
13
The transducer:
• A piezoelectric material converts power from electric to acoustic form.
• Lead zirconate titanate, a crystal with highest conversion efficiency can be molded into
any shape by melting. For maximal efficiency, the crystal is one-half wavelength thick.
• The watery gel must be used to fill the gap between the transducer and tissue surface to
reduce the reflection. ← matching of acoustic impedance.
14
Interaction between ultrasound and tissue:

 Power decays exponentially as the increasing of the depth due to the tissue absorption. The
absorption coefficient is proportional to frequency.
 Power scattered back from the moving red cells in the blood stream is proportional to f 4
 The usual compromised frequency range: 2 - 10 MHz.
Speed of sound:
• ~340 m/s in air at sea level
• ~1,500 m/s in soft tissue
• ~3,500 m/s in hard tissue
15
The transducer:
• A piezoelectric material converts power from electric to acoustic form.
• Near field distance:
𝑽𝑽
where wavelength 𝝀𝝀 = 𝒇𝒇 → special period of a wave.
• Far field divergent angle:

Near and far fields for various transducer
diameters and frequencies. Beams are
drawn to scale, passing through a 10-mm-
diameter vessel. Transducer diameters are
5, 2, and 1mm. Solid lines are for 1.5 MHz,
dashed lines for 7.5 MHz.
16
Phased array ultrasonics:
• Phased array ultrasonics (PA) is an advanced method of ultrasonic testing that has applications in medical imaging.
• The PA probe consists of many small ultrasonic transducers, each of which can be pulsed independently.
• By varying the timing, for instance by making the pulse from each transducer progressively delayed going up the
line, a pattern of constructive interference is set up that results in radiating a quasi-plane ultrasonic beam at a set
angle depending on the progressive time delay.
• In other words, by changing the progressive time delay the beam can be steered electronically. It can be swept like a
search-light through the tissue or object being examined, and the data from multiple beams are put together to
make a visual image showing a slice through the object.
17
Doppler effect
18
Doppler effect:
• When a sound source moves relative to an observer, a frequency shift can be noted consisting
of an apparent shift to a higher frequency as the source approaches to the observer and an
apparent shift to a lower frequency as it moves away.
19
Doppler effect:
• The stationary observer hears a frequency:
𝑐𝑐
𝑓𝑓 = 𝑐𝑐
𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆 =
𝑓𝑓
• The crest velocity observed by the person on the
platform traveling at a velocity V, however , will be
c - V. Furthermore, the wavelength of the sound ,
unaffected by the platform, remains the same.
Therefore, the person hears a frequency fm of:
𝑐𝑐 − 𝑉𝑉
𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚 =
𝜆𝜆
• Taking the ratio of these two equations gives
𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉
=1− 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚 = 1 − 𝑓𝑓
𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐
𝑉𝑉 𝑐𝑐
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠: 𝑓𝑓𝐷𝐷 = 𝑓𝑓 − 𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚 = � 𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑉𝑉 = � 𝑓𝑓𝐷𝐷 Velocity can be measured!
20 𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑓
Doppler effect:
Sound wave: c, fs , λ
Source Receiver
𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅
𝑐𝑐 − 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓: 𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 = � 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 (Detailed derivations are provided in handout.)
𝑐𝑐 − 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 − 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠: 𝑓𝑓𝐷𝐷 = 𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 − 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 = � 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠
𝑐𝑐 − 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

21
Doppler Geometry
• Radar speed guns, like other types of radar, consist of a radio transmitter and
receiver. They send out a radio signal in a narrow beam, then receive the same signal
back after it bounces off the target object.
• Due to a phenomenon called the Doppler effect, if the object is moving toward or
away from the gun, the frequency of the reflected radio waves when they come back is
22
different from the transmitted waves.
Doppler Geometry
• A general Doppler measurement geometry is shown below:
Doppler geometry: separated transducers
What is the relationship between Doppler shift (𝑓𝑓𝐷𝐷 = 𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 −𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 ) and the target velocity, V?
23
Doppler Geometry
• A simplest Doppler measurement geometry: 𝜃𝜃𝑡𝑡 = 𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟 = 0
Target
Source
Receiver
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖
Source Receiver
−𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 − 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 2𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖

𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠: 𝑓𝑓𝐷𝐷 = 𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 − 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 = � 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑓𝐷𝐷 = − � 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠
𝑐𝑐 − 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖
24
Doppler Geometry
• A simplest Doppler measurement geometry: 𝜃𝜃𝑡𝑡 = 𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟 = 0
Target
Source
Receiver
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖
Under the case in physiological systems, c >> Vi
2𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐
𝑓𝑓𝐷𝐷 = − � 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 = −𝑓𝑓𝐷𝐷
𝑐𝑐 + 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 2𝑓𝑓
25
Doppler Geometry
• A realistic Doppler measurement geometry: 𝜃𝜃𝑡𝑡 = 𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟 = 𝜃𝜃
Source
Receiver 𝜃𝜃
𝑐𝑐
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃 = −𝑓𝑓𝐷𝐷
2𝑓𝑓
𝑐𝑐
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 = −𝑓𝑓𝐷𝐷
2𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝜃𝜃
26
Doppler Geometry
• A realistic Doppler measurement geometry: 𝜃𝜃𝑡𝑡 ≠ 𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖
Source Receiver
−𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 − 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 𝑐𝑐
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠: 𝑓𝑓𝐷𝐷 = 𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 − 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 = � 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 = −𝑓𝑓𝐷𝐷
𝑐𝑐 − 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑓 � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃𝑠𝑠 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟
27
Doppler Ultrasonic Flowmeters: a simple version
cosωst × cosωrt = 1/2[cos(ωs t + ωrt ) + cos(ωst − ωrt )]
= 1/2 cos(ωs + ωr)t + 1/2 cos(ωs − ωr )t
≈ 1/2 cos 2ωs t + 1/2 cos 2π fD t ( f >> fD )
𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 > 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑓𝑓𝐷𝐷 ~ 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
cosωst × cosωrt
cosωst
cosωst
and
cosωrt
𝑐𝑐
28 𝑓𝑓 � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃𝑠𝑠 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟
Doppler Ultrasonic Flowmeters: a simple version
cosωst × cosωrt = 1/2[cos(ωs t + ωrt ) + cos(ωst − ωrt )] = 1/2 cos(ωs + ωr)t + 1/2
cos(ωs − ωr )t ≈ 1/2 cos 2ωs t + 1/2 cos 2π fD t ( f >> fD )
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 = −𝑓𝑓𝐷𝐷 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 = −𝑓𝑓𝐷𝐷
𝑓𝑓 � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃𝑠𝑠 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟 2𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝜃𝜃
Problems:
• Tumbling of cells and local velocities resulting from turbulence cause different Doppler-
frequency shifts.
• Velocity profiles are rarely blunt, with all cells moving at the same velocity. Rather, cells
move at different velocities, producing different shifts of the Doppler frequency.
• A given cell remains within the beam-intersection volume for a short time. Thus the signal
received from one cell is a pure frequency multiplied by some time-gate function, yielding a
band of frequencies.
• Acoustic energy traveling within the main beam, but at angles to the beam axis, plus energy
in the side lobes, causes different Doppler-frequency shifts due to an effective change in θ.
• The instrument can not provide the direction of blood flow.
29
Doppler Ultrasonic Flowmeters: Quadrature-phase Detection
Trigonometric functions:
cos(ω s t + ϕ ) cos(ωr t ) =
1
[cos(ωst + ϕ + ωr t ) + cos(ωst + ϕ − ωr t )]
2
= [cos(ω s t + ϕ + ω r t ) + cos((ω s − ω r )t + ϕ )]
1
2
=
1
[cos(ω s t + ϕ + ωr t ) + cos(ωd t + ϕ )]
2
where ωd = 2πf d = ω s − ωr , ω s , ωr >> ωd
cos(ω s t ) cos(ωr t ) = cos(ω s t + ωr t ) + cos(ωd t )

1 1
If ϕ = 0  cosine channel:
2 2
If ϕ = -90°  sine channel:
cos(ω s t − 90°) cos(ωr t ) = cos(ω s t + ωr t − 90°) + cos(ωd t − 90°)

1 1
2 2
sin (ω s t ) cos(ωr t ) = sin (ω s t + ωr t ) + sin (ωd t )
1 1
30 2 2
• Low-pass filtering
cosine channel: ∝ cos ω d t = cos(2πf d t ) = cos(2π f d t )
= sin (ω d t ) = cos(ω d t − 90°) ω d > 0

∝ sin ω d t = sin (2πf d t ) =
= sin (− ω d t ) = cos(ω d t + 90°) ω d < 0
sine channel:
● If the blood cells move away from the ultrasound: ωd > 0 , there is
a +90° phase difference between cosine and sine channels.
● If the blood cells move toward the ultrasound: ωd < 0 , there is a

−90° phase difference between cosine and sine channels.
31
Low-pass filtered cosine channel (solid line) and sine channel (dash line):
sine channel: ∝ sin ωd t = sin (2πf d t ) = cos( ωd t − 90°) ωd > 0

32
Low-pass filtered cosine channel (solid line) and sine channel (dash line):
sine channel: ∝ sin ωd t = sin (2πf d t ) = cos( ωd t + 90°) ωd < 0

33
Directional Doppler block diagram (a) Quadrature-phase detector: Sine and cosine signals at
the carrier frequency are summed with the RF output before detection. The output C from the
cosine channel then leads (or lags) the output S from the sine channel if the flow is away from (or
toward) the transducer. (b) Logic circuits route one-shot pulses through the top (or bottom) AND
gate when the flow is away from (or toward) the transducer. The differential amplifier provides
bidirectional output pulses that are then filtered.
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜔𝜔𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡 × 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜔𝜔𝐷𝐷 𝑡𝑡
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜔𝜔𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜔𝜔𝐷𝐷 𝑡𝑡
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜔𝜔𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡 × 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
34
“1”
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜔𝜔𝐷𝐷 𝑡𝑡
“0” “−”
“0” “+”
“1”
“1”
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜔𝜔𝐷𝐷 𝑡𝑡
“0”
cosine channel
sine channel: one-shot

35
Noninvasive measurement of blood flow: Laser Doppler Flowmeter
• Laser Doppler Flowmetry (LDF) is a non-invasive method to estimate the blood perfusion in
the microcirculation.
• It measures average blood flow in skin capillaries.
Sensory receptors
𝑐𝑐
𝑓𝑓 � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃𝑠𝑠 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟
𝑐𝑐
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 = −𝑓𝑓𝐷𝐷 Capillaries of different sizes and orientations
2𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝜃𝜃
36 → θ is NOT a constant.
𝑐𝑐
𝑓𝑓 � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃𝑠𝑠 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟
Distribution Distribution
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖
𝑓𝑓𝐷𝐷 = −𝑓𝑓 � � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃𝑠𝑠 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟
𝑐𝑐
• Scattering in tissue randomize the

propagation direction of light
• θ is a distribution instead of a constant. 𝑓𝑓𝐷𝐷
37
Representative results measured from human skin:
Power spectral density measured

Blood perfusion at finger tips.
at different perfusion
𝑓𝑓𝐷𝐷 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)
Distribution
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖
𝑓𝑓𝐷𝐷 = −𝑓𝑓 � � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃𝑠𝑠 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟
38 𝑐𝑐
Representative results measured from human skin
Microcirculatory skin testing

skincare products
39
Objective burn wound assessment
Accurate assessment of burn depth at an early stage is crucial to avoid unnecessary surgery or potential
hypertrophic scaring. It is clinically proven, that the status of the skin microcirculation can be used to estimate
burn depth. Superficial dermal burns will show a higher skin perfusion as compared to normal skin, whereas
the perfusion is compromised in deeper dermal burns.
40
You can do it: System configuration of blood flow sensor using a smartphone.
41
Pressure Transducers (refer to Chapter 2)
Principles:
• A diaphragm pressure transducer is used for low pressure measurement.
• Pressure-deflection relationship of a circular diaphragm
𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑 : 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

r
P0
P0
P> P0
Circular Diaphragm:
• radius: r 3(1−𝜇𝜇2 )𝑟𝑟 4
𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑 = 𝑃𝑃 circular diaphragm (small 𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑 )
16𝐸𝐸𝑤𝑤 3
• thickness: w
where
E = Young's modulus (N/ m2)
How to measure xd ? 𝜇𝜇 = Poisson's ratio (=0.33 for most metals)
42
Pressure Transducers (refer to Chapter 2)
Material properties:
• E = Young's modulus (N/ m2);
• 𝜇𝜇 = Poisson's ratio (=0.33 for most metals)
A: cross-section area
F: force
𝐹𝐹
𝐹𝐹 ∆𝑙𝑙 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = ; 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑔𝑔′ 𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐸𝐸 = = 𝐴𝐴
𝐴𝐴 𝑙𝑙 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ∆𝑙𝑙
𝑙𝑙
2
𝐷𝐷
∆ 𝜋𝜋 ∆𝐷𝐷 ∆𝐴𝐴
∆𝐴𝐴 2 2∆𝐷𝐷
= 2 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛′ 𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝜇𝜇 = − 𝐷𝐷 = − 𝐴𝐴
𝐴𝐴 𝐷𝐷 𝐷𝐷 ∆𝑙𝑙 ∆𝑙𝑙
𝜋𝜋 2 2�
𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙
43
Pressure Transducers
A small displacement measurement: Resistance Sensors
• Measures displacement by determining the change in resistance of a conductor by
its deformation under load.
The principle: Derivation:

𝜌𝜌 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 𝑙𝑙
∆𝑙𝑙 − ∆𝐴𝐴 +
Resistance: 𝑅𝑅 =
𝜌𝜌𝑙𝑙 ∆𝑅𝑅 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴2 𝐴𝐴 ∆𝜌𝜌
𝐴𝐴 =
𝑅𝑅 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
where ρ is resistivity (ohms.meter) 𝐴𝐴
and ∆𝑙𝑙 ∆𝐴𝐴 ∆𝜌𝜌
= − +
𝜌𝜌 𝜌𝜌𝑙𝑙
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑙 − 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑ρ
𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙 𝐴𝐴 𝜌𝜌
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴
allowing small variations → ∆𝑥𝑥 ≈ dx ∆𝐴𝐴
∆𝑙𝑙 ∆𝜌𝜌
= 1 − 2 𝐴𝐴 � +
∆𝑅𝑅 ∆𝑙𝑙 ∆𝜌𝜌 ∆𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙 𝜌𝜌
→ = 1 + 2𝜇𝜇 + 2�
𝑙𝑙
𝑅𝑅 𝑙𝑙 𝜌𝜌
∆𝑙𝑙 ∆𝜌𝜌
= 1 + 2𝜇𝜇 +
𝑙𝑙 𝜌𝜌
44
The Gauge (or gage) Factor:
• Is defined as the percentage, or fractional change in resistance divided by the percentage, or
fractional change in length.
∆𝑅𝑅/𝑅𝑅 ∆𝜌𝜌/𝜌𝜌
𝐺𝐺 = = 1 + 2𝜇𝜇 +
∆𝑙𝑙/𝑙𝑙 ∆𝑙𝑙/𝑙𝑙
Dimensional effect Piezoresistive effect
• Dimensional effect is a change in the electrical resistance of a metal when mechanical

strain is applied to cause the change of shape.
• For most metals, the dimensional effect is dominant: 𝜇𝜇 ≈ 0.3 and G = 2 to 5.
• The piezoresistive effect is a change in the electrical resistivity of a semiconductor or
metal when mechanical strain is applied.
• For most semiconductors, the piezoresistive effect is dominant: 𝜇𝜇 is small and G >
100. However, their temperature coefficients of resistivity are high → not thermally
stable.
45
46
• Measures displacement by determining the change in resistance of a conductor by
its deformation under load → measurement of small change in electrical resistance
Wheatstone Bridge 4-active-arm bridge
A B
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 ∆𝑅𝑅 ∆𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉0

𝑉𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 =
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖
𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅4
𝑉𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 −
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅4 ∆𝑅𝑅/𝑅𝑅 𝑙𝑙 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜
𝐺𝐺 = ∆𝐿𝐿 = �
∆𝑙𝑙/𝑙𝑙 𝐺𝐺 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖
If R1/R2 = R3/R4, then Vo = 0
 the bridge is balanced or nulled. 3(1−𝜇𝜇2 )𝑟𝑟 4
47 𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑 = 𝑃𝑃
16𝐸𝐸𝑤𝑤 3
• Integrated semiconductor diaphragm pressure transducer
• Use a silicon substrate for the structural membrane of the diaphragm.
• Diffuse the gage directly to the diaphragm
• Measure the difference in stress components between edge and central areas. The
sign of tangential stress component at edge is opposite to that of central area.
48
• Integrated semiconductor diaphragm pressure transducer
Compressing
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃1 − 𝑃𝑃2
Stretching
Compressing
𝑄𝑄1 = 𝑄𝑄2 ≈ 𝑅𝑅 + ∆𝑅𝑅

∆𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉0
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃1 − 𝑃𝑃2 ∝ =
𝑆𝑆1 = 𝑆𝑆2 ≈ 𝑅𝑅 + ∆𝑅𝑅 ∆𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉0 𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖
= 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜
𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑃𝑃 = 𝐶𝐶 �
𝑅𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑅2 ≈ 𝑅𝑅 − ∆𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖
𝑇𝑇1 = 𝑇𝑇2 ≈ 𝑅𝑅 − ∆𝑅𝑅 Proportional constant
49
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃1 − 𝑃𝑃2 ∝
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑃𝑃 = 𝐶𝐶 �
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖
Proportional constant
50
Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 0 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑉𝑉 = 0 𝑉𝑉 → " − "
𝑉𝑉 → " + "
51
Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors
Force applied to some crystals (e.g.,

quartz, barium titanate) and polymers
(e.g., PVDF) causes a charge
separation:
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
where k is the piezoelectric constant, F is the applied force, and P is pressure.
For example, Quartz: k = 2.3 pC/ N; BTi: k = 140 pC/ N
To calculate the current developed by a PZ material, we can differentiate the equation

with respect to time to obtain:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑖𝑖 = = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• Note that this current is proportional to the time rate of change of the applied pressure.
• If pressure does not change, i = 0 → can only be used to sense “ac” pressure.
52

ELEC4810: Introduction To Biosensors and Bioinstrumentation: Lecture Notes - Set #8

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

ELEC4810: Introduction To Biosensors and Bioinstrumentation: Lecture Notes - Set #8

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

ELEC4810: Introduction To Biosensors and Bioinstrumentation: Lecture Notes - Set #8

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ELEC4810: Introduction to

Biosensors and Bioinstrumentation

Blood flow in vessel

Blood flow in vessel

Sound is a pressure wave

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 0 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇

V = “0” V = “–” V = “+”

Interaction between ultrasound and tissue:

• Far field divergent angle:

Blood flow in vessel

𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Doppler geometry: separated transducers

𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 − 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 2𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖

Under the case in physiological systems, c >> Vi

−𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟

cos(ω s t ) cos(ωr t ) = cos(ω s t + ωr t ) + cos(ωd t )

If ϕ = -90°  sine channel:

cos(ω s t − 90°) cos(ωr t ) = cos(ω s t + ωr t − 90°) + cos(ωd t − 90°)

cosine channel: ∝ cos ω d t = cos(2πf d t ) = cos(2π f d t )

= sin (ω d t ) = cos(ω d t − 90°) ω d > 0

● If the blood cells move toward the ultrasound: ωd < 0 , there is a

cosine channel: ∝ cos ω d t = cos(2πf d t ) = cos(2π f d t )

sine channel: ∝ sin ωd t = sin (2πf d t ) = cos( ωd t − 90°) ωd > 0

cosine channel: ∝ cos ω d t = cos(2πf d t ) = cos(2π f d t )

sine channel: ∝ sin ωd t = sin (2πf d t ) = cos( ωd t + 90°) ωd < 0

sine channel: one-shot

• Scattering in tissue randomize the

Representative results measured from human skin:

Power spectral density measured

𝑓𝑓𝐷𝐷 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)

Representative results measured from human skin

Microcirculatory skin testing

Objective burn wound assessment

𝑥𝑥𝑑𝑑 : 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

The principle: Derivation:

Dimensional effect Piezoresistive effect

• Dimensional effect is a change in the electrical resistance of a metal when mechanical

Wheatstone Bridge 4-active-arm bridge

𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 ∆𝑅𝑅 ∆𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉0

𝑄𝑄1 = 𝑄𝑄2 ≈ 𝑅𝑅 + ∆𝑅𝑅

Force applied to some crystals (e.g.,

To calculate the current developed by a PZ material, we can differentiate the equation

You might also like