Kharoṣṭhī and Brahmi scripts -- context of links with Indus

Script hieroglyphs to catalogue metalwork, metalcastings

Comparable to the archaeometallurgical challenge of delineating the Maritime Tin Route linking
Hanoi and Haifa is the epigraphical challenge of tracing the roots of Kharoṣṭhī and Brahmi
scripts which signify Prakritam language speech syllables (together with Indus Script words of
Proto-Prakritam) on artifacts such as Asoka edicts, punch-marked/cast coins, Sohgaura copper
plate, Rampurva Asoka pillar copper bolt.

Indus Script signified Proto-Prakritam words of metalwork; Kharoṣṭhī and Brahmi scripts
signified syllables of Prakritam speech (parole).

Indus Script hieroglyphs (ca. 500 signs on text + ca. 100 pictorial motifs on artifacts of seals,
tablets, etc.) are rebus-metonymy layers of words from Meluhha (Proto-Prakritam) lexis of
metalwork.

Kharoṣṭhī and Brahmi scripts deployed together with Indus Script hieroglyphs, for example, on
punch-marked coins identified by W. Theobald signified syllabic pronunciation of names of
janapadas or guild-masters of mints or rulers. Hieroglyphs such as tree-on-railing, svastika,
elephant, tiger, fishes, crocodile snatching fish in its jaws, mountain-ranges continue to be used
on early punch-marked coins to signify metalwork catalogues, following the Indus Script
tradition of using the hieroglyph-multiplexes to signify technical specifications of metalwork or
metalcastings in mints.

See:
http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/06/an-object-lesson-for-art-historians.html
http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/07/nature-of-indus-writing-system-defined.html
http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/08/itihasa-of-bharatam-janam-traced-from.html
http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2014/10/indus-script-hieroglyphs-continued-use.html

In his 1890 monograph, Theobald lists 312 'symbols' deployed on punch-marked coins. He
revises the list to 342 symbols in his 1901 monograph. (W. Theobald, 1890, Notes on some of
the symbols found on the punch-marked coins of Hindustan, and on their relationship to the
archaic symbolism of other races and distant lands, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,
Bombay Branch (JASB), Part 1. History , Literature etc., Nos. III & IV, 1890, pp. 181 to 268,
Plates VIII to XI W. Theobald, 1901, A revision of the symbols on the ‘Karshapana’ Coinage,
described in Vol. LIX, JASB, 1890, Part I, No. 3, and Descriptions of many additional
symbols, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Bombay Branch (JASB), No. 2, 1901 (Read
December, 1899).

Coin of Gurgamoya, king of Khotan. Khotan, 1st century CE.

Obverse: Kharoṣṭhī legend: "Of the great king of kings, king of Khotan, Gurgamoya. Reverse:
Chinese legend: "Twenty-four grain copper coin."

1
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharosthi#/media/File:KingGurgamoyaKhotan1stCentury
CE.jpg

slarṣṭun īhṭṣorahK

ㄨㄨ۱ ㄨㄨ ㄨ۳ ㄨ۲ ㄨ۱ ㄨ ۳ ۲ ۱

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ȜȜȜ੭ ȜȜȜ ȜȜ੭ ȜȜ Ȝ੭ Ȝ ੭

71 61 51 41 31 21 11

۲ʎ ۱ʎ

211 111

cf.
Salomon, Richard. Kharoṣṭhī syllables used as location markers in Gāndhāran stūpa architecture.
Pierfrancesco Callieri, ed., Architetti, Capomastri, Artigiani: L’organizzazione dei cantieri e
della produzione artistica nell’asia ellenistica. Studi offerti a Domenico Faccenna nel suo
ottantesimo compleanno. (Serie Orientale Rome 100; Rome: Istituto Italiano per l’Africa e
l’Oriente, 2006), pp. 181–224.

Unicode block, Kharoṣṭhī :

2
Bactrian and Indo-Scythian Kingdoms, Apollodotus I, AR Drachm, 160-150 BC, Taxila Mint
BAΣIΛEΩΣ-AΠOΛΛOΔOTOY-ΣΩTHPOΣ
Elephant standing right, KP ligate below
Kharoṣṭhī script (Maharajasa Apaladatasa tratasara)
Humped bull standing right, C below
16mm across the flats, 2.44g
Mitchener 1754; Bopearachchi Série 4
http://www.beastcoins.com/Bactria-IndoScythian/Bactrian.htm

Kharoṣṭhī and Brahmi

3
[quote]The Kharoṣṭhī Script was more or less contemporarily with the Brahmi script, appearing
around the 3rd century BCE mainly in modern-day northern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan,
although some examples do occur in India. Like Brahmi, Kharoṣṭhī seemed to have been
developed for Prakrit dialects (which was the common speech of everyday life as opposed to
Sanskrit which was the liturgic language). For instance, the earliest example of Brahmi
and Kharoṣṭhī did not have the dipthongs /ai/, /au/, and the vocalic /r/ and /l/, which existed in
Sanskrit but not in Prakrit. In particular, Kharosthi seemed to be used primarily for the Prakrit
dialect of Gandhari. The evidence for this is in the form of a diacritic mark that denotes a
transformation of an intervocalic constant (sometimes from a stop to a fricative), which existed
in Gandhari.

Structurally, the Kharoṣṭhī and the Brahmi are nearly identical. The characters in both represent a
constant followed by the short vowel /a/ (Lawrence Lo's notation: a "C-a" sign). Both denote
change in vowel by adding marks to a sign. Consonant clusters are formed in both system by
juxtaposing two signs closely together, sometimes forming a ligature. There are some difference,
though. For one, while Brahmi had different signs for different initial vowels, Kharoṣṭhī used
the same marks that change vowels in C-a signs on the sign for initial /a/ to denote other initial
vowels. Another difference is that while Brahmi differentiated long and short version of the same
vowel, Kharoṣṭhī used the same sign for both.
Eventually the Kharoṣṭhī script fell out of use by the 3rd or 4th century CE, and the descendent
of Brahmi eventually took hold in the northwestern India to Assam in the east -- the extent of
Asoka Empire and the outlying areas. [unquote]
http://www.tuninst.net/LINGUISTICS/script-brahmi/brahmi.htm

Comparison of Brahmi, Kharoṣṭhī

Myanmar and Telugu scripts

[quote]In the following section the aksharas of both basic Kharoṣṭhī and basic Brahmi script are
presented. There are many variations to the basic letter form, but Lawrence Lo had simplified
them, and had presented at the most canonical shape.
UKT: I have split up the original charts for ease of comparison and have included Myanmar and
Telegu characters. As in the case of all presenting all Brahmi-derived scripts the vowel and
consonant aksharas are presented in two groups. I have followed the usual practice of presenting
the consonants: as regular consonants (varg) and semivowels and others (non-varg) groups.

U Kyaw Tun, M.S. (I.P.S.T., U.S.A.) has provided lucid comaprisons

between Kharoṣṭhī and Brahmi scripts which evolved almost simultaneously ca. 3rd century
BCE in Northwest Bharatam. Excerpts from his insights are given below.

The orthography of the scripts show that they were independently designed with little exchanges
of graphics. However, the diacritical markings to change the basic consonant-a syllable into
syllables such as consonant-i, consonant-o, consonant-au, consonant-u (with long or short
vowels) seem to follow a characteristically uniform system of modification of the base
grapheme.

4
I find little evidence of derivation from Indus Script hieroglyphs, either in Kharoṣṭhī script or in
Brahmi script. I do not know if Aramaic script had any influence on either of these two scripts
which were deployed, say, on early punch-marked and cast coins to signify names of Janapadas
or names of mints or rulers/guild-masters.

Vowel aksharas

Consonant aksharas

In keeping with the tradition the consonant aksharas are divided into two groups:
1 Varg -- the group-able made up of regular consonants -- rows r1 to r5
2. non-Varg -- ungroupable made up of semivowels, etc. -- rows r6 and r7
The following tables are redrawn in accordance with the traditional way of presenting Myanmar
aksharas. Note the inclusion of {a.} which is considered both as a vowel and a consonant.

5
6
Example in Kharoṣṭhī and Brahmi, of strokes added to indicate different vowels following the
consonant {ka.} and {la.} [unquote]

Kharoṣṭhī :

Brahmi:

http://www.tuninst.net/LINGUISTICS/script-brahmi/brahmi.htm

7
Indus Valley Script - 2600BC:

2600-1900 BC
Writings from Indus Valley
civilisation

The earliest script in India so far

known is the Indus
Valley pictographic script. Over 4000
symbol bearing seals have been
discovered in the Indus Valley.

8
 2600-1900 BC
Writings from Indus Valley
civilisation

Another seal from the Indus Valley

- the Harappan signs are associated
with flat, rectangular stone tablets
called seals

2600-1900 BC
Indus valley script

The script of Mohen-jo-daro

and Harappa is called Proto-
Indian. The script appears to
be phonetic and has
ideographic origin. The
specimen are all in the form
of seals.
The deciphering of the
script is still being done.

2600-1900 BC
Indus valley script

Indus Script it is said to be

the ancestor of the both, the
secular Brahmi as well as
the traditional vernacular
scripts of India. (This theory
is still being debated)

9
 Chart showing the development of
Devanagari Letters from Indus script

Oral Tradition: Even though the system of writing was

known, the preservation of knowledge
was mainly done through an oral
tradition - this was because oral means
was believed to be better than writing in
terms of capturing the expressions and
meanings of language.

Scribe Recording
Perhaps this seems to be the
earliest record of writing
showing a scribe (on the
left bottom corner)
recording the event
happennings in the
courtroom of King
Suddhodana.

Ashoka and the Brahmi Script - 3rd Century BC:

10
 3rd Century BC
Brahmi Inscription

Asoka Edict on the

Rummindei pillar
Brahmi, the script of the
brahmans is written from
left to right. It is the mother
of all Indian scripts
including the Devanagari
script.
-Ashoka used this script for
his inscriptions, carved into
the face of rocks or on stone
pillars

3rd Century BC
Brahmi Inscription

Fragment of the 6th

Pillar Edict of Ashoka (238
BCE), inBrahmi, sandstone

3rd Century BC
Kharoṣṭhī inscription
derived from brahmi script

Rock Edict at habazgarhi

Kharoṣṭhī or Zarthustri, the
script of the clerks is written
from right to left

another example
of Kharoṣṭhī inscription:

11
 3rd Century BC
Girnar Inscription,
Brahmi

Ashoka's First Rock

inscription at Girnar
These inscriptions on rocks
and pillars, proclaim
Asoka's reforms and
policies and promulgate his
advice to his subjects.

3rd Century BC
Simplified Brahmi

This are the basic forms of

the letters of Brahmi Script

12
 3rd Century BC to 12th
Century
Brahmi Development

This chart depicts

the development of other
scriptsfrom the brahmi
script

Ashoka to 14th Century - development of Brahmi

Script:

13
 3rd Century BC to 540AD
Brahmi Variations

These are the variations of

the Brahmi Script

2nd Century BC
Barahut stupa, Brahmi
Inscription:

The stupa contains

numerous birth stories of
the Buddha's previous lives,
or Jataka tales.

14
 1st Century BC
Phabosa Inscription,
Brahmi:

Inscriptions from the temple

of Parisnath at Phabosa

4th Century AD
Allahabad Pillar
Inscription:

The stupa is belongs to

Samudragupta, Gupta Script

5th Century AD
Siddham Letter 'a' :

The siddham letterforms have been used

for meditative purposes. These are a
varient of the Brahmi script.

992 AD
Deval Inscription,
Brahmi:

Inscription by King Lulla,

Nagari Lipi, 992 A.D.

15
 11th CentuaryAD
Tamil manuscripts

Tamil inscription, from

the Brihadisvara
temple inThanjavur

12 Centuary AD
Ratnapur Inscription,
Brahmi:

Inscription by King
Jajalladev, Nagari Lipi,
12th Century A.D.

1337 AD
Telgu-kannada script:

Donepundi Grant-deed of
Namaya-Nayak,
Telgu-Kannada
1337 A.D.

16
 1400 AD
Nandi Nagari Incription
from Vijaynagar

14th Centuary AD
Veeraraghava Grant-deed
Vettelulu Lipi,

This chart shows the modern

descendants of the ancient Brahmi
script.
- Brahmi seems ancestral to most of the
scripts of South Asia, Southeast Asia,
some Central Asian scripts like Tibetan
17
 and Khotanese, and possibly Korean
hangul (1444 AD).

Tamil Manuscripts - 6th - 18th Century:

16th CentuaryAD
Christian prayers written
in Tamil, on palm leaf
manuscripts

18th CentuaryAD
Tamil manuscripts

Stack of manuscripts in
Palm leaves enclosed in a
brass frame

18
 18th CentuaryAD
Scribe

Scribe using metal pen to

write on dried palm leaves.

Devanagiri Manuscripts - 9th - 17th Century:

Bamboo pens - also

known as Reed pens used
for writing devanagiri
script. The 45 degree cut is
the reason for the thick and
thin features of the
letterings.

19
 1630 AD
Devanagiri Manuscript of
Bhagavata Purana

16th CentuaryAD
Jain Instructions using old
Gujarathi prose describing
how to live a jain way of
life.

17th CentuaryAD
Devanagiri Manuscript

17th CentuaryAD
Devanagiri Manuscript

20
 Details of the above
Devanagiri Manuscript

18th CentuaryAD
Devanagiri Manuscript -
depicting the battle of
Kurukshetra

18th CentuaryAD
Devanagiri ManusScript

21
 Details of the above
Devanagiri ManusScript

Mughal Writings - 14th - 18th Century:

16th CentuaryAD
A page from the copy of
the holi Quran - probably
transcibed in Lucknow.

22
 16th CentuaryAD
Detail from a
painting depicting a
massacre following the
destruction of the tomb of
Imam Husayn at Kerbela.
1595, India

The next section will illustrate the

Part II (to be continued)
history of typography using the
technology of the printing press.

References for the above history and

images courtesy:
Typography of Devanagri, Volume I, by
Bapurao S. Naik
and
The Book in India, edited by B. S.
Kesavan, National Book Trust India, N
Delhi, 1986

Other useful Links:

The Ancient Indus Valley Script and
Interpretations

Indus Script from Wikipedia:

Indus Script from Ancient Scripts:

Brahmi Script from Wikipedia:

Brahmi Script from Ancient Scripts:

Devanagiri Script from Wikipedia:

23
 The Indic Language Fonts

Link to Typography in India:

If you'ld like to add or contribute to

this page, do write to designinindia

http://www.designinindia.net/design-thoughts/writings/history/india-history-type-design1.html

Harwan terracotta with Kharoṣṭhī numerals: 20, 20, 1 = 41

http://www.koausa.org/Monuments/PlateXXII.jpg

See: http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/scripts.html

Oldest Buddhist Bark Texts Claimed

A fragment of Buddha's teachings - AP picture (computer enhanced)

Visit the website: Early Buddhist Manuscripts Project
The British Library / University of Washington Early Buddhist Manuscripts Project was founded
in September 1996 in order to promote the study, editing, and publication of a unique collection

24
of fifty-seven fragments of Buddhist manuscripts on birch bark scrolls, written in
the Kharoṣṭhī script and the Gandhari (Prakrit) language that were acquired by the British
Library in 1994. The manuscripts date from, most likely, the first century A.D., and as such are
the oldest surviving Buddhist texts, which promise to provide unprecedented insights into the
early history of Buddhism in north India and in central and east Asia.
Extract from an article by Dalya Alberge
The British Library has discovered remarkable manuscript fragments which it says may be as
significant for Buddhist scholars as the Dead Sea Scrolls are for Christianity and Judaism. The
manuscripts, birchbark scrolls that look like "badly rolled up cigars" when first shown to the
library, are believed to be the earliest surviving Buddhist text. The exact origin is unknown
beyond that they were probably found in Afghanistan in earthen jars.
"These will allow scholars to get nearer to what Buddha said than ever before."the deputy
director of the library's Oriental and Indian Office Collection, Mr Graham Shaw said. They date
from the end of the first century AD or the beginning of the second century AD. Apart from
bringing scholars closer to the original language of the Buddha, this could corroborate the
authenticity of teachings recounted in later text.
The manuscripts include 60 fragments, ranging from the Buddha's sermons to poems and
treatises on the psychology of perception. The library acquired them 18 months ago from a
British dealer. "Their value was incalculable", Mr Shaw said. " How would you put a value on
the Dead Sea Scrolls?" It is believe they are part of the long-lost canon of the Sarvastivadin Sect
that dominated Gandhara - modern north Pakistan and east Afghanistan - and was instrumental in
Buddhism's spread into central and east Asia.
Gandhara was one of the greatest ancient centres of Buddhism. Mr Shaw explained: "The scrolls
tell us something about the way Buddhists passed on the teachings, which were for a long time
passed on orally." After Buddha's death, his disciples are said to have gathered in assemblies
where they recited his sermons and organised them into what came to be the Buddhist canon.
Although nothing is known of their provenance, their attribution has been confirmed by the
University of Seattle's Professor Richard Salomon, one of the world's greatest scholars
of Kharoṣṭhī - a script derived from the Aramaic alphabet that was restricted to a small area of
India. They were he said, "the Dead Sea Scrolls of Buddhism". Years of study lay ahead before
the text can be deciphered, analysed and compared with existing texts.
The fragments include tales told on Lake Anavatapata's banks at an assembly of the Buddha and
his disciples. Another is one of Buddha's sermons on the rhinoceros horn (Suttanipata). "The
rhinoceros and its horn in particular is a symbol of non-attachment to material things ... it is not a
herd animal. It just wanders alone."
The Times

http://web.archive.org/web/20001009184406/http://www.buddhanet.net/mag_scr.htm
Separation Anxiety:
The Conservation of a 5th century Buddhist
Gandharan Manuscript
by Susan Sayre Batton
February 21, 2000
(click on small images to go to full page images with captions)
"Then, in the midst of the gods of the heaven of the thirty-three, a son of a god was dwelling in
the Sudharma, the palace of the gods. In a huge heavenly mansion, surrounded by great divine

25
opulence and great groups of divine young women, he played with them and made love. After he
had enjoyed this divine opulence, during the night, he heard a voice:
"The son of a god will die on the seventh day. When he has died, he will be reborn again in the
Indian continent, and there too he will expense seven states of rebirth. After experiencing seven
states of rebirth, he will be reborn in Hell.
If even once in a hundred times he is reborn as a man, he will be poor and blind -- by him this
was heard."
So begins the translation of one of the 5th century Buddhist sutras found within a
recentlydiscovered early manuscript.
The Project
In the fall of 1998, a professional numismatist, with a specialty in
Classical antiquity, brought an early manuscript to my studio for
consultation. (Fig.1) The elongated leaves were brittle,
compressed together, water damaged, and folded into a tight "S"
curve, like a wad of dollar bills after the wash cycle. This
manuscript was found in the Bhamiyan cave region in modern
Afghanistan, purportedly from the 5th century, on birch bark, and
written in the Kharoṣṭhī script.
Fig. 1 The owner's hope was that the manuscript leaves could be opened
and separated, in order to be translated. He explained to me that
this manuscript was extremely rare, and that the owner hoped to discover any missing links to
the history of early Buddhism.
Ethical Considerations
But before agreeing to take this project on, I had several philosophical and ethical questions. I
am familiar with many types of Asian books and manuscripts; and have considerable experience
examining and treating early Buddhist sutras on paper & Indian palm-leaf manuscripts. (Fig.
2) These Indian and Himalayan manuscript types provoke inquiry and ethical considerations,
especially issues regarding the treatment of sacred objects. As with most ethical questions, there
are a wide variety of answers, depending on the opinions of
religious and museum specialists.
When Buddhist sutras are found inside sculptures,
conservators and curators often disagree on the
appropriateness of removing these rolled-up documents from
their consecrated compartments and treating them individually
as works on paper. Additionally, some published accounts
insist on the importance of having a religious official re-
consecrate the sutras prior to insertion back into the sculptural
cavity. Fig. 2
Indian palm-leaf manuscripts present fewer ethical problems
for the conservator, as they are often collected individually for their illustrated images, and many
beautiful examples exist in museums, libraries, and private collections. Palm leaf manuscripts
were probably in use as early as the 2nd century, but no extant leaves survive earlier than the
10th century. Because palm-leaf is still used today in India for certain religious writings, much is
known about the manufacture and treatment of the material.
Birch Bark

26
 But what about birch bark? Prior to the day last fall when I first
examined this manuscript, I was completely unfamiliar with the
material as a support for writing. Admitting this to the client in
our initial meeting, I took several slides, and was given a small
bag of manuscript fragments (Fig. 3) in order to begin research
and testing on an appropriate treatment methodology. To be
honest, I didn't have very high hopes, and, as I talked to
colleagues about the project -- I couldn't find anyone else in
Fig 3 conservation familiar with this type of early manuscript. I was
anxious about treating this object for many reasons: the object
was purportedly from the 5th century, it might be a missing link to the history of Buddhism, and
it was also extremely valuable. So, research and testing had to resolve whether this treatment
would provide the desired results.
Initial research
Before commencing a literature survey, I consulted several colleagues who had great experience
with manuscripts, early non-paper collections, and Indian art in general. Colleagues familiar with
papyrus were particularly helpful, and other colleagues tried to convince me that the manuscript
must be on palm-leaf, which was my initial error as well. A particularly helpful consultation was
with Nancy Turner, Manuscript Conservator at the J Paul Getty Museum. I brought my slides
and my fragments up to her lab, and we examined them under the microscope, and they were, in
fact, bark. We could clearly see the laminated layers of very thin barks and examine the inks and
written inscriptions very clearly.
The literature survey was sparse but useful, with a great deal of historical data, but little
information on conservation treatment.
History of birch bark as a material for writing
(Fig. 4) The research in Butterworth's Conservation of Manuscripts and Paintings of South-
East Asia, revealed that birch-bark (called bhoja-patra) was a primary writing material along
with palm-leaf in India before paper. Birch bark was mentioned as a writing material by the
Greek historian Q. Curtius, noting its wide use during Alexander's invasion by Hindus. Early
extant manuscripts date to the 2nd and 3rd centuries, written in the Kharoṣṭhī script. Fragments
survive from a range of time periods, and the material is described throughout Indian
literature. Bhoja-Patra's use diminished in the Mughal period when paper replaced it as a writing
material, but it still has a sacred status in India today.
Despite its status as a sacred material, all of the literature
focused on bhoja-patra's use as a support for writing.
Buddhist sutras were written by monks, and often sponsored
by donors, who might be high lamas or officials. The
manuscripts are not illustrated and have no history of
association with consecrated sculptures or images. Bhoja-
patras were literally the Ancient database of Buddhism in
India.
Gandhara Fig 4
The manuscript brought to my studio, now called the "Los
Angeles manuscript" was found in the Bamiyan cave region of modern Afghanistan. In ancient
times, this area was part of Gandhara, the region invaded by Alexander the Great in 326 BCE.
Gandhara became a second Holy Land of Buddhism, and most extant sculpture from the region

27
took the form of Buddhist cult objects, Buddhas and Boddhisattvas, (Fig. 5) like this
Boddhisattva sculpture from the 3rd century in the Norton Simon Museum, or architectural
ornament of Buddhist monasteries. Because of the strong influence of the Greeks and Romans,
Gandaran sculpture reveals many Western classical elements, including the treatment of the robe
and its heavy folds, and the physiognomy of the central figure. Interaction through caravan trade
routes and the Silk Route in particular maintained these stylistic exchanges.

Fig 5 Fig 6
Bamiyan Caves
One of the greatest sites in Gandhara is Bamiyan, a mountain valley in north-central
Afghanistan. (Fig. 6) A high cliff forms one side of the valley and is honeycombed with
monastic dwellings, bounded on either side by colossal Buddhas in niches cut out of the rock.
The largest, depicted here, is 174 feet high, and in the Gandharan style. (Fig. 7) The region is full
of monasteries, stupas, and caves, some with rich interior depositories of paintings, murals, and
manuscripts.

Fig. 7 Fig. 8
In the studio
The literature states that the inner bark of the birch tree was used for writing. (Fig. 8) After being
peeled off the tree, the bark was dried. Oil was then applied over it and it was polished. Layers
were joined together by a natural gum. Finally it was cut to a suitable size and kept in
between wooden covers. The ink used for writing on birch bark was "Indian black, a carbon ink.
It was prepared by burning almond shells to charcoal, which was then boiled with cow's urine.
This ink is said to have a special brilliance and is fast to washing." Tests have shown birch bark
sheets to be typically 0.2 - 0.5 mm thick, and contain a cellulose content of 38%. Additionally,
birch bark is highly soluble in organic solvents, but not soluble in cold water.

28
Initial research complete, I began to test the fragments in the
studio. (Fig. 9) The inks proved stable, as predicted in the
literature, and the birch bark itself became supple in high
humidity and contact with water, without staining. Bolstered
by these results, I agreed to take on the project.
Treatment
Once we had the manuscript in the studio, we began detailed
written and photographic documentation prior to treatment.
(Fig. 10) I had decided to use humidity to attempt to open, Fig 9
separate, and flatten the leaves. But before I describe the
steps employed, I would like to read the only historical account I could find in the literature for
separation.
It reads:
"In the 1930's, the Musee Guimet in Paris had acquired bundles of birch bark found at Bamiyan
in Afghanistan. Any attempt to open the sheets was resulting in the breaking of the sheets into
small bits. Water vapor had no effect on separating them. Finally, hot paraffin oil was used to
soften and separate the stuck sheets. The reason for choosing paraffin was its clarity and
preservative quality. The fragments were immersed in cold oil which was then heated on a slow
fire for some time until a light smoke started coming from the oil. In this condition it was
possible to detach the leaves from one another with the help of a pair of tweezers. The mud split
up easily and each piece was cleaned, drained and laid on a sheet of glass. Each fragment, along
with the oil, was sealed in glass. The edges of the glass sheets were sealed with paraffin wax."
They go on to point out the primary disadvantage of this treatment is their weight and bulky
storage requirements, but clearly there are other disadvantages!

Fig. 10 Fig. 11
The Conservation Treatment
Since the inks were stable, and the bark impervious to water staining, I began humidifying the
manuscript using an ultrasonic humidification chamber made from a photo tray and plastic
sheeting and maintaining 80% relative humidity (RH). (Fig. 11) While watching carefully for
excess precipitation, the manuscript underwent humidification in this fashion for several days.
To my great satisfaction, the leaves began to relax, but were not wet. I continued to humidify the
manuscript in this fashion for another 72 or more hours, which allowed me to begin carefully
manipulating the "block".

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 Fig 12 Fig 13
As you can see, I was able to begin to open the entire manuscript from its tight "S" configuration
to a looser shape. (Fig. 12) Maintaining a minimum of 70 - 80% RH, the entire block not only
began to open, but the outer leaves began to separate as well. (Fig 13) Soon I was able to begin
separating the outer most leaves with the mechanical aid of a Teflon coated microspatula and
removing them completely from the block. Despite all of this humidification, the leaves were
still extremely brittle and fragile, and great care had to be employed. Also -- most leaves were
split down the center, and had many other fractures and loose attachments. At many times in this
project, more than one pair of hands and eyes were needed, both to handle the delicate leaves,
and double check accurate collation of a manuscript in a non-Roman alphabet.
Once the first group of 6 outer leaves were removed, they were placed on a damp blotter and
Gore-Tex layer, and gently held in place until the top of the "blotter sandwich" could be placed
on top. Needless to say, this first group's successful separation was extremely exciting around the
studio, and I called the owner with the initial good news.
We continued the treatment, and subsequent leaves also separated in this fashion, followed by
further humidification once flat, followed by flattening between dry cotton waterleaf blotters. In
the end, the leaves opened up to approximately 2 inches high by 14 inches wide, from the
original 2 x 3 inch folded object.
Presentation
Since the goal of this project was translation of the manuscript(s), I
recommended Mylar encapsulation without repair of the individual leaves. This
way, the leaves would remain flat and could be handled, and there would not be
any repair tissues obscuring any text. We designed a 14 x 18" Mylar package,
dividing each sheet into four rows to accommodate the manuscript leaves. Each
package contained two Mylar sheets and horizontal rows of double stick tape.
(Fig 14) The bottom Mylar sheet was clamped to the work table, and, working
together, we would bring over each manuscript leaf one at a time, in order; lift
Fig 14 the tape paper, and seal down the "row" to lock in the leaf. I was so afraid
of losing the order or flipping the leaves, since I don't read Kharoṣṭhī or
Sanskrit, that we were extremely careful about collation.

30
 Fig 15
Success
In the end, the treatment was a great success. (Fig. 15) All of the leaves separated, and remained
flat in their encapsulated packages. There were fragments and areas of birch-bark leaf loss, just
like any ancient material like papyrus, but all the scraps and fragments were saved and
encapsulated in the precise order of the original folded object.
Translation
After the final meeting with the very pleased owner, and the work was released from the studio,
the manuscript was taken away for translation. After being photographed, transparencies were
sent to Richard Salomon, the author of Ancient Buddhist Scrolls from Gandhara, a publication of
the British Library. This book came out in June 1999, six months after my research and
treatment. In the book, Mr. Saloman states:
"As the Dead Sea Scrolls have changed our understanding of Judaism and early Christianity, so a
set of 29 scroll fragments acquired in 1994 by the British Library promise to improve our
knowledge of the history of Buddhism".
This surprising discovery in 1994 revealed over two dozen texts which had not been identified
with previously known texts in other Buddhist languages and traditions.
After Mr. Saloman's initial consultation, it was sent to Dr. Gregory Schopen at UCLA, who
translated the manuscript. This was the result: the 40-odd leaves or fragments were two complete
books, or texts, and the technical name for the script is "upright Calligraphic Gupta". The larger
text was a previously known Buddhist sutra and the equivalent of 37-40 leaves. The
transliteration and translation were sent to me along with the information that the "smaller of the
two books, which Dr. Schopen has dubbed the "Los Angeles Manuscript", consists of a seven
page incantation apparently unknown in contemporary manuscripts and thus of significantly
more interest to scholars." This manuscript is now in the process of being published by Dr.
Schopen, and is every bit the "missing link" to history as the owner had hoped.
I would like to thank the many colleagues and associates who assisted me in my research and
treatment, and in the preparation of this paper. In particular, thanks to aNancy Turner,
Manuscript Conservator at the J. Paul Getty Museum, for her consultation, and my studio
associate Micol Hebron. In addition, I would like to thank Dr. Page duBois, Professor of
Classical Studies and Comparative Literature at UC San Diego, Indian art specialists Christine
Knoke at the Norton Simon Museum and Dr. Stephen Little at the Art Institute of Chicago, and
the LACMA Conservation Center for use of their library and resources.
Susan Sayre Batton
Art Conservation & Consulting Services
Los Angeles, California
suesayre@aol.com
Bibliography
Agrawal, O.P., Conservation of Manuscripts of Southeast Asia.
Butterworth.

Agrawal,. O.P., "Investigations for preservation of birch-bark manuscripts",

Preprints of ICOM Committee for Conservation, Vith Triennial Meeting, Ottawa (1981)
Paper.

Filliozat, Jean, "Manuscripts on birch-bark (Bhurja patra) and their

31
preservation", The Indian Archives, 1 (1947) 102-8

Harle, J.C., The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent.

Penguin Books.
http://asianart.com/articles/batton/index.html

The Early Buddhist Manuscripts Project

The Early Buddhist Manuscripts Project was founded at the University of Washington in
September 1996 to promote the study, edition and publication of twenty‐seven unique birch‐bark
scrolls, written in the Kharoṣṭhī script and the Gāndhārī language, that had been acquired by the
British Library in 1994. Further discoveries have greatly increased the number of known
Gāndhārī manuscripts, and the EBMP is currently involved in the study of seventy‐six birch‐bark
scrolls (primarily in the British Library, the Senior Collection, the University of Washington
Libraries and the Library of Congress) as well as numerous smaller manuscript fragments (in the
Schøyen Collection, the Hirayama Collection, the Hayashidera Collection and the Bibliothèque
nationale de France). These manuscripts date from the first century BCE to the third century CE,
and as such are the oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts as well as the oldest manuscripts from
South Asia. They provide unprecedented insights into the early history of Buddhism in South
Asia as well as its transmission to Central Asia and China. The research results of the EBMP and
translations of the manuscripts are published by the University of Washington Press.
http://ebmp.org/

Tree leaves were used as a writing material in India and Southeast Asia to
record Buddhist scriptures, law, biographical information, and Sanskrit
literature. The leaves of the bai-lan tree (similar to palm leaves) were
trimmed, flattened, and polished smooth with sand. Characters were
scratched on the surface and colored in with a black, sooty pigment. To
finish the book, holes were drilled in the leaves, and the stack was bound
together on a cord or rod between wooden covers. Even after paper was
introduced into Tibet, Tibetan paper manuscripts still retained the
elongated, narrow look of the palm-leaf book.
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/Paper-exhibit/palmleaf.html

32
See: http://idp.bl.uk/ International Dunhuang Project (Silkroad online) 472,638 images.

Cave 16 at the
Mogao caves showing the entrance to cave 17 to the right. Stein's original image of this scene
was double exposed and he therefore recreated it by drawing the manuscripts onto the negative
of an image showing an empty Cave 16. Serindia Fig. 200, c. 1905. Photo 392/59(1) & Photo
392/59(2)
M. Aurel Stein © British Library
Map: Paper, Leather, clay and stone

Introduction
1-Before Paper
Elamite Stele
Cuneiform Tablets
Coins
Runic Calendar
2-The Book of the Dead
3-Parchment and Paper
Vellum
Paper
Batak Manuscript
Palm-leaf Manuscript
4-The Magnificence of the Word
Qur'an
Machsor
Jade Book
Life of Buddha
5-The Lombard Gradual

33
6-From Manuscript to Print
Latin Bible
Gutenberg Bible
Luther Bible
7-The Repository of Knowledge
Encyclopedia Maxima
Encyclopédie
8-Law and Identity
Patent of Nobility
Tombstone
9-The Book Preserves the Past
History and Travel
Kelmscott Chaucer
10-The Forbidden Word
Index Librorum
Compendium of Witchcraft
Banned Books
11- The Book's Reader
Epistles of St. Paul
La Commedia
Chained Book
Cosmographia
Chapbook
Educator guide
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/Paper-exhibit/Default.html

An edition of the Tocharian fragments IOL Toch 1 - IOL Toch 822 in the India Office Library,
London

Peyrot, Michaël
London: IDP, 2007.

Bibliographical reference:
Peyrot_2007.

CATALOGUE ENTRY
1
IOL Toch 1
H.149.14

Mahendrasena (Broomhead)
also numbered H.149.X.14.

Section: R
transcription:
l.1:

34
-llaṣṣäṃ − naṃ pilko wa alāṣmontaṃtsa śeśśamormeṃ po araṃśmeṃ mantsana(tar) ///l.2:
-yau ste se śaiṣṣe || gautamakapilne || raiweñ ṣemi lkānträ cai kätkri eśne ///l.3:
wlauwa aścī cets pilentaccī ywārc no ksa ṣemeṃts katsāñ śa- ///l.4:
yetse ceṃts : ṣemeṃts käryāñ pruknānträ räskre māka tsärkalyi : alyaik t· ///l.5:
(yä)kt-āñmä satāṣlñe kauc ka ṣ āṃtsne musnānträ : som halimak alyeṅkäṃ(ts) ///
transliteration:
l.1:
-llassaṃ − naṃ pilko wa alāṣmontaṃtsa śeśśamormeṃ po araṃśmeṃ mantsana- ///l.2:
-yau ste ‹s›e śaiṣṣe || gautamakapilne || raiweñ ‹ṣ›emi lkānt a cai atkri eśne ///l.3:
wlauwa aścī cets , pilentaccī ywārc no ksa ṣemeṃts katsāñ śa- ///l.4:
yetse ceṃts : ṣemeṃts äryāñ pruknānt a askre māka tsarkalyi : alyai [t·] ///l.5:
-kt-āñmä satāṣlñe kauc ka ṣ āṃtsne musnānt a : som halima alyeṅ aṃ[−]‹ › ///
Bibliography:
Broomhead_1962: 143-146 (edition)
r1: Krause_1952: 74 (translation)
r2ff: Schmidt_1974: 235 (translation)
r3: Thomas_1957a: 266 (translation)
r4: Schmidt_1974: 118 (translation)
r4: Thomas_1952: 37 (translation)
r4: Thomas_1995: 52 (translation)
r5: Schmidt_1974: 295, 327 (translation)

Section: V
transcription:
l.1:

http://idp.bl.uk/database/oo_cat.a4d?shortref=Peyrot_2007
Bronze reliquary and Kushana coins from a Bauddham relic deposit
Wardak stupa deposit, south-east Afghanistan
Gandhara period, late 2nd century AD
A reliquary which enlightens our view of Kushan history
In 1836, Charles Masson, an Englishman who was employed, among other things, as a spy by
the East India Company in Kabul, uncovered this highly polished bronze vase in one of
the stupas at Wardak, in Afghanistan. These primary cult monuments of Buddhism originated
from the funerary mound containing the Buddha's remains, and in fact the long inscription on the
vase claims that this particular stupa contained a relic of the Buddha. Although this is highly
unlikely, the inscription (written in the local Kharoṣṭhī script) is important in other respects. It is
dated the year 51 of the Kushan king Kanishka I, but cites his successor Huvishka (reigned
around AD 146-83); thus this is one of the key pieces of evidence in reconstructing the
chronology of the Kushan kings. It also mentions that the monastery was established by the
Mahasanghikas, one of the earliest sects, who greatly influenced the development of Buddhist
doctrine. They appear to have been powerful in Mathura, near Delhi, but this vase is the only
record of their existence in Afghanistan. Their presence so far north is a reflection of the great
expansion of Buddhism at this time.
The coins are a portion of the original votive deposit of sixty-six bronze coins of the Kushan
kings Vima Kadphises (reigned around AD 110-20), Kanishka I and Huvishka. Coins commonly

35
form part of the relic deposit in Buddhiststupas. They appear to be included purely as metal
objects, not for their monetary value.

http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/cm/b/bronze_reliquary_and_
kushan_co.aspx

Kharoṣṭhī writing: inscriptions, coins and gems. From the 3rd century. v. Chr. to the 5th
century. n. Chr. Only in northwestern India.

36
 Fig .: Karoshthī font
[Source: Jensen, Hans <1884 ->: The document in the past and present. - 3rd, neubearb. and
exp. Ed. - Berlin <East>: German Verl of Sciences, 1969. - Figure 338]..

Tocharian font

Fig .: Tocharian font

[Source: Jensen, Hans <1884 ->: The document in the past and present. - 3rd, neubearb. and
exp. Ed. - Berlin <East>: German Verl of Sciences, 1969. - Figure 349]..

37
 Fig .: wooden tablets with Tocharian Scripture Kucha (庫車), China, 5 /. 8 Century AD..
[Source: Wikipedia]
http://www.payer.de/exegese/exeg03.htm#5.2.1.

Isa Upanisad

Wellcome Library MS Indic alpha 37

isa1r.gif isa1v.gif
143.03 Kb 70.99 Kb
1055 x 473 759 x 345

38
Publisher & contact for Indology site: Dominik Wujastyk (2011): wujastyk@gmail.com

S. Kalyanaraman
Sarasvati Research Center
September 11, 2015

39