Data Collection Techniques

Data collection
• The data collection methods are the techniques
employed to obtain data from the study subjects

• For each method there are specific instruments

which are used for collecting data

• Well-constructed instruments are needed to collect

quality data

• It should state clearly what information to be

collected
 Approach selected depends on

• Study objectives
• Study design
• Resources available
Differentiation between data collection
techniques and data collection tools
Various data collection techniques can be
used such as:
• Using available information
• Observing
• Interviewing (face-to-face)
• Administering written questionnaires
• Focus group discussions
• Projective techniques
• Mapping, Scaling
Common instruments used for data collection
in clinical & epidemiological research includes:

• 1. Questionnaire
• 2. In‐depth interview
• 3. Checklist
• 4. Report on focus group discussions
 1. Using available information
For example
Analysis of the information routinely collected
by health facilities can be very useful for
identifying problems in certain interventions
 Review of records & reports
• The secondary data obtained by carrying
review of collected data (secondary) in
documents, records and reports

• Instruments such as summary sheets and

checklists are commonly used
 Checklists
A checklist
• Includes all the items or points that must be
considered during an observation in the field,
or when extracting data from existing records

• Only basic data to be collected

• Use the list of variables

 2. Observing
Observation:
• Is a technique that involves systematically
selecting, watching and recording behavior
and characteristics of living beings, objects or
phenomena.

• Checklist is the commonest instrument used

for this purpose
It can be undertaken in different ways:
1. Participant observation:
The observer takes part in the situation he or
she observes

2. Non-participant observation:
The observer watches the situation, openly or
concealed, but does not participate
 Observations can be
• Open
Example:
Observing a health worker with his/her
permission during routine activities

• Concealed
Example:
‘Mystery clients’ trying to obtain antibiotics
without medical prescription
 3. Interviewing
An Interview
Is a data-collection technique that involves oral
questioning of respondents, either:
• Individually
• Group
a. Individual interviewing methods

Interviewing is defined as the technique in

which the interviewer meets the study
subjects aiming to obtain data relevant to
the research objectives
 b. Group interviewing methods

• The groups of study subjects meet discuss,

exchange ideas around a certain topic
relevant to the research

• Group discussion is the commonest

instrument for this purpose
 Interviewing rules
Interviewer should:
• Be neutral
• Treat all respondents similar
• Have good interpersonal skills
• Be familiar with questionnaire
• Follow question wording exactly
• Record responses exactly
• Isolate respondents during interview
 Types of interviews
There are two main types of interviews:
1. In depth interviews
2. Key informant interviews
 In‐depth interviews
• Directed conversation between equals where the
interviewer, not an interview schedule, is the
research tool

• Not only learning the answers to questions but

learning that question to ask

• Widely used in qualitative research

• The interviewer must encourage the respondent to

discuss thoroughly the issues of concern and
importance to the research topic
 The question format
• The dichotomous questions are to be avoided in
interviews

• Set questions such as how, why, what…

• The language should be at the level of the

respondent

• The language should be simple and easily

understood by the respondent

• Use of common sense when probing for more details

 The question format
• Allow the respondent to ask questions

• Try to remain non‐judgmental in your responses

• Classically a questionnaire is formed up of questions covering

all the study variables, but sections like clinical examination;
laboratory investigations may be included as separate
chapters in the questionnaire

• Use tape records: if possible the interviewer can record the

interview, or otherwise notes are taken during the interview
 Time of the interview
• On average an interview time is about an hour, thus if
the working hours per day are about 8 hours, 2‐3
interviews are to be scheduled

• The remaining time should be spent in transcription

• Continuous revision of the interview transcripts

• It is important to continuously read the interviews

transcripts and to develop new questions or new ways
of asking questions
 Advantages
1. Potential for very rich information in the
words of the respondent

2. Ability to broach sensitive issues

3. Flexible

4. Possibility of easily combining this method

with others such as quantitative
 Disadvantages
1. Time consuming and therefore a research
expense
2. Data are not easy to code and analyze
3. Relies solely on verbal statements, which is
subjective to distortions
4. People say and do different things in different
situations
5. Comparability of interviews is not always
possible
 Key informants interviews
• Informal, conversational interviews

• The informants being interviewed respond in

their own words to express personal views
 Who are the key informants?
• A key informant is a person who is especially
knowledgeable, at least in some subjects or
topics of interest and with whom the
interviewer develops an ongoing relationship
of information exchange and discussion

• Most people act as informants without

realizing this, especially when they offer
information in response to questions about
their every day lives
 Who are the key informants?
The difference between a general informant and a key
informant:
• General informants primarily give information about
themselves, whereas key informants provide
information about others or specific situations,
events and conditions in the study area

• Thus, a key informant is a kind of expert on some

cultural, political or health aspects of the community
beyond his or her own personal beliefs and behaviors
 Strengths
1. They can be conducted by trained
interviewers with relative ease

2. They can be conducted during all phases of a

study

3. They are relatively inexpensive

 Weaknesses
1. They do not measure the frequency of the
issue/event under study

2. They do not observe actual behavior

3. The informant/interviewer relationship can

easily be confused with other relationships
 4. Focus group discussions (FGD)

• Focus groups are groups discussions that

gather together people to discuss a specific
topic of interest to the researcher
 Focus group discussions (FGD)
A Focus group discussion

• Allows a group of 8 - 10 informants to freely discuss a

certain subject with the guidance of a facilitator or
reporter

• A moderator who promotes interaction and assures

that the discussion remains on the topic of interest

• A typical focus group session will last from one to

one and half hour
 The common uses of focus group
1. A primary data collection method for obtaining background
information about a topic of interest

2. As a tool to generate ideas or to explore an issue or behavior

3. As a mean to understand the results of quantitative research

4. Generating research hypotheses

5. Stimulating new ideas

6. Diagnosing the potentials for problems

7. Generating impressions of products, programs, services

 When focus groups are used rather
than in‐depth interviews
• Group interaction stimulates richer responses
• Group interaction is valuable for thinking
• Subject matter is not so sensitive
• A single subject area is being examined
• Enough is known of the subject to establish
topic guide
• An acceptable number of respondents can be
assembled in one location
• Limited funds
 Techniques involved in focus groups
Questioning techniques:

a. Directive moderating approach

b. Non‐directive moderating approach

 Directive moderating approach

• Questions are more focused

• Limited range of responses
• Moderator influence
 Non‐directive moderating approach

• Questions are open‐ended

• Encourages emergence of honest respondent’s

feelings

• Minimizes moderator influence

 Techniques involved in focus groups

Focus group flow:

a. Structured focus group

b. Unstructured focus group

 Structured focus group

• The moderator uses a topic guide to ensure all

relevant issues covered

• Readily comparable
 Non structured focus group

• The moderator works with a sketchy topic

guide

• The participants determine the flow of the

group
 Key steps in conducting focus group
discussions
1. Define the subject matter

2. The adequacy of focus groups in meeting the

research objectives

3. Identify respondents

4. Establishment of homogenous groups based

on the respondent variables
 Selection of the participants

1. Purposively selected

2. Ability to provide information

3. Screening questionnaire
 Determining the number of groups
needed
1. Conduct as many groups as required to reach
the point when the information obtained is
becoming repetitive and no longer new
(saturation of information)

2. Conduct in each geographic region in which

differences are felt to exist
 Why a large group is undesirable?

1. Restriction of speaking time

2. Moderator becomes directive

3. Some members get frustrated or dissatisfied

4. The tendency of side conversations

 The selection of the focus group
moderator
1. Communicate well in the local language
2. Feel at ease and comfortable with other
people
3. Put others at ease
4. Project enthusiasm, unconditional regard and
acceptance of others
5. Convey warmth and empathy
6. Conceptualize and think through contingencies
7. Listen and not threaten others
 The supporting materials for the
group discussion
The supporting materials include:
• Tape recorders, cassette tapes, notebooks,
pens, pencils and others

• The researcher should ensure that the

supporting materials are prepared before the
focus group starts
 The group setting
The following criteria should considered when
selecting the meeting place:

1. The setting should be comfortable with

optimum temperature
2. Privacy of participants
3. A quiet environment
4. Easy accessibility to participants
5. The environment should not be threatening
 The schedule of the group
discussion
• A clear schedule should be prepared and
disseminated to the group members before
the meeting
 The topic guide

• The researcher is expected to prepare clear

guidelines of the topic to be discussed by the
group
 The conduct of the focus group

1. Make it possible for the moderator to have

good eye contact with all participants

2. Avoid designating in the seating arrangement

3. Seat participants in a circle and in sight of the

moderator and all other participants
 Advantages of focus groups
1. Quick
2. Reasonable cost
3. Direct interaction with respondents
4. Large and rich amounts of data in the respondent’s
own words
5. Respondents to react to and build upon the
responses of other group members
6. Very flexible
7. Useful to obtain data from children & illiterate
persons
8. Results easily understood
 Limitations of focus groups
1. Limitation of generalizations of results
2. The responses may not be independent from
each other
3. Results may be biased by a dominant
member
4. Greater faith on the credibility of the results
5. Difficulties in summarization and
interpretation of the results
6. Moderator’s bias
 5. Administering written questionnaires

A Written questionnaire
• Is a data collection tool in which written questions
are presented that are to be answered by the
respondents in written form

• Questionnaire design is a skill

Perquisites before starting questionnaire
design include

• Clear objectives

• List of study variables

• A plan for questionnaire design

 Types of questionnaires
Questionnaires can also be:
• Standardized
• Unstandardized

Administration of questionnaires can be:

• Administered through an interview
• Self‐administered
 Standardized questionnaire
• A standardized questionnaire is composed of
a series of questions, which the investigator
determines in advance of the actual
interviews

• The interviewer then asks all the study

subjects the same questions in the same
order, the same manner and the same
wordings
 Unstandardized questionnaire
• The interviewer is provided with a list of topics
or points to collect information about

• Free to formulate and ask questions in any

order or manner

• Interviewer can introduce views, opinions ‐

this is a disadvantage

• Wide variations: difficulties in analysis

 The administered questionnaire
• Is the one in which the questions are read out
by the interviewer and the subject makes a
verbal response, which is written by the
interviewer
• Widely used
• High response rate
• Full chance to administer, explain and clarify
the questions
• The interviewer recognizes the social, cultural
and environmental conditions of the
respondents
 Self‐administered questionnaire
• The respondent reads the questions himself
and writes the answers in the designated
spaces in the questionnaire

• Lower response rate

• Inappropriate for illiterates and children

 A written questionnaire can be
administered in different ways, such as by
• Sending questionnaires by mail

• Gathering all or part of the respondents in one

place at one time

• Hand-delivering questionnaires to
respondents
 Types of questions
1. Open‐ended questions:
• The respondent answers in his own words
• No suggested answers
• Lengthy responses and time consuming

There are two types:

– Completely open ended questions
– Partially categorized open ended questions

2. Closed questions
 Open-ended questions

Completely open-ended questions

Permit free responses which should be recorded

in the respondents’ own words.
 Open-ended questions
Partially categorized open ended questions:
• Questions are often asked as open‐ended questions

• Some answers can already be pre‐categorized, but

there may be other possibilities

• Therefore there is a category ‘other’ where other

answers can be recorded
 Closed ended questions
Closed questions:
Are the questions in which the respondent is compelled
to select his response from a list of suggested answers

The close‐ended questions are either:

• Multiple choice questions (MCQs)
• Dichotomous questions
 Steps in designing a
questionnaire/ interview guide

Step 1: Content
• Take your objectives and variables as a starting point

Step 2: Formulating questions

• Formulate one or more questions that will provide
the information needed for each variable
 Steps in designing a
questionnaire/ interview guide
Step 3: Sequencing the questions:
• Design your interview schedule or questionnaire to
be ‘informant friendly’

Step 4: Translation
• Translation of the questionnaire into the local
language (if questionnaire imported from a study)
• Expression of certain words which are culturally
friendly
 Steps in designing a
questionnaire/ interview guide
• Step 5: Formatting the questionnaire
When you finalize your questionnaire, be sure that:
• A separate, introductory page is attached to each questionnaire
• Each questionnaire has a heading and space to insert the
number, date and location of the interview
• Layout is such that questions belonging together appear
together visually
• Sufficient space is provided for answers to open‐ended
questions, categories such as ‘other’ and for comments on pre-
categorized questions
• Boxes for pre‐categorized answers are placed in a consistent
manner (e.g., on the right half of the page)
• Filled in with a pencil
 Be careful
When Constructing a questionnaire
• List study variables
• Use simple language rather than difficult words
• Start with the easier questions
• Try to avoid painful questions
• Avoid asking double‐barreled questions
• Do not overload the questionnaire
• Avoid biased questions
• Local words used for specific conditions
• The questionnaire should not be too lengthy or too
short
 Conducting pre‐test/piloting
• Pre‐testing of the questionnaire means that the
questionnaire before being used for data collection
has to be tested and experimented
The aim of the pre‐testing:
– Is to ensure that the questions are clear and
properly formulated
– To test the adequacy of the questionnaire
• Do not involve large number of subjects ‐ interviewing
about five subjects similar to the study population
• Do it before training of interviewers
 Training of the interviewers
The interviewers are to be trained on the
following:
• Interviewing techniques
• The contents of the questionnaire
• The time of filling the questionnaire
 6. Projective techniques

For example
An informant may be provided with a rough outline
of the body and be asked to draw her or his
perception of the conception or onset of an illness.

7. Mapping and scaling

 Bias in information collection

1. Defective instruments
2. Observer bias
3. Effect of the interview on the informant
4. Information bias (Incomplete records, Memory or
recall bias)
 Raw data

• Entire set of data collected in a study, before

any rounding, editing or statistical
organization

• Helping health planners and administrators

determine health care needs
 Proportion
• The percentage of the total number of events
which occur in a data set, usually expressed as
a percentage
 Examples - Proportion
• A health planner may want to know the total number
of malaria cases in the last year to estimate the drugs
needed for the coming year

• The number of home deliveries per year in order to

estimate the midwifery cadres needed

• The formula is (x/y)k, where x is the number of

individuals or events in a category and y is the total
number of events or individuals in the data set and k
is a constant, in this case 100
 Example - Proportion

Out of the 120 cases of malaria admitted to

hospital x last year, 80 were children. The
proportion (percentage) of children among
cases is (80/120) x 100 or 66.7%.
 Rates
• Measure the relative frequency of cases in a
population during a specified period of time

• The general formula is the same as for

proportions, namely (x/y)k, although here x, y,
and k take on different meanings

• Rates may measure incidence (new cases) or

prevalence (newly occurring plus pre-existing
cases) within a specified period