PHYSIOLOGY

Levels of organization and the related fields of study

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

 System Organ Tissue Cell

Cardiovascular Heart Myocardium Muscle Cell

Integration between systems of the body
Homeostasis
 Homeostasis
Claude Bernard (1880’s)
‘constancy of the internal environment’

Walter B. Cannon (1929)

Regulation of a ‘relatively constant
internal environment’
Terms in homeostasis
 Negative feedback
 If a regulated variable decreases,
 System responds to make it increase, and vice versa
 Tends to be self correcting

 Set point
 Expected value of regulated variable
 Examples
 Core body temperature = 37º C

 Blood glucose (sugar) = 100 mg/dL

 Blood pH = 7.4

 Error signal
 Difference between value of set point and regulated
variable
Homeostasis
Summary
Physiological control systems keep regulated variables
within a desired range during homeostasis
Factors under
homeostatic control

 nutrients
 gases
 waste products
 pH
 salt and other electrolytes
 temperature
 volume and pressure
 Normal Ranges for Some Blood Values
Arterial pH 7.35-7.45
Bicarbonate 24-28 mEq/L
Sodium 135-145 mEq/L
Calcium 4.5-5.5 mEq/L
Oxygen content 17.2-22 ml/100ml
Urea 12-35 mg/100 ml
Amino acids 3.3-5.1 mg/100ml
Protein 6.5-8 g/100ml
Total lipids 400-800 mg/100ml
Glucose 75-110 mg/100ml
Homeostatic Mechanisms
Compensating regulatory responses that
correct deviations from a stable condition.
• Intracellular level
• e.g. allosteric modification of enzymes
• Local or Intrinsic level
• autoregulation within a tissue
• usually nervous or endocrine systems not required
• e.g. dilation of blood vessels in response to CO2
• Reflex control or Extrinsic level
• control system is outside the organ or tissue being
influenced
• nervous or endocrine systems involved
Antagonistic homeostatic control of heart rate
Tonic control of blood vessel diameter
Local vs. Reflex Control
 Variable to
Control

Sensor
Effector
Receptor

Integrating
Center
 Functions of the Integrator
 Possess a “set point”
 Look for error signals
 Respond by
controlling the
effector
 Positive Feedback Systems
 Reproductive hormone
cycles in females
 Action potentials in
nerve cells
 Uterine contractions
during childbirth

NOT always homeostatic

 Set-points can be modified
e.g. thermostat in brain
hypothalamus (integrator)
Increase in set-point for core body
temperature during fever

e.g. acclimatization to
environmental temperature,
altitude (increase red blood cells)

e.g. circadian rhythms

Loop efficiency can be altered
 Frequency
 Speed
 Sensitivity
 Anticipation (Feed-Forward Control)
 continual observation
 prediction from other information
 e.g. salivation in response to smell of food
 Arterial blood
pressure decrease
Variable

Heart and Baroreceptor

blood vessels decreases firing
Effector Receptor
Integrator

Efferent Afferent
Pathway
Brainstem Pathway
Homeostatic control of blood
sugar (glucose)
 Blood glucose negative feedback loop

Eating

Increased Blood Glucose

Pancreas Islets of Langerhans

Beta cells

Increased Insulin

Cellular Uptake of Glucose

Decreased Blood Glucose

 Glucose

Variable

Body cells Pancreas

liver, muscle, fat islet beta cells

Effector Receptor
Integrator
Pancreas
Insulin none
islet beta cells
Antagonistic homeostatic control of blood sugar

Decreased blood glucose

Pancreas alpha cells

Increased glucagon

Increased glucose synthesis

Increased glycogen breakdown

Increased blood glucose

 Antagonistic homeostatic control of blood sugar

Decreased blood glucose

Pancreas alpha cells

Increased glucagon

Increased glucose synthesis

Increased glycogen breakdown

Increased blood glucose

Insulin vs. glucagon
Regulasi fisiologi
 Homeostasis
 Regulasi tubuh menuju satu keseimbangan (fungsi
tertentu)
 Change in same level  stabil
 Kadar normal, set point, optimum level
 Allostasis
 Regulasi tubuh menuju beberapa keseimbangan
baru (sesuai kondisinya)
 Change in different level  stabil
Allostasis
 Sterling & Eyer, 1988
 Allostasis, allo (variable) stasis (stand)
 remaining stable by being variable
 Always change to meet a new stability
 Allostasis disebut juga heterostasis, jika
keseimbangan baru dapat dipastikan, misal
melalui persamaan/ riset , contoh :
CO = HR x SV
Allostasis: respons stres
Allostatic
Sensor
load

Mileu compensat Back to

Stress normal
changes ion
(homeostasis)

- +
pathophysiology New balance
(Allostasis)
Illness
Allostatic load
 Tipe 1
 Energy demand > energy supply
 Normal (optimal) life  survival mode
 Decrease the demand  regain a positive energy
balance
 Setelah stres terlewati  back to normal
 Co : puasa, eccentric stretch
Allostatic load
 Tipe 2
 Kelebihan konsumsi energi (suplai berlebih)
 Picu sekresi berlebih dari hormon
 Picu imbalance dari otonom
 Picu sekresi sitokin pro inflamasi
 Jika berlangsung kronis  disfungsi, sakit
 HANYA DAPAT DIPERBAIKI DENGAN
PERUBAHAN LIFESTYLE !!