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Nervous System
Introduction
The system in the animal body which is made of nerve tissue and which receive stimuli from receptor
and responds to the effector to adjust the body with the environment called Nervous system.
Basic component of Nervous system
 Structural component
 Neuron[Structural and Functional unit of nervous system ]
 Neuroglia[Modified connective tissue. 90%cell mass of nervous system is neuroglia ]
 Functional Component
 Receptor
It takes stimulation from the environment as well as from the inner portion of the body. Example:
Temperature , color, light , taste.
 Neuron
Sensory and Motor neurons mainly carry nerve impulse. The nerve impulse transported from the
receptor to CNS along sensory neurone and the response is carried out in the effector organs through
motor neurons.
 Effector
It gives response after stimulation.
 Nerve center
Spinal cord and Brain act ad Nerve centre.
 Neuron
Neuron or nerve cell is defined as the structural and functional unit of nervous system. Neuron is similar
to any other cell in the body, having nucleus and all the organelles in cytoplasm. However, it is different
from other cells by two ways:
1. Neuron has branches or processes called axon and dendrites
2. Neuron does not have centrosome. So, it cannot undergo division.

CLASSIFICATION OF NEURON
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Neurons are classified by three different methods.

A. Depending upon the number of poles
B. Depending upon the function
C. Depending upon the length of axon.
DEPENDING UPON THE NUMBER OF POLES
Based on the number of poles from which the nerve fibers arise, neurons are divided into three types:

 Unipolar neurons
 Bipolar neurons
 Multipolar neurons.
Unipolar Neurons
Unipolar neurons are the neurons that have only one pole. From a single pole, both axon and dendrite
arise. This type of nerve cells is present only in embryonic stage in human beings.
Bipolar Neurons
Neurons with two poles are known as bipolar neurons.
Axon arises from one pole and dendrites arise from the other pole.
Multipolar Neurons
Multipolar neurons are the neurons which have many poles. One of the poles gives rise to axon and all
other poles give rise to dendrites.

DEPENDING UPON THE FUNCTION

On the basis of function, nerve cells are classified into two types:
1. Motor or efferent neurons
2. Sensory or afferent neurons.
1. Motor or Efferent Neurons
Motor or efferent neurons are the neurons which carry the motor impulses from central nervous system
to peripheral effector organs like muscles, glands, blood vessels, etc. Generally, each motor neuron has
a long axon and short dendrites.
2. Sensory or Afferent Neurons
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Sensory or afferent neurons are the neurons which carry the sensory impulses from periphery to central
nervous system. Generally, each sensory neuron has a short axon and long dendrites.
DEPENDING UPON THE LENGTH OF AXON
Depending upon the length of axon, neurons are divided into two types:
1. Golgi type I neurons
2. Golgi type II neurons.
1. Golgi Type I Neurons
Golgi type I neurons have long axons. Cell body of these neurons is in different parts of central nervous
system and their axons reach the remote peripheral organs.
2. Golgi Type II Neurons
Neurons of this type have short axons. These neurons are present in cerebral cortex and spinal cord.
STRUCTURE OF NEURON

Neuron is made up of three parts:

1. Nerve cell body
2. Dendrite
3. Axon.
Dendrite and axon form the processes of neuron. Dendrites are short processes and the
axons are long processes. Dendrites and axons are usually called nerve fibers.
NERVE CELL BODY
Nerve cell body is also known as soma or perikaryon. It is irregular in shape. Like any other cell, it is
constituted by a mass of cytoplasm called neuroplasm, which is
covered by a cell membrane. The cytoplasm contains a large nucleus, Nissl bodies, neurofibrils,
mitochondria and Golgi apparatus. Nissl bodies and neurofibrils are found only in nerve cell and not in
other cells.
Nucleus
Each neuron has one nucleus, which is centrally placed in the nerve cell body. Nucleus has one or two
prominent nucleoli. Nucleus does not contain centrosome. So, the nerve cell cannot multiply like other
cells.
Nissl Bodies
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Nissl bodies are membranous organelles containing ribosomes. So, these bodies are concerned with
synthesis of proteins in the neurons. Proteins formed in soma are transported to the axon by axonal
flow.
Neurofibrils
Neurofibrils are thread-like structures present in the form of network in the soma and the nerve
processes. Presence of neurofibrils is another characteristic feature of the neurons. The neurofibrils
consist of microfilaments and microtubules.
Mitochondria
Mitochondria are present in soma and in axon. As in other cells, here also mitochondria form the
powerhouse of the nerve cell, where ATP is produced.
Golgi Apparatus
Golgi apparatus of nerve cell body is similar to that of other cells. It is concerned with processing and
packing of proteins into granules.
DENDRITE
Dendrite is the branched process of neuron and it is branched repeatedly. Dendrite may be present or
absent. If present, it may be one or many in number. Dendrite has Nissl granules and neurofibrils.
Dendrite transmits impulses towards the nerve cell body. Usually, the dendrite is shorter than axon.
AXON
Axon is the longer process of nerve cell. Each neuron has only one axon. Axon arises from axon hillock of
the nerve cell body and it is devoid of Nissl granules. Axon extends for a long distance away from the
nerve cell body. Length of longest axon is about 1 meter.
Axon transmits impulses away from the nerve cell body.
Internal Structure of Axon – Axis Cylinder
Axon has a long central core of cytoplasm called axoplasm. Axoplasm is covered by the tubular sheath
like membrane called axolemma. Axolemma is the continuation of the cell membrane of nerve cell body.
Axoplasm along with axolemma is called the axis cylinder of the nerve fiber.
Axoplasm contains mitochondria, neurofibrils and axoplasmic vesicles. Because of the absence of Nissl
bodies in the axon, proteins necessary for the nerve fibers are synthesized in the soma and not in
axoplasm.
After synthesis, the protein molecules are transported from soma to axon, by means of axonal flow.
Some neurotransmitter substances are also transported by axonal flow from soma to axon. Axis cylinder
of the nerve fiber is covered by a membrane called neurilemma.
MYELIN SHEATH
Myelin sheath is a thick lipoprotein sheath that insulates the myelinated nerve fiber. Myelin sheath is
not a continuous sheath. It is absent at regular intervals. The area where myelin sheath is absent is
called node of Ranvier. Segment of the nerve fiber between two nodes
is called internode. Myelin sheath is responsible for white color of nerve fibers.
Non-myelinated Nerve Fiber
Nerve fibers which are not covered by myelin sheath.
Myelinated Nerve Fiber
Nerve fiber which is insulated by myelin sheath is called myelinated nerve fibers.
Functions of Myelin Sheath
1. Faster conduction
Myelin sheath is responsible for faster conduction of impulse through the nerve fibers. In myelinated
nerve fibers, the impulses jump from one node to another node. This type of transmission of impulses is
called saltatory conduction.
2. Insulating capacity
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Myelin sheath has a high insulating capacity. Because of this quality, myelin sheath restricts the nerve
impulse within single nerve fiber and prevents the stimulation of neighboring nerve fibers.
NEURILEMMA
Neurilemma is a thin membrane, which surrounds the axis cylinder. It is also called neurilemmal sheath
or sheath of Schwann. It contains Schwann cells, which have flattened and elongated nuclei. Cytoplasm
is thin and modified to form the thin sheath of neurilemma.
One nucleus is present in each internode of the
axon. Nucleus is situated between myelin sheath and neurilemma.
Functions of Neurilemma
In non-myelinated nerve fiber, the neurilemma serves as a covering membrane. In myelinated nerve
fiber, it is necessary for the formation of myelin sheath (myelinogenesis).
Neuroglia

DEFINITION
Neuroglia or glia (glia = glue) is the supporting cell of the nervous system. Neuroglial cells are non-
excitable and do not transmit nerve impulse (action potential). So, these cells are also called non-neural
cells or glial cells. When compared to the number of neurons, the number of glial cells is 10 to 15 times
greater. Neuroglial cells play an important role in the reaction of nerve during infection.

CLASSIFICATION OF NEUROGLIAL CELLS

Neuroglial cells are distributed in central nervous system (CNS) as well as peripheral nervous system
(PNS). Accordingly the neuroglial cells are classified into two types:
A. Central neuroglial cells
B. Peripheral neuroglial cells.
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CENTRAL NEUROGLIAL CELLS

Neuroglial cells in CNS are of three types:
1. Astrocytes
2. Microglia
3. Oligodendrocytes.
ASTROCYTES

Astrocytes are star-shaped neuroglial cells present in all the parts of the brain. Two types of astrocytes
are found in human brain:
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i. Fibrous astrocytes
ii. Protoplasmic astrocytes.
Fibrous Astrocytes
Fibrous astrocytes occupy mainly the white matter. Few fibrous astrocytes are seen in gray matter also.
The processes of these cells cover the nerve cells and synapses. This type of astrocytes play an
important role in the formation of blood-brain barrier by sending processes to the blood vessels of
brain, particularly the capillaries, forming tight junction with capillary membrane. Tight junction in turn
forms the blood-brain barrier.
Protoplasmic Astrocytes
Protoplasmic astrocytes are present mainly in gray matter. The processes of neuroglia run between
nerve cell bodies.
Functions of Astrocytes
Astrocytes:
i. Twist around the nerve cells and form the supporting network in brain and spinal cord
ii. Form the blood-brain barrier and thereby regulate the entry of substances from blood into brain
tissues.
iii. Maintain the chemical environment of ECF around CNS neurons
iv. Provide calcium and potassium and regulate neurotransmitter level in synapses
v. Regulate recycling of neurotransmitter during synaptic transmission.

MICROGLIA
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Microglia are the smallest neuroglial cells. These cells are derived from monocytes and enter the tissues
of nervous system from blood. These phagocytic cells migrate to the site of infection or injury and are
often called the macrophages of CNS.
Functions of Microglia
Microglia:
i. Engulf and destroy the microorganisms and cellular debris by means of phagocytosis.
ii. Migrate to the injured or infected area of CNS and act as miniature macrophages.
OLIGODENDROCYTES

Oligodendrocytes are the neuroglial cells, which produce myelin sheath around the nerve fibers in CNS.
Oligodentrocytes are also called oligodendroglia. Oligodendrocytes have only few processes, which are
short.
Functions of Oligodendrocytes
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Oligodendrocytes:
i. Provide myelination around the nerve fibers in CNS where Schwann cells are absent
ii. Provide support to the CNS neurons by forming a semi-stiff connective tissue between the neurons.
PERIPHERAL NEUROGLIAL CELLS
Neuroglial cells in PNS are of two types:
1. Schwann cells
2. Satellite cells.
SCHWANN CELLS

Schwann cells are the major glial cells in PNS.

Functions of Schwann Cells
Schwann cells:
i. Provide myelination (insulation) around the nerve fibers in PNS
ii. Play important role in nerve regeneration.
iii. Remove cellular debris during regeneration by their phagocytic activity.
SATELLITE CELLS

Satellite cells are the glial cells present on the exterior surface of PNS neurons.
Functions of Satellite Cells
Satellite cells:
i. Provide physical support to the PNS neurons
ii. Help in regulation of chemical environment of ECF around the PNS neurons.
Synapse
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Synapse is the junction between two neurons. It is not an anatomical continuation. But, it is only a
physiological continuity between two nerve cells.
CLASSIFICATION OF SYNAPSE
Depending upon ending of axon, synapse is
classified into three types:
1. Axoaxonic synapsein which axon of one neuron terminates on axon of another neuron.
2.Axodendritic synapsein which the axon of one neuron terminates on dendrite of another neuron.
3. Axosomatic synapsein which axon of one neuron ends on soma (cell body) of another neuron.
Structure of Synapse

 Synaptic knob
Under the microscope the terminal branches of the axon of the presynaptic part are found to
end in certain expanded regions called synaptic knob.
 Synaptic vesicles
The synaptic knob contains mitochondria and large number of vesicles called Synaptic vesicles which are
filled up with Acetylcholine.
 Synaptic cleft
A submicroscopic space exists between pre and post synaptic membranes which is known as Synaptic
cleft.
 Synaptic Canalculi
In some synapse contain several parallel intersynaptic filaments across the synaptic cleft called Synaptic
Canaliculi.
 Sub Synaptic Web
In the post synaptic part there are a net like filaments are found just below the post synaptic membrane
and extends upto a considerable distance in the cytoplasm. It is known as subsynaptic web.
PROPERTIES OF SYNAPSE
 ONE WAY CONDUCTION
 BELL-MAGENDIE LAW
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According to BellMagendie law, the impulses are transmitted only in one direction in synapse, i.e. from
presynaptic neuron to postsynaptic neuron.
 SYNAPTIC DELAY
Synaptic delay is a short delay that occurs during the transmission of impulses through the synapse. It is
due to the time taken for:
i. Release of neurotransmitter
ii. Passage of neurotransmitter from axon terminal to postsynaptic membrane
iii. Action of the neurotransmitter to open the ionic channels in postsynaptic membrane.
Normal duration of synaptic delay is 0.3 to 0.5
millisecond.
 FATIGUE
During continuous muscular activity, synapse becomes the seat of fatigue along with Betz cells present
in motor area of frontal lobe of cerebral cortex. Fatigue at synapse is due to the depletion of
neurotransmitter substance, acetylcholine.

Mechanism of Synaptic Transmission

The conduction of Nerve impulse from the pre synaptic to post synaptic neurons through the synapse,
called Synaptic Transmission. It occurs in the following stages :-
 Changes in permeability of the Pre synaptic membrane
When the nerve impulse reaches the synaptic knob, the permeability of this membrane is
increased. As a result Na+,Ca2+ enter into the synaptic knob from the E.C.F.
 Release of Chemical Transmitter
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As a result of this chemical transmitter, Acetylcholine are released from synaptic vesicles into
the synaptic cleft.
 Diffusion and Formation of transmitter receptor complex
Acetylcholine then diffuses through the synaptic cleft to reach the post synaptic membrane
where it unites with receptor to form acetylcholine receptor complex.
 Increase in permeability of Post synaptic Synapse
The transmitter receptor complex increases the permeability of this membrane for which Na +
enters from the E.C.F into membrane.
 Depolarization and Development of Excitatory Post Synaptic Potential [EPSP]
Due to the entry of Na+ ion in the post synaptic membrane there occurs local depolarization and
development of excitatory post synaptic potential.
 Excitation of the Post Synaptic Neuron
When the excitation of the post synaptic potential exceeds the normal, a wave of excitation
arises in the post synaptic neurone.

Nerve Fibers
 A nerve is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of axons (the projections of neurons) in the peripheral
nervous system (PNS).
 A nerve provides a structured pathway that supports the electrochemical nerve impulses
transmitted along each of the axons.
In the central nervous system, the analogous structures are known as tracts.
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 Neurons are sometimes referred to as nerve cells, although this term is misleading since many
neurons do not occupy nerves, and nerves also include non-neuronal support cells (glial cells)
that contribute to the health of enclosed neurons.
 Each nerve contains many axons that are sometimes referred to as fibers. Within a nerve, each
axon is surrounded by a layer of connective tissue called the endoneurium. The axons are
bundled together into groups called fascicles.
 Each fascicle is wrapped in a layer of connective tissue called the perineurium.
 Finally, the entire nerve is wrapped in a layer of connective tissue called the epineurium.
 The endoneurium consists of an inner sleeve of material called the glycocalyx and a mesh of
collagen.
 Nerves are bundled along with blood vessels, which provide essential nutrients and energy to
the enclosed, and metabolically demanding, neurons.
 Within the endoneurium, individual nerve fibers are surrounded by a liquid called the
endoneurial fluid.
 The endoneurium has properties analogous to the blood–brain barrier.
 It prevents certain molecules from crossing from the blood into the endoneurial fluid.
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 Classification of Nerve Fibers

 DEPENDING UPON STRUCTURE
Based on structure, nerve fibers are classified into two types:

i. Myelinated Nerve Fibers

Myelinated nerve fibers are the nerve fibers that are covered by myelin sheath.
ii. Non-myelinated Nerve Fibers
Nonmyelinated nerve fibers are the nerve fibers which are not covered by myelin sheath.
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 DEPENDING UPON DISTRIBUTION

Nerve fibers are classified into two types, on the basis of distribution:

i. Somatic Nerve Fibers

Somatic nerve fibers supply the skeletal muscles of the body.
ii. Visceral or Autonomic Nerve Fibers
Autonomic nerve fibers supply the various internal organs of the body.
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 DEPENDING UPON ORIGIN

On the basis of origin, nerve fibers are divided into two types:
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i. Cranial Nerve Fibers

Nerve fibers arising from brain are called cranial nerve fibers.
ii. Spinal Nerve Fibers
Nerve fibers arising from spinal cord are called spinal nerve fibers.
 DEPENDING UPON FUNCTION
Functionally, nerve fibers are classified into two types:
i. Sensory Nerve Fibers
Sensory nerve fibers carry sensory impulses from different parts of the body to the central nervous
system. These nerve fibers are also known as afferent nerve fibers.
ii. Motor Nerve Fibers
Motor nerve fibers carry motor impulses from central nervous system to different parts of the body.
These nerve fibers are also called efferent nerve fibers.
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Properties of Nerve Fibers

 EXCITABILITY
Excitability is defined as the physiochemical change that occurs in a tissue when stimulus is applied.
Stimulus is defined as an external agent, which produces excitability in the tissues.
 CONDUCTIVITY
Conductivity is the ability of nerve fibers to transmit the impulse from the area of stimulation to the
other areas.
 REFRACTORY PERIOD
Refractory period is the period at which the nerve does not give any response to a stimulus.
TYPES OF REFRACTORY PERIOD
Refractory period is of two types:
1. Absolute Refractory Period
Absolute refractory period is the period during which the nerve does not show any response at all,
whatever may be the strength of stimulus.
2. Relative Refractory Period
It is the period, during which the nerve fiber shows response, if the strength of stimulus is increased to
maximum.
 SUMMATION
When one subliminal stimulus is applied, it does not produce any response in the nerve fiber because,
the subliminal stimulus is very weak. However, if two or more subliminal stimuli are applied within a
short interval of about 0.5 millisecond, the response is produced. It is because the subliminal stimuli are
summed up together to become strong enough to produce the response. This phenomenon is known as
summation.
 ADAPTATION
While stimulating a nerve fiber continuously, the excitability of the nerve fiber is greater in the
beginning. Later the response decreases slowly and finally the nerve fiber does not show any response
at all. This phenomenon is known as adaptation or accommodation.
 ALL-OR-NONE LAW
All-or-none law states that when a nerve is stimulated by a stimulus it gives maximum response or does
not give response at all.
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Central Nervous System

Brain
Definition
The biggest portion of the CNS which lies at cephalic end of the spinal cord and within Cranium is called
Brain.
Structure
In human the brain is a large mass consists of about many Nerve Cells and Neuroglia. It occupies about
1500 cubic cm in the cavity of the skull. It is a semisolid pinkish grey coloured hollow organ covered by 3
layers called Meninges.

Layers of Meninges
 Dura mater
 Arachnoid mater
 Pia mater
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Cerebral cortex
The largest anatomical region of the brain containing the highest neural centers in the nervous system
called Cerebrum, whose outer or cortical part is known as Cerebral Cortex.
 The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and occupies the most of the cerebral cavity of the
skull. It consists of 2 symmetrical hemisphere connected by a broadband of Fibers known as
Corpus Callosum.
4 main grooves divide each hemisphere into 5 main lobes like -
 Frontal lobe :- Anterior part of the Cerebrum.
 Partial lobe :- Middle top part of the Cerebrum.
 Occipital lobe :- Posterior part of the Cerebrum.
 Temporal lobe:- Below partial and lateral part of the Cerebrum.
 Insula :- A small area lies in the lateral sulcus thus it can be seen at the surface of the brain.

Cortex is made up of outer grey matter and inner to the cortex is made up of White matter.
Some Cortical areas and their functions are as follows-
 Motor Area
It controls the activities of the voluntary muscle. It is present in the Frontal Lobe.
 Sensory Area
These are the areas for general sensation like touch, pain, temperature, pressure and are present in the
Partial Lobe.
 Visual Area
It is a sensory area present in the occipital lobe and acts as a visual centre.
 Auditory Area
It is a sensory area present in the temporal lobe and acts as a centre for Hearing.
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 Olfactory Area
It is present in the limbic area.
 Speech Area
It is present below premotor area in the frontal lobe. It regulates the activity of the muscles.
 Pre frontal Area
It is present in the anterior part of the frontal lobe and acts as a centre for judgement, reasoning etc.

Functions of Cerebral Cortex

 Acts as general sensory area
This is the highest centre for general senses like touch, temperature, and pain.
 Controls Movements
The motor and premotor areas of the cerebrum control the movements of Limbs, Trunk, Head etc.
 Regulation of functional activities of body
In partial lobe some areas acts as speech centre and some areas acts as writing centres.
 Control the eye movements
Dilatation of pupils,closing and opening of the eyelids are controlled by the frontal lobe.
 Acts as organ of mind
With the help of other areas the Prefrontal lobe is responsible for memory, intelligence, planning and
judgement.
 Act as higher center for special senses
Different areas of the cerebrum act as center like vision, hearing, taste, smell.
 Seat of conditional reflexes
Cerebral cortex is responsible for the establishment of conditional reflexes like learning process.

Thalamus
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A mass of grey mater that is collection of the nerve cells at the top of mid brain, which is present at the
both sides of the lateral wall of the third ventricle called Thalamus.
Structure
Each side of the thalamus consists of 5 main grey matters. The Thalamus sends efferent fibers to the
various sensory areas of the cerebral cortex. The thalamus receives afferent fibers from parts of the
brain and body.

Function
 Acts as relay station
The main function of the thalamus is to act as relay station. It receives various sensory impulses from
the different parts of the body and then sends them to the cerebrum for proper analysis.
 Centre for Crude Sensation
Thalamus serve as the center for crude touch, pressure etc.
 Alerting reaction
It plays a great role in the alerting reaction.
 Personality and Social Behaviour
It helps in the expression of characters through the frontal lobe of cerebral cortex.

Hypothalamus
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The hypothalamus is a small region of the brain. Its located at the base of the brain, near the pituitary
gland.
While its very small, the hypothalamus plays a crucial role in many important functions, including:
 releasing hormones
 regulating body temperature
 maintaining daily physiological cycles
 controlling appetite
 managing of sexual behavior
 regulating emotional responses
Anatomy and function
The hypothalamus has three main regions. Each one contains different nuclei. These are clusters of
neurons that perform vital functions, such as releasing hormones.
Anterior region
This area is also called the supraoptic region. Its major nuclei include the supraoptic and paraventricular
nuclei. There are several other smaller nuclei in the anterior region as well.
The nuclei in the anterior region are largely involved in the secretion of various hormones. Many of
these hormones interact with the nearby pituitary gland to produce additional hormones.
Some of the most important hormones produced in the anterior region include:
 Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH).CRH is involved in the bodys response to both physical
and emotional stress. It signals the pituitary gland to produce a hormone called
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH triggers the production of cortisol, an important
stress hormone.
 Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH).TRH production stimulates the pituitary gland to produce
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). TSH plays an important role in the function of many body
parts, such as the heart, gastrointestinal tract, and muscles.
 Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH).GnRH production causes the pituitary gland to
produce important reproductive hormones, such as follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and
luteinizing hormone (LH).
 Oxytocin. This hormone controls many important behaviors and emotions, such as sexual
arousal, trust, recognition, and maternal behavior. Its also involved in some functions of the
reproductive system, such as childbirth and lactation.
 Vasopressin. Also called antidiuretic hormone (ADH), this hormone regulates water levels in the
body. When vasopressin is released, it signals the kidneys to absorb water.
Somatostatin. Somatostatin works to stop the pituitary gland from releasing certain hormones, including
growth hormones and thyroid-stimulating hormones.
The anterior region of the hypothalamus also helps regulate body temperature through sweat. It also
maintains circadian rhythms. These are physical and behavioral changes that occur on a daily cycle. For
example, being awake during the day and sleeping at nighttime is a circadian rhythm related to the
presence or absence of light.
Middle region
This area is also called the tuberal region. Its major nuclei are the ventromedial and arcuate nuclei.
The ventromedial nucleus helps control appetite, while the arcuate nucleus is involved in releasing
growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH). GHRH stimulates the pituitary gland to produce growth
hormone. This is responsible for the growth and development of the body.
Posterior region
This area is also called the mammillary region. The posterior hypothalamic nucleus and mammillary
nuclei are its main nuclei.
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The posterior hypothalamic nucleus helps regulate body temperature by causing shivering and blocking
sweat production.

Pons
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 The pons is the largest part of the brainstem, located above the medulla and below the
midbrain. It is a group of nerves that function as a connection between the cerebrum and
cerebellum (pons is Latin for bridge).
 The pons develops from the embryonic metencephalon (part of the hindbrain, developed from
the rhombencephalon), alongside the cerebellum.
 The pons is a portion of the brain stem, located above the medulla oblongata and below the
midbrain. Although it is small, at approximately 2.5 centimeters long, it serves several important
functions. It is a bridge between various parts of the nervous system, including the cerebellum
and cerebrum, which are both parts of the brain.
 There are many important nerves that originate in the pons. The trigeminal nerve is responsible
for feeling in the face. It also controls the muscles that are responsible for biting, chewing, and
swallowing. The abducens nerve allows the eyes to look from side to side. The facial nerve
controls facial expressions, and the vestibulocochlear nerve allows sound to move from the ear
to the brain. All of these nerves start within the pons.

Function
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 The pons is involved in many autonomic and sensory functions including arousal, respiratory
processes, fine motor control, equilibrium, muscle tone, and the Circadian cycle (specifically
regulating sleep).
 It is also a vital portion of the brainstem considering that many cranial nerves arise from the
pons, including nerves that collect sensory information and control motor functions in the face.
 Regulates the recreation of saliva.
 Control reflexes of the body.

Cerebellum
The largest part of the hind brain situated under the occipital lobes of the cerebral hemisphere and
remains attached to the pons and medulla by 3 pairs of bands of nerve fibres, called Cerebellum.
Structure
The Cerebellum consist of a median portion of brain called Vermis which connect 2 lateral lobes or
hemispheres. Each hemispheres contain some prominent grooves, primary grooves, pre and post
pyramidal grooves which divide the cerebellum into many parts. The outer portion of cerebellum is
made up of grey matter and inner part is made up of white matter.

Functions
 It maintains normal muscle tone of the body.
 It controls the posture and equilibrium of the body.
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 It maintains normal erect posture of the body.

 It regulates the voluntary movement of the body.

Medulla oblongata
The conical expanded continuation of the spinal cord and below the pons called Medulla oblongata.
Structure
It measures about 28mm in length and about 24 mm in diameter. There is an anterior median grooves
on the midline of the anterior surface.

Function
 It acts as various centers which regulates cardiac, vasomotor and respiratory activities.
 It acts as relay centre for touch sensation.
 It controls visceral reflexes.
 It gives rise to IX,X,XI,XII cranial nerves
.

Ventricles of Brain
The hollow space of the brain is known as Ventricles.
Structure
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The cavities which are present in the brain are 4 in numbers and are filled with Cerebro Spinal Fluid
[CSF]. 2 ventricles are present in 2 cerebral hemisphere which are called Lateral Ventricles or 1st and
2nd Ventricles. The 2 lateral ventricles from 2 cerebral hemispheres open into a common central cavity
[3rd ventricle],known as Foramen of Monro. The 3rd Ventricle is the cavity of the Diencephalon. The
Aqueduct of Sylvius is the cylindrical cavity of the Mesencephalon. It connects the 3rd ventricle with the
4th ventricle of Rhombencephalon. The 4th ventricle is continued downwards as central canal of the
spinal cord.

Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is a part of the central nervous system. It is a long pipe-like structure arising from the
medulla oblongata, part of the brain consisting of a collection of nerve fibres, running through the
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vertebral column of the backbone. It is segmented with a pair of roots (dorsal and ventral roots)
consisting of nerve fibres joining to form the spinal nerves.
Structure Of Spinal Cord
 The Spinal cord runs through a hollow case from the skull enclosed within the vertebral column.
Spinal nerves arise from different regions of the vertebral column and are named accordingly,
the regions are – Neck, chest, pelvic and abdominal.
 Cross-section of spinal cord displays grey matter shaped like a butterfly surrounded by a white
matter.
 Grey matter consists of the central canal at the centre and is filled with a fluid called CSF
(Cerebrospinal fluid). It consists of horns (four projections) and forms the core mainly containing
neurons and cells of the CNS. There are two dorsal and two ventral horns.
 The white matter consists of a collection of axons permitting communication between different
layers of CNS. A tract is a collection of axons and carries specialized information. Ascending
tracts and descending tracts send and transmit signals from the brain respectively to various
nerve cells across the body.
 Spinal nerves act as mediators, communicating information to and from the rest of the body and
the spinal cord. We have 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
 Three layers of meninges surround the spinal cord and spinal nerve roots.
 Dura mater
 Arachnoid mater
 Pia mater
 Dura mater consists of two layers- periosteal and meningeal. Epidural space is present between
the two layers.
 Subarachnoid space lies between the arachnoid mater and pia mater. It is filled with
cerebrospinal fluid.
External structure
 The spinal cord is about 45 cm long and 1.25 cm wide and appears more or less cylindrical in
shape. Spinal cord is located in the vertebral canal. It has got 2 swellings, one in the cervical 6
segment called Cervical Enlargement. And other in the lumber 3 segment called Lumber
enlargement.
 The spinal cord rapidly narrow below the lumber enlargement and forms a cone shapped
structure called Conus Medullaries.
 conus medullaris becomes continuous with a fibrous cord called filum terminale.
Internal Structure:
 On the anterior side there is a deep fissure called the Anterior Median Fissure. On the posterior
side there is a shallow posterior median sulcus which continuous with a delicate portion called
Posterior Median Septum.
 The anterior median fissure and posterior median septum divided the Spinal cord into 2
portions. It mainly consists of central Grey Matter, periferal White Matter and a central canal.
Spinal Cord Nerves
 The spinal nerves consist of a group of 31 nerves. These nerves are attached to the spinal cord
by two roots- dorsal sensory root and ventral motor root.
 The sensory root fibres carry sensory impulses to the spinal cord. The motor roots, on the
contrary, carry impulses from the spinal cord
 The spinal cord nerves can be grouped as:
 Cervical
 Thoracic
 Sacral
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 Lumbar
 Coccygeal

Function Of Spinal Cord

 Important functions of Spinal Cord are mentioned below:
 Forms a connecting link between the brain and the PNS
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 Provides structural support and builds a body posture

 Facilitates flexible movements
 Myelin present in the white matter acts as an electrical insulation
 Communicates messages from the brain to different parts of the body
 Coordinates reflexes
 Receives sensory information from receptors and approaches towards the brain for processing.

Cerebrospinal Fluid
It is a clear, colourless, transparent alkaline modified tissue fluid present in the cerebral ventricles, spinal
cord and sub arachnoid spaces of CNS.
Functions of CSF
The CSF has many functions:
 CSF protects brain and spinal cord from trauma.
 CSF supplies nutrients to nervous system tissue.
 CSF removes waste products from cerebral metabolism.
Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) has two components: the somatic nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system. The PNS consists of all of the nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal
cord. Nerves are bundles of neuron fibers (axons) that are grouped together to carry information to and
from the same structure.
 The somatic nervous system is made up of nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles
and to sensory receptors. It is composed of afferent nerves that carry information to the central
nervous system (spinal cord) and efferent fibers that carry neural impulses away from the
central nervous system.
 The autonomic nervous system also consists of two components: the sympathetic division and
the parasympathetic division. This system mediates much of the physiological arousal (such as
rapid heart beat, tremor, or sweat) experienced by a fearful person in an emergency situation.
The sympathetic nervous system mobilizes the body to respond to emergencies.
The parasympathetic nervous system generally helps to conserve the body's energy. It controls normal
operations of the body such as digestion, blood pressure, and heart rate. It helps the body return to
normal activity after an emergency.

Cranial Nerves
Cranial nerves are nerves of the PNS that originate from or terminate in the brain. There are 12 pairs of
cranial nerves, all of which pass through foramina of the skull. Some cranial nerves are sensory nerves
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(containing only sensory fibers), some are motor nerves (containing only motor fibers), and some are
mixed nerves (containing a combination of sensory and motor nerves).
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Spinal nerve
A spinal nerve is a mixed nerve, which carries motor, sensory, and autonomic signals between the spinal
cord and the body. In the human body there are 31 pairs of spinal nerves, one on each side of the
vertebral column. These are grouped into the corresponding cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and
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coccygeal regions of the spine. There are eight pairs of cervical nerves, twelve pairs of thoracic nerves,
five pairs of lumbar nerves, five pairs of sacral nerves, and one pair of coccygeal nerves. The spinal
nerves are part of the peripheral nervous system.
Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic Nervous system
The part of the ANS composed of thoracic and lumber nerves which after origin enter into the ganglia of
sympathetic trunk which in turn generally send long motor fibres to the effector organs is called
Sympathetic Nervous System.
After originates from 1st thoracic to 12th thoracic segments and from 1st lumber to 3rd lumber
segments sympathetic nerves spreads over the eyes, lungs, heart, blood vessels, lymph nodes, skin,
uterus, urinary bladder, liver, pancreas, intestines, bile and adrenal glands.
Functions
 It increases heart rate and stimulates the conduction of cardiac impulse.
 It increases construction of blood vessels and increases blood pressure.
 It causes relaxation of bronchial muscles of lungs.
 It reduces the recreation of saliva, pancreatic and intestinal juices.
 It reduces the tone and movement of stomach.
 It increases blood sugar level.
 It inhibits bile release.
 It stimulates the secreation of adrenaline from adrenal gland and also the secreation of sweat.
 It increases dilation of pupil of eye.
 It constrict the urinary and rectal sphincters.
 It increases RBC count.
 It increases the secreation of tears.
Parasympathetic Nervous System
The part of the ANS composed of cranial nerves and sacral nerves which after origin enter into the
outlining parasympathetic ganglions which in turn send short motor fibres to the effector organs is
called Parasympathetic Nervous System.
Function
 It reduces heart rate and slow down the conduction of cardiac impulse.
 It increases construction of blood vessels and increases blood pressure.
 It causes construction of bronchial muscles of lungs.
 It increases the recreation of saliva, pancreatic and intestinal juices.
 It increases the tone and movement of stomach.
 It increases blood sugar level.
 It increases constriction of pupil of eye.
 It decreases RBC count.
 It decreases the secreation of tears.

THE NERVE IMPULSE TRANSMISSION

Polarization
(the neuron is not carrying an electrical impulse)
 Neuron membrane has a (+)charge outside and a (-) charge inside.
 Na+ ions are more abundant outside the cell.
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 K+ ions and negative ions are more abundant inside the cell.
 Sodium and potassium pumps maintain these ion concentrations.
Depolarization
(generated by a stimulus)
 Neuron membrane becomes very permeable to Na+ions, which rush into the cell.
 The neuron membrane then has a (-) charge outside and a (+) charge inside.
Propagation of the impulse from point of stimulus
 Depolarization of part of the membrane makes adjacent membrane very permeable to Na+
ions,and subsequent depolarization,which similarly affects the next part of the membrane, and
so on.
 The depolarization continues along the membrane of the neuron to the end of the axon.
Repolarization
(immediately follows depolarization)
 Neuron membrane becomes very permeable to K+ ions, which rush out of the cell.
 This restores the (+) charge outside and (-)charge inside the membrane.
 The Na+ ions are returned outside and the K+ ions are returned inside by the sodium and
potassium pumps.
 The neuron is now able to respond to another stimulus and generate another impulse.
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