INDEX

Exp. Page
Name of experiment Date Signature
No No.

To study the process of osmosis using potato

1
osmoscope

To study plasmolysis in epidermal cells of Tradescantia

2
leaf.

To study structure and distribution of stomata in

3
upper and lower epidermis of leaf.

To detect the presence of excess water added to the

4-A
milk by using lactometer

To detect the presence of starch added as an

4-B
adulterant to the milk.

To dissect given flower to study and display different

5 whorls. Dissect anther and ovary to show number of

locules (chambers).

To study the process of pollen germination on slide

6
while observing under the compound microscope

To study water sample for measuring pH, and clarity

7-A
(turbidity).

To study water sample for measuring pH, and clarity

7-B
(turbidity).

To study different soil samples from different

8
localities for their physical properties,

To study the suspended particulate matter on the

9
leaves collected from different sites

To study the presence of living organisms in given

10
water sample.

To study different adaptations shown by flower for

11-A
pollination.
11-B To study the hybridization technique

To study comparative rate of transpiration in upper

12-A and lower surfaces of leaf by conducting four leaf

experiments

Separation of plant (photosynthetic) pigments by

12-B
paper chromatography

12-C To study the imbibitions using seeds or raisins.

Study of plants found in xerophytic and aquatic

13 conditions / habitats and comment on their

adaptations

Study of T.S. of testis, T. S. of ovary and V. S. of

14
Blastula through permanent slides

To study the prepared pedigree charts of genetic

15 traits such as rolling of tongue, widow's peak, blood

groups and colour blindness

To identify common disease causing organisms like

Plasmodium, Entamoeba, Ascaris and Ringworm with

16
the help of permanent slides and or specimens.

Comment on symptoms of diseases that they cause

17 To study and identify different stages of meiosis.

Study of two animals found in xeric conditions

18-A (desert) with respect to their morphological

adaptations

Study of two animals found in aquatic conditions with

18-B
respect to their morphological adaptations

Study of anatropous ovule and functions of its various

19
parts

To study the genetic variations of traits in Drosophila

20
melangaster
Experiment No. 1. Date: / / 2020
Aim: To study the process of osmosis using potato osmoscope.
Requirements: A fresh Potato, peeler or scalpel, Petri dishes/ bowls/ trough/ shallow glass
beakers, pins, concentrated sugar solution, coloured water, ete.
Principle:
When two solutions of different concentrations are separated by semipermeable
membrane, the flow of solvent is from the region of weaker solution (having low solute
concentration) to the region of stronger solution (having high solute concentration) till the
equilibrium is reached, so that the osmotic pressures are balanced.
Osmosis is of two types’ viz. endosmosis and exosmosis.
Figure:

Procedure:
1. Take a fresh potato tuber and peel off the skin with the help of scalpel.
2. Cut the potato from one side in such a way that it will make a flat base.
3. Scoop the peeled tuber properly so as to make a hollow block (well) in potato with thin
intact base bottom and care should be taken that it will not rupture at base.
4. Now add concentrated sugar solution in that cavity and mark its level by inserting a pin
in the cavity wall.
5. Place this potato osmoscope in a petridish / bowl / glass beaker, filled with colored
water
6. Mark the initial level with pin. After some time mark the level of sugar solution in the
potato osmoscope.
Observations:
1. You can easily note that level of sugar solution in the potato osmoscope, rises after
some time. The solution in the cavity osmoscope also becomes coloured.
2. It can be inferred that coloured water from the petridish / bowl has entered the cavity
of potato osmoscope.
Experiment No. 2. Date: / / 2020
Aim: To study plasmolysis in epidermal cells of Tradescantia leaf.
Requirements: Fresh leaf of Tradescantia, concentrated sugar solution, distilled water,
slides, cover slips, watch glass, blades, etc.
Principle:
Osmotic concentration of cell sap decides the movement of solvent molecules across the
different types of membranes.
(Exosmosis in a living cell when placed in hypertonic solution is called plasmolysis.)
Figure:-

Procedure:
1. Take a fresh Tradescantia leaf and peel off its lower coloured surface in such a way
that epidermal cells can be observed.
2. Take a small piece of epidermal peel and place it in concentrated sugar solution for few
minutes (hypertonic solution). Mount it on slide and put a cover slip.
3. Observe the slide under microscope and focus over few cells.
4. Take another small piece of peel from lower epidermis and place it in water (hypotonic
solution) for few minutes, Mount it on a slide and put a cover slip.
5. Carefully observe this slide also under microscope.
Observation:
1. The slide prepared using hypertonic solution shows shrinkage of cytoplasm (protoplast)
cytoplasm moves (recedes) away from the cell wall and becomes concentrated to corner
of the cell. This is known as plasmolysis.
2. The slide prepared using hypotonic solution or water shows that cell cytoplasm bulges or
swells i.e. increases in size. This is due to endosmosis.
Experiment No. 3. Date: / / 2020
Aim-To study structure and distribution of stomata in upper and lower epidermis of leaf.
Requirements: Fresh leaf of betel (dicot plant) and grass or maize (monocot leaf), glass
slides,cover slips, watch glass, blades, glycerine, etc.
Principle:
Loss of excess water in the form of vapour from aerial parts of the plant body, is
known as transpiration. The main plant organ involved, is leaf and it carries out this
process with stomata present on both of its epidermal layers. Dicot leaf shows the
difference in the number of stomata on its upper and lower epidermal surfaces whereas
monocot leaf shows equal number of stomata on both surfaces.
(Stomata are the minute, elliptical pores present on the epidermis of young stem, leaves
and fruit wall.)
Figure:-

Procedure:
1. Take a betel leaf and maize or grass leaf, fold these leaves and peel off them on both
surfaces
2. Using a blade, cut the peel on both the surfaces of leaf.
3. Mount these peels on slide, add a drop of glycerin over it and put a cover slip
4. Observe both the slides under microscope.

Observation:
1. The peel of betel (dicot leaf) shows presence of kidney shaped guard cells surrounded
by scattered, irregularly shaped subsidiary cells. The number of stomata on upper
epidermis is less than those on lower epidermis.
2. The peel of maize or grass leaf (monocot leaf) shows presence of dumb-bell shaped
guard cells surrounded by two subsidiary cells which are triangular and show parallel
arrangement. The number of stomata on upper epidermis and lower epidermis is
generally equal.
Experiment No. 4.-A Date: / / 2020
Aim: To detect the presence of excess water added to the milk by using lactometer.
Requirements: Lactometer, measuring cylinders (500 ml capacity), thermometer and milk
samples (minimum 3, preferably raw milk, of same animal source cow/ buffalo)
Theory: (The most common adulterants found in milk are urea, insecticides, NaHCO,
vegetable oil, sucrose, starch, etc.)
Animal husbandry plays a major supporting role in rural economy. Milk collection
centers and cooperative societies, play an integral role in delivering the milk from the
cowsheds to the customers. Addition of water to milk can be a big problem. Hence water
content of the milk is checked at many level, before it reaches the customer. Pure milk
has a specific gravity of 1.032; addition of water to it reduces this value. FAO (Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) suggested that the standard specific
gravity of milk ranges between 1.026 to 1.032 g/ml.
Principle: Use of lactometer is a most widely used method for detection of specific
gravity of milk. Lactometer is a hydrometer with limited scale (close to the range of the
specific gravity of milk). Lactometer works on the principle of fluid displacement.
Lactometer is an instrument sensitive to temperature, hence, temperature of the milk
sample must always be noted along with the reading of the lactometer. Temperature
calibration must be either added or subtracted from the reading on the lactometer, to get
the final specific gravity of the milk sample.
Figure:

Procedure:
1) Prepare three measuring cylinders (500 ml capacity) and label them 1,2,and 3.
2) Pour milk samples gently, in each measuring cylinder
3) Let the lactometer sink gently in the milk sample.
4) Read and record the last lactometer degree reading (°L ) just above the surface of
milk.
5) Note down the temperature of each milk sample by using thermometer.
6) If the temperature of milk is different from that of calibration temperature of the
lactometer(20°C), then calculate temperature correction.
 7) For every 10°C above the calibration temperature, add 0.2 °L to the actual
lactometer reading
8) For every 10°C below the calibration temperature, subtract 0.2 °L from the actual
lactometer reading.
Observation table and Calculation:
Sample Milk temp Lactometer reading Correction Final reading
E. g. 1 17°C 30.6° L -0.6° L 30.0 °L
E. g. 2 23° C 30.6° L +0.6° L 29.4° L
Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3
• For calculation of the specific gravity of the milk samples, we take the final reading
from the above table and write 1.0 before it.
• (Lactometer reading represents only the second and third decimal place).
Sample Final reading Specific gravity
Specificofgravity
milk sam
of milk sample
E. g. 1 30.0 °L 1.030
E. g. 2 29.4 °L 1.029
Sample1
Sample 2
Sample 3
Result:
Specific gravity of milk sample 1 is …………………………………………….
Specific gravity of milk sample 2 is……………………………………………
Specific gravity of milk sample 3 is..............................................
Experiment No. 4.-B Date: / / 2020
Aim: To detect the presence of starch added as an adulterant to the milk.
Requirements: Test tubes, pipettes, 1% iodine solution, milk samples (minimum 3,
preferably raw milk of same animal source cow/ buffalo), etc.
Theory:
Addition of starch increases the SNF (Solid Not Fat) content of milk. Wheat flour,
arrowroot starch, rice flour can be added for increasing the SNF (Solid Not Fat)
content. Starch is used to prepare synthetic milk, which is, then added to natural milk.
This is commonly used to compensate for the added water. Since starch powder is easily
and cheaply available, it is the most common adulterant to milk, after water.
Procedure:
1. Measure out 3ml milk into a test tube/container.
2. Keep the test tube for incubation in boiling water bath for 5 minutes.
3. After incubation, cool the test tube, add few (2-3) drops of 1% iodine solution and mix
the contents well.
4. Appearance of blue-black color indicates presence of starch in milk.
5. Note down the observations in the observation table.
Figure:

Observation table:
Sample Observation (Colour Sample Inference change if any) Inference
Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3
Conclusion:
• Milk sample 1 shows……………………; hence, it is adulterated / not adulterated with starch.
• Milk sample 2 shows……………………; hence, it is adulterated / not adulterated with starch.
• Milk sample 3 shows……………………; hence, it is adulterated / not adulterated with starch.
Experiment No. 5 Date: / / 2020
Aim: To dissect given flower to study and display different whorls. Dissect anther and
ovary to show number of locules (chambers).
Requirements: Flower of Hibiscus. forceps, razor blade, slides, two needles, cover slips,
dissecting microscope, paper, etc.
Procedure: Observe different floral whorls such as calyx, corolla, androecium and
gynoecium. Take out each floral whorl carefully and arrange them in proper ascending
order on a white paper. Count the members of each whorl and also note down, if there is
cohesion or adhesion between the members of same whorl or different whorls.
• Mount the anthers on slide and observe them under lens or dissecting microscope.
• Take a transverse section of each of anther and T. S. /V. S. of ovary with the help of
sharp blade and mount them on a slide in a drop of water, separately.
• Observe under dissecting microscope and count the number of chambers in anther and
ovary.
Hibiscus flower:
• Epicalyx: There are 5-7 free bracteoles.
• Calyx: 5 sepals, green, gamosepalous, valvate aestivation.
• Corolla: 5 petals, polypetalous, large, red coloured and showy, twisted aestivation.
• Androecium: Many stamens, showing monadelphous condition. (Filaments are fused to
form hollow staminal tube but anthers free.) Anthers are monothecus and kidney
shaped. Note colour, shape and ornamentation of pollen grains.
• Gynoecium: Pentacarpellary, syncarpous (5 carpels-fused), ovary-superior and
pentalocular five chambers) with axile placentation, style passes through hollow staminal
tube, stigma-5 free capitate.

Experiment No. 6 Date: / / 2020

Aim: To study the process of pollen germination on slide while observing under the
compound microscope.
Requirements: Flower of Catharanthus (periwinkle), cavity slide/ glass slide, cover slips,
compound microscope, sucrose crystals (Table sugar), etc.
Principle: (Pollen grains are the male reproductive units produced in the anther lobe of
stamens, producing pollen tube carrying male gametes, on germination.)
Pollen grain after deposited over the stigma absorbs water and nutrients from the
stigma and germinates to produce male gametophyte showing pollen tube with two non-
motile male gametes and a larger vegetative nucleus.
Figure:

Procedure:
1. A nutrient medium is to be prepared using 20grams of sucrose in 100 ml of water.
2. Take a few drops of this solution preferably on a cavity slide and dust a few pollen
grains from mature, dehisced anther.
3. Place cover slip carefully.
4. Observe the slide under compound microscope after every five minutes continously for
30 minutes.
Observation:
1) 1In the nutrient medium, the pollen Will germinate and pollen tube comes out through
germ pore.
2) It is due to enlargement of the tube cell and stretching of the intine, pollen tube
comes out and grows.
Experiment No. 7-A Date: / / 2020
Aim To study water sample for measuring pH, and clarity (turbidity).
1. pH test of water sample with Litmus paper.
Introduction:
pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of water. The pH of water 1s primarily
decided by the salts present in soil from where the water sample is collected. But pH also
changes due to organic matter, fertilizers, sewage and other pollutants.
Requirements:
Different water samples, sample bottle with cap, pH papers of different ranges etc.
Procedure:
Collection and preparation of sample:
1. Collect water samples in a clean, dry plastic jar.
2. Cap the jar tightly and shake vigorously a few times.
3. Allow the sample to stand for 5 - 10 minutes.
4. Remove the cap of the jar.
5. Dip the litmus paper in it for a second, holding it with a clean dry foreceps (avoid
touching with your fingers.)
Observation:
1. Observe the colour change.
2 Match the resultant colour with colour code on the pH colour strip. Identify the pH and
note it.
Result:
1. pH value of 6.5 to 7.5, is referred as more or less 'neutral'.
2. If pH is less than 6.5 then the water is acidic.
3. If the pH is more than 7.5 it is alkaline.

Observation table:

Sr. No. Water Sample pH

1 Sample –A

2 Sample -B
Experiment No. 7-B Date: / / 2020
Aim To study water sample for measuring pH, and clarity (turbidity).
2. Clarity of Water:
Test of water for clarity (Turbidity): Measuring water clarity is an important part
of environmental science. Often lakes or streams contain pollutants or sediments that
make water cloudy. This often has bad effect on the organisms that live in such waters.
Typical sources of turbidity in drinking water include the waste discharges, algae or
aquatic weeds, humic acids and other organic compounds resulting from decay of plants,
leaf litter, small animals, etc. in water sources and high iron and phosphorus
concentrations which give water a rust-red coloration.
Units of Measuring Turbidity:
In late 1800's Tyndall and Rayleigh started the scientific study of light scattering.
This phenomenon is used to understand the clarity of water. Most of the early study
considered the absorption and transmittance. Many units such as JTU (Jackson "Candle"
Turibidity Units), TE/F (of formazin) European units, Kieselguhr (SiO,) units,
Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU), were and are being used.
Requirments:
Four 1000ml beakers, distilled water, Cardboard box or some other suitable box,
torch / lamp or bulb and different water samples.
Procedure:
Collection and preparation of sample:
1. Collect water sample in a clean, dry plastic jar.
2. Avoid touching to prevent contaminating the sample.
3. Prepare Tyndall set up from a cardboard box as shown in the diagram.
4. This set-up can be made by making a hole in card board box and fixing a bulb or torch
on the other side of the box.
5. Pour distilled water in a clean beaker and use this as standard.
6. Pour different water samples in clean dry beakers and place the samples one by one and
compare the turbidity. Place each beaker in the Tyndall set up and observes the beaker
through hole for clarity/turbidity.
Figure:
Observation:

1. Observe the clarity of distilled water.

2. Compare and note the turbidity of the samples.
3. Record your observation as clear, less turbid, moderately turbid and highly turbid.

Observation table:

Sr. No. Water Sample Clarity

1 Sample –A

2 Sample -B

Result:
1. The light is scattered because of the particles present in water.
2. More particles make water more turbid and reduce the clarity.

Conclusion: The water is turbid hence not suitable for consumption without treatment.
Experiment No. 8 Date: / / 2020
Am: To study different soil samples from different localities for their physical
properties,
Principle:
The soil is uppermost layer of the earth which has humus and numerous living organisms
along with their dead remains that sustains the life of plants.
A productive soil generally has approximately 40% minerals, 10% organic matter
(derived from dead remains of the organisms), 25% water and 25% air. The soil may have
different sized particles which can be classified as clay (less than 0.002mm in diameter),
silt ( 0.002 0.02mm), fine sand (0.02 - 0.2mm), coarse sand (0.2 - 2mm) and gravel (more
than 2mm).The soil may be sandy, sandy loam, loam, silty loam, clayey loam and clayey.
Most of the soils contain mixture of sand, silt and clay in different proportions.
Study of soil texture/ type:
Soil texture is the grain of soil depending upon the nature and composition of its
particulate matter. Besides texture, there are other parameters for study of soil such
as moisture, porosity water holding capacity, pH, soil microflora, humus, etc. Study of
soil texture is one of the important parameters for various purposes, e.g. agriculture,
construction, mining, etc.
Requirements -
Digger, polythene bags, lens, meshes of different pore size for soil samples (sieves),
clean glass jar with tight fitting lid, measuring cylinder, distilled water, etc.
Procedure:
Collect the soil samples from different sites and bring them to the laboratory. With
the help of hand lens examine the soil samples. Shift the soil samples on the meshes of
different sizes and record the different sizes of the particles found. Now take a
measuring cylinder of 250 ml. Fill it with 200 ml of water and add about 50g of soil
sample in it, cap it and shake the glass jar vigorously.
1. Take distilled water in a clean dry Jar (A). Mix soil samples in separate jars (B, C).
Shake it vigorously. Allow it to stand for 10 - 15 minutes.
Observation:
Measure the thickness of different layers according to different sized soil
particles. From bottom to the top, we can abserve the layer of coarse sand, fine sand,
silt, clay then water and floating humus on the surface.

Calculate approximate percentage of each type.

1 Observe and note the comparative thickness of layers formed in each jar and classify
the soil as per guidelines given ahead.
 Sandy soils are very common near the mountain foothills, along rivers, streams and
certain coastal areas. Sandy soils are composed of approximately 80-100% sand 0-10%
silt and 0-10% clay, by volume. Sandy soils have -0- 10% clay 0- 10% silt poor water
holding due to very low organic content. This indicates that percentage of sand
component is always more.
Loamy soils are also common in valleys and flat areas Loamy soil (flood plains), or
around the rivers and streams. Loam soils are comprised of approximately 25-50% silt
and 10- 30% clay by volume. Loam soils are somewhat heavier than sandy soils, but also
have poor water holding 10 -30% clay capacity due to very low organic content. Loam
soils show thicker layers of silt and sand as well sand Clayey soil
Clayey soils are very common in certain areas, particularly | around urban areas.
Clay soils are typically comprised of approximately 0-20% sand, 0-20% silt and 60-100%
clay by volume. Clay soil are heavy and difficult to work 60- 100% clay when dry.
Overall, the clay soil is comparatively poor in sand and silt components.

Type of soil and its correlation with the plants found-

In case of well watered garden soil, Mesophytes are found.
In dry desert soil, usually xerophytes are found.
Result:
No Soil samples Colour Texture % of % of % of clay Type of
sand silt soil

1 Garden
2 Road side
Study of pH
Introduction:
Soil pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of the soil. A pH value is actually a
measure of hydrogen ion concentration, in a logarithmic scale. Strong acid medium has a
low p and a high hydrogen ion concentration. Alkaline medium has high pH values and low
hydrogen ion concentration. Most soils have pH values between 3.5 and 10. In higher
rainfall areas, the natural pH of soils typically ranges between 5-, whereas in drier
areas, the range is 6.5-9. Soils with pH values of 6.5 to 7.5 are referred as 'more or
neutral'. Those soils with pH less than 6.5 are acidic, and soils with pH less than 5.5 are
considered strongly acidic. Acid sulphate soils, which Occur in low-lying coastal areas,
can have extremely acidic pH values (pH less than 4).
Requirements:
Soil samples from various sites, funnel, filter paper, pH papers of different range,
is tilled water, beaker, plastic jar with cap, plastic tray, pestle or any other suitable
grinding tool, etc.
Procedure:
Collection and preparation of sample:
1. Collect loose soil samples in a clean, dry plastic jar.
2. Avoid touching the soil with your hands to prevent contaminating the sample.
3. In the laboratory, pour this sample in a plastic tray.
4. Crush bigger clumps with the help of porcelain or glass pestle.
5. Mix your soil sample with distilled water (1:1) in a clean glass jar to form a suspension
6. Cap the jar tightly and shake vigorously a few times.
7. Allow the mixed sample to stand for 5-10 minutes so the salts in the soil sample can
dissolve in the distilled water.
8. Remove the cap of the jar.
9 Dip the paper in it for a second, holding it with a clean dry forceps.
Observation:
1. Observe the change in colour.
2. Match the resultant colour against colour code on the color strip.
Result:
1. pH value between 6.5 to 7.5 is described as more or less 'neutral.
2. If pH is less than 6.5, then the soil is acidic.
3. Soils with pH less than 5 . 5, are considered strongly acidic.
4. Extremely acidic pH values (pH less than 4).
5. If the pH is more than 7.5, it is alkaline.
No. Soil sample pH
1 Garden soil
2 Road side soil
Experiment No. 9 Date: / / 2020
Aim: To study the suspended particulate matter on the leaves collected from different
sites.
Requirenments : Slides, coverslips, ear buds, microscope, leaves of roadside plants and
leaves of a road side plant and leaves of plants from glass house if available.
• While walking on a busy road, in a crowded market or in an industrial area, and then
wiping the face with a white cotton cloth. One can observe a large amount of pollutants
(dirt) collected on it.
Procedure:
1. Take two leaves from the same location of the same plant. Wash one leaf under the tap
and leave other leaf as it is (i.e. unwashed). Put drop of glycerine on the surface of
leaves.
2. Spread glycerin with the help of a clean ear bud.
3. Smear this ear bud on a clean slide, observe under microscope.
4. Prepare separate slides for each sample.
5. This experiment can also be performed by following method.
Observation:
We can observe many air pollutants such as dust particles, carbon particles, pollen
grains, spores, etc.
Observation table:
Sr. No. Leaf sample Observation

1 Washed leaf

2 Unwashed leaf

Inference:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Experiment No. 10 Date: / / 2020
Aim: To study the presence of living organisms in given water sample.
Requirements:
Water samples, microscope, slides, dropper, methylene blue, spirit lamp, etc.
Procedure:
1. Put the drop of water sample on a slide and spread it evenly to make a thin film.
2. Allow it to dry and then heat it gently to fix it.
3. Put a drop of methylene blue on the smear and keep the slide for staining for 2 minutes.
4. Observe under microscope.
5. Different types of microorganisms can be observed such as Paramoecium diatoms, algae
and some planktons, copepod, daphnia, rotifer, ete.
6. Make a record of the same for all the samples separately.

A. Plaurosigma, B. Navicula, C. Amphiplura,

D. Triceretium, E. Nostoc, F. Oscilliatoria,
G. Spirogyra, H. Daphnia, I. Copepod,
J. Paramoecium, K. Rotifera, L. Amphipod,
M. Mosquito larva,
Observation:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Experiment No. 11- A Date: / / 2020
Aim: To study different adaptations shown by flower for pollination.
Requirements : Flowers of Maize, Ocimum, etc, forceps, hand lens, slide, water, etc.
1. Maize flower (wind pollination):
• The flowers are unisexual and plant is monoecious.
• Male inflorescence is terminal tassel (panicle of spikeletes) while female inflorescence
is compound spadix, borne axillary.
• Flowers are small inconspicuous, non-attractive without colour, odour and nectar.
perianth is reduced to two lodicules.
• Stamens are extrorse and exserted.
• Anthers are versatile which produce large number of tiny,
• Light-weight, dry, dust like pollen grains with smooth exine.
• Gynoecium shows feathery or brush like stigma supported on a long style, coming out of
the perianth.
• The stigma is bifurcated. Styles and stigmas are bushy. Hence, in a single breeze, many
flowers get pollinated if wind flows in a desired direction.
• In maize, flowers are unisexual and protandrous (stamens mature early), therefore, it
is cross pollinated by the agency of wind (i.e. anemophilous).
Figure:
2. Ocimum (Insect Pollination):

• They are attractive and well adapted for cross pollination through the agency of
insects.
• Flowers are bisexual attractive and have bright coloured petals.
• The nectar and the nectar glands are present in flower and they are situated in
such a way that when insect tries to reach the nectar glands, its wings and body
parts will definitely touch the anther and stigma
• Corolla has a spreading upper lip, which acts as a landing place for the insect.
• When the insects land on the lower lip of the corolla and in its endeavour to obtain
nectar that is secreted by the hypogynous disc, pushes the sterile lobes of the
stamen inwards.
• Due to this the upper halves of the connective with the fertile lobes act as a lever.
• Then the anther lobe comes down and shed the pollen on the back of the insect.
• The gynoecium is made up of two carpels fused together, showing long style with
bifid, hairy stigma
Figure:
Experiment No. 11 - B Date: / / 2020
Aim: To study the hybridization technique.
Introduction:
Hybridization is one of the methods of crop improvement undertaken to combine
the desired, useful characteristics from two different pure varieties of plants species,
selected as male and female parents. The technique involves following steps:
a. Collection of pollen grains (anthesis):
Pollen grains from flower of selected male parent are collected in sterile paper bags
are stored in clean and dry vials at cool place. Collection is done in the early hours of
morning. Day, date and time of anthesis is recorded.
b. Emasculation:
It 1s the removal of young anthers of the stamens in the plant selected as female
parent, having bisexual flowers, well before anthesis, i.e formation of pollen grains. The
bisexual flower of a female parent is emasculated. Buds are opened and stamens are
removed mechanically by forceps or by giving hot water treatment. Emasculation is done
to prevent self pollination. Emasculation is done in the early hours of morning. Day, date
and time of emasculation is recorded.
c. Crossing:
Pollen grains are dusted on the mature stigma of emasculated flower by opening the
bag temporarily. It can also be done by brushing the pollens or pollen grains from the
male parents directly on stigma of emasculated flower. Date of crossing is recorded on
the tag.
d. Bagging and Tagging:
Emasculated flowers are then bagged in polythene bags or sterile paper bags to
prevent pollination by foreign pollens. This is called as bagging. A 'tag' is tied to the
bag. The tag carries brief information about the names of selected parent varieties and
the day, date and time of anthesis, emasculation and actual crossing.
Experiment No. 12 - A Date: / / 2020
Aim: To study comparative rate of transpiration in upper and lower surfaces of leaf by
conducting four leaf experiments.
Requirements: Two stands, thread, four leaves of Calotropis/ banyan tree, Vaseline
(petroleum jelly), etc.

Figure:-
Procedure:-
(Loss of excess water in the form of vapour through the aerial parts of the plant is
called transpiration) The leaves selected should be healthy preferably of same size and
showing same stage of growth. Tie the different leaves of the same plant with thread in
such a way that they will be equidistant and surfaces will be properly exposed to the
sunlight.Tie the thread to the stand at both ends. Apply Vaseline to leaf surface in the
following manner,
1. Leaf A: - Petroleum jelly is applied on both the surfaces
2. Leaf B: - Petroleum jelly is applied on lower surface only
3. Leaf C: - Petroleum jelly is applied on the upper surface only
4. Leaf D: - Petroleum jelly is not applied
Observe the order of drying of these leaves, 2-3 days after setting of the apparatus and
then prepare observation table.
Observation table:

Sr. no. Type of leaf Observation

1 Leaf A

2 Leaf B

3 Leaf C

4 Leaf D
Experiment No. 12 - B Date: / / 2020
Aim: Separation of plant (photosynthetic) pigments by paper chromatography.
Principle:
The separation of solutes (chloroplast pigments) is based on the liquid-liquid
partitioning of pigments in paper chromatography. The partitioning takes place between
the solvent (water) molecules (static phase) adsorbed to the cellulosic matter of the
paper (capillary action) and organic (mobile) phase.
(The plants show presence of many pigments. The different photosynthetic pigments
present in the leaf cells are: chlorophylls, carotenes and xanthophyls. These
photosynthetic pigments can be separated using the technique of paper chromatography.)
Requirements - Chromatography chamber, chromatography paper (Whatman's filter paper
no.). pestle- mortar, capillary tube, muslin cloth and suitable solvent system, fresh spinach
leaves, etc.
Figure:

Separation of chloroplast pigments by paper chromatography

Procedure:
• Prepare solvent system - Petroleum ether: acetone (90:10), and pour it in the
chromatography chamber and cover it tightly. Keep it undisturbed for 1 hour for
saturation of the solvent system.
• Take few spinach leaves (5gms), wash and keep them dry.
• Grind these leaves in acetone (organic solvent) with a small amount of MgCl,. (as a
buffer)
• Filter it through muslin cloth and collect the filtrate.
• Cut suitable strip of chromatographic paper and mark the loading point with pencil.
With the help of capillary tube, the extract or filtrate is repeatedly loaded at the
loading point.
• Allow it to dry.
• Now place the strip in the solvent system in such a way that its lower tip gets dipped in
the solvent.
• Take care not to dip it too close to the loaded spot. Cover the chamber and keep it
undisturbed to get the chromatogram run.
• Let the solvent travel close to the other end of the chromatography paper. Different
Pigments along with the solvent up to different heights on the basis of their molecular
weights,
• Takeout the paper, allow it to dry and observe the separation of photosynthetic
pigments in the form of separate bands of different colours.
Observation:
On the strip we can observe the separation of photosynthetic pigments as bands of
different colours in particular sequence. From loaded spot up to the top the sequence
is;

Sr. No Photosynthetic pigments Colour

1 Chlorophyll-b Yellowish green,

2 Chlorophyll-a Bluish qreen

3 Xanthophylls Yellow

4 Carotene Orange.
Experiment No. 12 - C Date: / / 2020

Aim: To study the imbibitions using seeds or raisins.

Requirements: Water, beaker, dry seeds or raisins, etc

Principle: Imbibitions adsorption of water or any other solvent without forming a solution.
The different hydrophilic substances present in plant cells or cell wall, imbibe water.
Figure:

Procedure:
Take some dry seeds or raisins in beaker or Petri dish or bowl.
Add ample amount of water in it.
Keep the set up for few hours and observe the change in seeds or raisins.

Observation:
The seeds or raisins kept or soaked in water show change in their volume showing swollen
structure and seed coat/ raisins shows softening.

Conclusion:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Experiment No. 13 Date: / / 2020
Aim: Study of plants found in xerophytic and aquatic conditions / habitats and comment
on their adaptations.
Introduction:
• Adjustment (acclimatization) of plants and animals for their survival and perpetuato,
their environment by means of special structures or functions, is known as adaptation.
• The plants that can grow and survive in deserts, dry conditions of soil and high
temperature are called xerophytes.
• All xerophytes show adaptations to reduce the loss of water due to transpiration.
xerophytes show presence of stored mucilage in the plant parts that help in retaining
wat Some plants have latex, that help retaining water and sealing the place of injury.
E.g Euphorbia, Calotropis, Acacia, Opuntia.
• The plants that grow in abundance of watęr are, called hydrophytes. They are generally
adapted to remain buoyant and avoid decaying and tearing effects of water. They have
developed arenchyma tissue for bouyancy.
E.g. Hydrilla, Vallisneria, Eichhornia, Pistia, Nelumbo (Lotus), Typha.
1. Calotropis procera (Ruee):
Comments:
1. It is non-succulent, drought enduring, wild shrub of arid, desert and waste lands.
2. The leaves and young branches are covered by a mealy coating along with hair which
acts as insulating covering
3. The leaves are thick and somewhat leathery.
4. The plant possesses latex.

2.Acacia arabica (Babhool)

Comments:
1. It is a 1on-succulent xerophyte.
2. The leaves are bipinnately compound. Leaflets are very small in size to reduce
transpiration.
3. The stipules are modified into spines to reduce transpiration and also to protect plant
against marauding/ grazing animals.
4. The older parts of stem are covered over by thick, brown bark.
3. Opuntia dillenii (Nagphani)
Comments:
1. It is a succulent (drought resisting or enduring) xerophyte.
2. The stem is flattened, jointed, green and is called phylloclade.
3. It takes over the function of photosynthesis because the leaves are modified into
spines.
4. The stem i.e. phylloclade is fleshy succulent due to presence of mucilage that retains
water (water storage tissue).
5. Phylloclades are with many nodes (areoles) and internodes. The areoles have one or more
spines which represent the modified leaves of axillary branch.
6. Bristles (trichomes) provide protection against grazing animals.
4. Hydrilla
Comments:
1. It is a submerged hydrophytes i.e. grows entirely under water.
2 It is attached to the substratum by poorly developed adventitious roots in fresh water.
3 The stem is slender and soft. It is without mechanical tissue, hence it limps, when taken
out of water.
4. Leaves are very thin, membranous and are arranged in whorls. They lack cuticle and
stomata.
5. The entire plant is covered by mucilage that protects it from the rottening effect of
water.
6. Vallisneria is another submerged hydrophyte.

Hydrilla
5. Eichhornia (Water Hyacinth)
Comments:
1. It is a free floating hydrophyte that grows in fresh water ponds, lakes, etc.
2. The stem is short and spongy due to the aerenchyma that stores air. It is the offset
that grows prostrate just below the water surface and serve as means for vegetative
reproduction.
3. Leaves show swollen, spongy, petioles and arise in clusters at node. They have waxy
coating in addition to cuticle to prevent wetting and rottening.
4. Adventitious roots are also produced in clusters at nodes. They act as balancers. They
have root pockets. Root hairs are absent.
Pistia is another free floating hydrophyte, while Nelumbo (lotus) is anchored or
rooted hydrophyte with floating leaves.
6. Typha (Cattail)
Comments:
1. Itis an amphibious and anchored hydrophyte which grows in marshy places or shallow
waters.
2. The stem is rhizome with adventitious roots and emergent leaves, coming out of water
surface
3. The leaves are long, linear, soft, spongy, thick and sub-cylindrical. They have
aerenchyma tissue.
4. The leaves show the presence of mechanical tissue also and hence they are able to
stand erect
5. They have cuticle and stomata on the emergent part.
6. Actually Typha is a hygrophyte.
Experiment No. 14 Date: / / 2020

Aim: Study of T.S. of testis, T. S. of ovary and V. S. of Blastula through

permanent slides.
1. T.S. of Testis:
1) Internal structure of testis shows presence of tunica albuginea and seminiferous
tubules.
2) Testis is externally covered by fibrous connective tissue called as tunica albuginea.
3) It is internally covered by tunica vascularis and externally by an incomplete covering
called as tunica virginals.
4) Seminiferous tubules are lined by cuboidal germinal epithelial cells.
5) It shows different stages of spermatogenesis like spermatogonia, primary and
secondary spermatocytes, spermatids and sperms.
6) Few large pyramidal cells are present interrupting germinal epithelium are nurse cells
or sertoli cells,
7) Sperm bundles get attached to sertoli cells with their heads.
8) Sertoli cells provide nourishment to the sperms till maturation

2. T.S. of ovary:

1) Internally the mammalian ovary shows compact structure with outer cortex and inner
medulla.
2) The medulla shows connective tissue called as stroma.
3) The cortex is lined by germinal epithelium.
4) Cortical region shows different stages of development of ovarian follicles or Graffian
follicle.
5) Each follicle contains a large ovum surrounded by many layers of follicle cells.
6) Different stages of developing ovarian follicles are seen in the cortex and consist of
oocytes in different stages.
7) One ovum from mature follicle is released from one ovary in every menstrual cycle.
8) It may also show presence of mass of yellow cells called corpus luteum.
3. V.S. of Blastula.
1) The V.S. blastula shows outermost, small, flattened cell layer called trophoblast.
2) It encloses a cavity called blastocyst cavity or blastocoel and an inner cell mass.
3) The blastocyst cavity is filled with a fluid which is absorbed by trophoblast cells.
4) The inner cell mass is attached to one side to trophoblast cell layer.
5) The trophoblast cells in contact with the inner cell mass (embryonic knob), are called
the cells of Rouber.
6) The trophoblast cell layer produces extra embryonic membranes while the inner cell
mass further develops into proper embryo.
Experiment No. 15 Date: / / 2020
Aim: To study the prepared pedigree charts of genetic traits such as rolling of tongue,
widow's peak, blood groups and colour blindness.
Introduction:
A pedigree is a list of ancestors showing genetic relationships between members of a
family.
A record of inheritance of certain genetic traits for two or more generations
presented in the form of family tree or a diagram is called pedigree chart. Study of
pedigree chart provides a strong tool, which is used to trace the inheritance ofa specific
trait, abnormality or disease in a family. In a pedigree charts specific symbols that are
used, are indicated below:

1. Rolling of tongue:
The rolling of tongue is the ability of a person to roll the tongue inwards in U'
shaped as shown in the following figure. The inability to roll the tongue, is caused by
autosomal recessive allele a. Both homozygous dominants (AA) and heterozygous (Aa)
individuals are able to roll the tongue while homozygous recessive (aa) individuals are
unable to roll the tongue.
2. Widow's Peak
Widow's peak is a V- shaped hair line across the forehead. It is a dominant
autosomal trait. The gene responsible for widow's peak is dominant 'W'. Therefore,
both bomozygous dominant (WW) and heterozygous ( Ww) individuals have widow's
peak, while homozygous recessive (ww )individuals have straight hair line. This feature is
observed with both men and women.
3. Human blood groups:
1.The blood groups in human beings are described as per ABO system of classification.
2. The gene I (isoagglutinogen) controls the ABO blood groups.
3. It has three alleles; I, I", and i (recessive).
4. The alleles I and produce a slightly different form of antigen and allele i (recessive),
does not produce any surface antigen on R.B.Cs.
5. Each individual possesses only two alleles out of three.
6. Alleles I and I" are co- dominant. Individually they are completely dominant over allele i.
7. There are six different genotypes and four different phenotypes with blood groups
which are seen as follows:
Sr. No Phenotype Genotype
1 Blood Group A IA IA / I A i
2 Blood Group B IB IB / I B i
3 Blood Group AB IA IB
4 Blood Group O ii

4. Colour blindness
1) Colour blindness is a sex /X linked recessive disorder of humans.
2) Due to recessive gene present on X chromosomes, colour sensitive cone cells are not
formed.
3) This results in red-green colour blindness.
4) It is more common in male than female.
5) Follows criss-cross inheritance as this trait is transmitted from the father to the
grandson through his carrier daughter.

Pedigree chart for colour blindness

Experiment No. 16 Date: / / 2020
Aim: To identify common disease causing organisms like Plasmodium, Entamoeba,
Ascaris and Ringworm with the help of permanent slides and or specimens. Comment
on symptoms of diseases that they cause.
Plasmodium (Disease-Malaria):
1. 1Plasmodium vivax is an intracellular, blood parasite in human and other vertebrates
which causes malaria.
2. The life history of Plasmodium is completed in two hosts, partly in definitive host, the
man and partly in an intermediate host, the female Anopheles mosquito.
3. When an infected female anopheles mosquito bites a man, sporozoites are introduced in
the blood stream from where they reach in liver cells and multiply to form merozoite.
4. After a few cycles in the liver, the merozoite enters the RBC and feed on the contents
of the RBC
5. After 2-8 schizogenous changes in the main blood stream, the merozoite assumes
different shape and known as gametocyte
6. Gametocyte cannot develop further in the blood of human therefore they wait for
female anopheles mosquito to suck them with the blood.
7. When the gametocytes are sucked in by the female Anopheles mosquito they further
undergo development.
Symptoms
1. Symptoms of malaria include fever, shivering, caused by release of hemoglobin
arthralgia (joint pain), vomiting, anaemia (caused by hemolysis), hemoglobinuria, retinal
damage and convulsions.
2. The classic symptom of malaria is cyclical occurrence of sudden coldness followed by
rigor and then fever, sweating, lasting for four to six hours, occurring at of 48 hrs or
every two days.
Entamoeba histolytica (Disease - Amoebiasis):
Entamoeba histolytica is a parasite in the large intestine of man. It occurs in three
stages- i) Trophozoite ii) Pre-cystic stage and iii) Cystic stage
1. Disease is caused by the trophozoite form
2. Cytoplasm is differentiated into ectoplasm and endoplasm
3. Ectoplasm forms pseudopodium.
4. Reproduction by binary fission and encystment.
Symptoms:
1. Entamoeba histolytica causes amoebiasis in man. Trophozoite lives in mucosa and
submucosa layer of large intestine of man
2. It causes amoebic dysentery, abscess in liver, lungs and brain.
3. The common symptoms are the passing out of stool with blood and mucous.
4. Abdominal pains, nausea and bowel irregularity are common symptoms.

Ascaris (Disease - Ascariasis)

Ascaris lumbricoides, also known as the giant intestinal roundworm, is one of the several
soil- transmitted nematodes that are infectious to humans.
1. Body is elongated, cylindrical in shape, creamy white or pinkish in colour.
2. Sexes are separate and sexual dimorphism is well marked.
3. Male is about 15-31 cm in length, slender and shows penial setae. Posterior end is
curved. Female is about average 20-35 cm in length, posterior end is blunt and straight.
4. Body is covered with cuticle.
Symptoms:
1. The disease caused by Ascaris is called ascariasis.
2. The common symptom is vague abdominal pain.
3. In more severe cases, the patient may experience restlessness, weight loss, anorexia,
distended abdomen, intermittent loose stool and occasional vomiting
4. During the pulmonary stage, there may be a brief period of whooping cough, dyspnea
and sub-sternal discomfort. Most symptoms are due to the physical presence of the
worm.
Ring worm:
It is caused by different fungi like Trichophyton spp, Microsporum audouinii and
Epidermophyton, etc.
1. Microsporum audouinii is commonly called ring worm.
2. The fine mycelium of the fungus occurs in between the breaks in the dermis.
3 It infects hair and feed on keratin, where hyphae emerge from the sheath and grow up
and down.
4. The hyphae in the hair put out to the surface, fine filaments on which spores are born.
5. The spores are very small and are produced in enormous numbers. They are readily
detached and spread infection.
6. Ring worm causes dermatomycosis.
Symptoms of ringworm disease:
1. Red ring patches of vesicles on the skin.
2. Intense itching and scaly skin and sclap.
Experiment No. 17 Date: / / 2020
Aim:- To study and identify different stages of meiosis.
Principle :-
Meiosis is a special type of cell division that occurs in the diploid reproductive or
germ tissue (cells). It is a reduction division that results in the formation of four haploid
daughter cells each receiving half of the total number of chromosomes than those
present in the mother cell from with it is produced.
Observation :
For the preparation of meiosis slides, generally anther of Lily or Onion is used.
Meiosis can be studied with the help of stained permanent slides of T. S. of anther.
Permanent slides should be observed under high power of compound microscope.
Meiosis as a process occurs in two steps viz. A) Meiosis -I B) Meiosis -II
I. Meiosis -I: is a reduction division in which chromosome number is reduced to halfof
the number of chromosomes present in the parent cell. It is completed into two stages-
A) Karyokinesis I and B) Cytokinesis I.
A) Karyokinesis I: It takes place in four sub stages.
1. Prophase I :- It is an initial and very lengthy phase, further divided into five sub-
stages
i. Leptotene:- Chromosomes appears like long, thin, beaded threads.
ii. Zygotene :- It is characterised by paring of homologous chromosomes called
'Synapsis' Paired chromosomes are called bivalents or tetrad.
ii. Pachytene :- Each bivalent or tetrad consist of four chromatids (two pairs) and each
pair is united by a centromere. In this stage crOssing over (X shaped chiasmata) occurs
in between two non-sister chromatids of bivalent. Exchange of genetic material or
chromatid segments takes place which result in recombination that leads to variation
and thus the evolution of the organism. iv. Diplotene:- After crossing over, homologous
chromosomes start repelling from each other but remain attached at the chiasmata.
v. Diakinesis:- Terminalisation i.e. shifting of chiasmata toward end of chromatid talkes
place. Nucleolus and nuclear membrane completely disorganize and disappear.
2. Metaphase I :-
i. An imaginary line (Equatorial plane) develops at the centre of the cel1.
ii. The pair of chromosomes (Bivalents) arranged at the plane in such a way that they lie
equidistant on either side of plane, their arms towards the equator and centromere
towards the pole.
iii. At the end, spindle formation takes place. which helps in arrangement and movements
of the chromosomes.
iv. Members of each bivalent are connected to only one of the two poles but opposite
poles.
3. Anaphase I:-
i It is an important stage of meiosis-I, as reduction division takes place in this stage i.e.
chromosome number is reduced to half of the total number.
ii. Tactile fibres start condensing, become shorter and pull chromosomes (homologous)
toward opposite poles.
iii. It results in the separation and dragging of recombined homologous chromosomes
towards opposite poles.
4. Telophase I :-
i. In this phase chromosomes reach the opposite poles.
ii. Nucleolus gets reorganized and then reappears.
iii, Nuclear membrane gets developed around each set of chromosomes, forming two
daughter nuclei. This is how Karyokinesis-I comes to an end.
B) Cytokinesis I :
1. It occurs by formation of the cell plate in plant cell, which is formed at the equator or
the dividing cell.
2 Two daughter cells formed are having single, haploid nucleus each.
This is the end of meiosis-I. At the end of meiosis-I, two daughter cells are formed
which are qualitatively different from each other but are quantitatively identical. Both
the cells now undergo meiosis-II simultaniously.
The interphase following meiosis-I does not involve duplication of genetic material.

II. Meiosis - II : It is also divided into A) Karyokinesis II and B) CytokinesisII

A) Karyokinesis II:- It consists of four sub stages
1) Prophase II
Events occurring in prophase-II are like mitotic prophase, however the chromosomes
are recombinants.
i. It is the initial phase.
ii. The nucleus enlarges.
ii. Chromosomes become prominent, shorter and thicker.
iv. Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear.
2) Metaphase II:
i. In this stage, an imaginary line develops forming the cquatorial plane which is at right
angle to the previous division.
ii. Chromosomes get arranged along the equatorial plane in such a way that the centromere
lie on the plane the arms towards the poles.
ii. At the end spindle formation takes place.
3) Anaphase I1-
1. Centromere divides and sister chromatids get separated which are now called as
daughter chromosomes.
11. Tactile (spindle fibres) fibres start condensing becoming shorter and shorter pulling
daughter cnromosomes up to the opposite poles.
4) Telophase I1-
i. Daughter chromosomes get collected at the opposite poles.
ii. Reappearance of nucleolus and nuclear membrane results in the formation of two
daughter nuclei.
At the end of Karyonesis II, four nuclei are formed.

B) Cytokinesis II
i. In plant, cell plate formation takes place at the centre of the cel1.
2. It forms four daughter cells called as tetrads.
Thus in the process of meiosis, single diploid cell gives risc to four daughter cells which
later metamorphose to form either spores or gametes.

Significance of Meiosis:
i. Crossing over at pachytene, alignment of bivalents at the equator and the anaphasic-I
separation, eventually lead to variations.
ii. It helps in restoring the chromosome number of a species that remains constant from
generation to generation.
Experiment No. 18-A Date: / / 2020
Aim: - Study of two animals found in xeric conditions (desert) with respect to their
morphological adaptations.
Desert animals show adaptations for conservation of water and to deal with
extreme diurnal temperature fluctuations.
1. Camel (Camelus spp):
1) It is a xerocoles animal adapted to the desert conditions. It can tolerate wide range of
temperature fluctuations.
2) It excretes concentrated urine in order to conserve water
3) It accumulates fat in the hump so that heat flows away from the body and inward flow
of heat is prevented.
4) Camel can even close its nostrils. Flat & wide feet help it to walk easily over soft sand.
5) It is capable of drinking large volume of water (about 100 liters) in a short time.
6) It has long eye-lashes that protect eye from sand dunes/strong winds.

2. Kangaroo rat (Dipodomys spp):

1) It is a xerocoles rodent.
2) It is nocturnal in habit to avoid heat of the day and to have humid air inside.
3) It seals its burrow during daytime to prevent the loss of moisture.
4) It obtains metabolic water and has the ability to derive hygroscopic water from dry
seeds which it eats.
5) Kangaroo rat neither sweats nor pants to keep itself cool.
Experiment No. 18-B Date: / / 2020

Aim: - Study of two animals found in aquatic conditions with respect to their
morphological adaptations.
Aquatic animals show special adaptations for aquatic habitats.
1. Fresh water fish Rohu (Labeo rohita):
1) Body is laterally compressed and streamlined in order to minimize resistance of
water.
2) It shows presence of gills for respiration which help in exchange of gases in water.
3) Paired fins help in swimming and caudal fin acts as steering during swinning (i.e.
changing direction)
4) Body is covered by scales to prevent osmotic entry of water into the body.
5) Labeo is ammonotelic.

2. Dolphin (Delphinus spp):

1) It is a mammal and not a fish.
2) It has streamlined, smooth and furless body to reduce friction.
3) It has a backward curving dorsal side and dorsal fin.
4) Snout is beak like.
5) The position of nostrils near the top of the head facilitates easy breathing when
animal reaches the surface of water for breathing.
6) Flippers in Dolphin can control for steering, slowing and going up or down or out of
water.
Experiment No. 19 Date: / / 2020
Aim: -Study of anatropous ovule and functions of its various parts.

1) The ovule in which micropyle, chalaza and funicle are not in one straight line and
integuments run parallel to
funicle is called as anatropus ovule. It is also called as inverted ovule and is the most
common type of ovule, in angiosperms.
2) The ovule shows two main parts as: - body and funicle.
3) The body shows two integuments originating from base of ovule reaching up to the
tip of ovule.
4) The tip shows a small cleft, left by two integuments called as micropyle.
5) The integuments enclose a mass of fertile, parenchymatous, diploid cells called
nucellus.
6) There is only one fertile cell located more or less in the centre of nucellus but
towards micropyle end of
ovule this is called megaspore mother cell. It finally develops into only one
female gametophyte (embryo sac).
7) In monosporic embryo sac, the female gametophyte. It is 8-nucleated and 7-celled
structure.
8) Female gametophyte consists of egg apparatus, 2-polar nuclei and 3-antipodal cells.
9) The egg apparatus is located closer to the micropylar end of embryo sac. It consists
of central haploid egg cell and 2 supporting laterally placed haploid synergids.
10) In mature female gamctophyte, the 2 polar nuclei fuse to form the diploid
secondary nucleus
Experiment No. 20 Date: / / 2020
Aim: To study the genetic variations of traits in Drosophila melangaster
Requirments: Glass jar, pert dish, banana pieces, Muslin cloths, slides, cover slips, xyline,
etc.

Procedure:
I. Prepare the culture beds.
1. Peel the ripe banana fruit. Discard the skin and mash the fruit into soupy pulp.
2. Add few grains of Yeast.
3. Keep a small blotting paper to absorb excess moisture from pulp and also to provide
substratum for pupation of the larvae.
4. Many culture beds can be prepared by the above method for the different varieties of
fruit fly.
II. The culture of Drosophila.
1. The pulp in the culture beds attracts the Drosophila covers the culture beds with a
bell jar after the Drosophila have reach the pulp. They complete their life cycle within
48 hours.
2. Capture the Drosophila and fix it into 70% alcohol.
3. Process the Drosophila flies through 70%, 90% and 100% graded series of ethyl alcohol
for 10 minutes each.
4. Place Drosophila in xylene for 5 min. and clear it properly.
5. Mount it on glass slide with DPX and observe under the microscope.
Observation and Result:
Eye colour Pattern of wings Number of segments in a legs
Culture-1 Red (wild) Normal Nine number of segments
Culture-2 Black (Mutant) Vestigial Less number