A Teacher's Guide to Classroom Assessment Understanding and Using Assessment to Improve Student Learning Susan M. Butler Cop- 7 Nancy D. McMunn SERVE Regional Educational Laboratory Greensboro, North CarolinaCopyighe © 2006 by John Wiley Sons, Ee. Al ight rere Published by Josey Bass ‘AWiley Impene 989 Marke Sree, Son Francico, CA94103:1741 wor jouepbas fom N10 0787978779 ; ISBN-13 9780-7879-7077-8 age 247 const a conimston of shi coprigh page. [No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, ore in rei tem, oF aramid in any frm ot by any mas tectonic, mechanic phoeacopyngreordng, scanning ur osberwie, excep at permuted under Sesion 107 oF 108 ofthe 1976 United Sates Copyright Ac, without ether the prior writen pesisin of the Phe, of authortin ‘rough parment of he appopsae per copy eto the Copyigh Clestnee Cente Inc, 222 Rosewood Drive Darwers, MA D123, 978-750-8400 fax 978-646-860, oF onthe Web at we copyright som. 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Te ancct Joy Bas diet cll our Customer {Care Deparment within the US 800.956.7759, cute the US. at 317-572-3986, or fx 317-572-4002 Jens ao pubes its books in vari of electronic formas, Some content shat appa in rit may not be sible in electronic book Printed in che United Sate f Ames PB rnin wosressRevising Feedback and Instructional Plans vycle by This chapter focuses on rounding out the Classroom Assessment following through with feedback to students and instructional modifications. Once assessment data are collected and inferences about student achievement are drawn, an instructional modification or strategy for helping the student is planned. This plan- ning can address any achievement gaps uncovered in the process of data collection and analysis. This last and fourth quadrant of the Classroom Assessment Cycle addresses car- rying out instructional modifications for one learner, a group of learners, or a class (G@ereeasHOUiMIpreKe isjpeMtorMaREEDH ere we focus on methods of making that follow-through occur. This quadrant of the cycle emphasizes differentiating instruction for one or more students based on the analysis of assessment data. It is not helpful to ascer cain that several students earned the same low score on a summative test and then decide to use the same instructional intervention with all of the low-performing students when the reasons underlying each student's poor performance may differ. is Differentiating instruction to match the needs of students is critical if learning is to improve. CRLAGRTORTAATERUGTOAAER chs quarane of the cyte alo Dimensions of quality instruction include assignments that are cognitively challenging, 131aligned to standards, validly assessed, have value beyond school, are motivating to stu- dents, and are appropriate for diverse learners, Properly understood. (TOR SIES § (Merrill, Drake, Lacy, Pratt, and the ID, Research Group, 1996, p. 6) As we presented in the Introduction, QS tc ind two of these factors are deeply inter- ‘woven with modifying instruction: assroom environment promoting learning snd QEGCREIESTESGAE PISCE. We will also discuss teacher beliefs and practices in this chapter because modifying instruction ro meet student needs does not occur without corresponding modifications in teachers’ views of teaching. This chapter answers these questions: ‘Which instructional strategies best fit particular learning targets? Whar is good feedback and how does it improve instruction? What is differentiated instruction? What are research-based best practices of teaching and how are they translated 10 classroom it rion? Teacher Beliefs and Current Practices ‘The authors have found thar teachers’ beliefs greatly influence their teaching prac- tices, For example, ifa teacher believes that some students are simply unable to learn, hhe will not invest a great deal of time in teaching these students. Similarly, if a teacher feels that the only way to motivate students to learn is through grading, very litle for- ative assessment will be found in that teacher's classroom. Such belief and practices bear directly on the ability of teachers to implement new assessment and instructional strategies. If ceachets wish to improve their assessment and instructional practices, Qi “fen mus fist examine the underlying ble ha inspite dee paces. To this end, we freque sur professional development se th a reflection activity in which teachers are prompted to respond to survey questions that help uncover their deep-seated assessment beliefs. One such survey can be found in Table 9.1. Before continuing, the reader may wish to pause and respond co this ‘Typically, in professional development sessions, several mismatches between “desit- ability” and “implementation” are found. The statements showing the widest dispat- ity are often statements 1, 2, 4, 8, and 9, which deal with assessment of learningRevising Feedback and Instructional Plans 133 TABLE 9.1. ASSESSMENT BELIEFS AND PRACTICES. First, eact to each statement by placing an "X” within the “Desirability” column ta indicate whether you f of high or low desirability. Then read each statement again and place an “X" within the “Implementation” col ‘whether you, personaly implement the stated actions rare. ow) or regularly thigh the statement is mn to indicate Statements About Assessment | Desirability Implementation ‘tow High’ Low 123 4 54 toh 2.3 4 5 1. Conscious efforts are made to assess student progress relative tonstretional goals that go beyond cal of information 2, Students’ instructional needs are often assessed, and instvtional decisions are often made based on student needs 3. Students can aniclately discuss thet process on key instretinal goals 1 Suudenis are involved in sivauating ther progress by gathering evidence lusing a porto or ather means) to how that they have mastered ey competencies 5. The number af assignments for which letter grades or percentage scores ar given is linited so that students {us mare on leaning than worying about “the grade” | i 16. Students often receive individualized feedback on { poi assignments oval and/or written comments} hat wil help them improve ‘The numberof high grades given na cassis never lite, 8 Students have many opportunites to make choices and take charge ofthe way they wil lear a patcula topic 8 Talking wth students about stengths ard goals for improvements key Source: Mean and Schenck, 1996 targets, student involvement in assessment, and student learning autonomy (choice). Although most teachers agree that the actions described in these statements are desit- able, most also admit that they are rarely implemented. Another beginning survey isthe self-checklist found in Exhibit 9.1, Like the pre- vious survey, this instrument also asks teachers to examine their own assessment beliefs and practices. You may wish to complete this survey also. In the survey, the statements that get question (2) marks ("I need help on this") most often are num- bers 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, and 9. These statements encompass assessment of learning targets, student involvement in assessment and Icarning, and instructional modification based upon assessment data| using the folowing ea ‘understand and do understand but donot do this 7:1 need help on this |___1. Lunderstand and can articulate in advance of teaching the achievement targets my studants are to hit. | 2. inform my students regularly about the achievement targets in terms they can uderstand | 2. | can transform these achievement targets into dependable assessments that yield accu'ate information | about learning, | 4. lunderstand the relationship between assessment and student motivation, and use assessment to | build student confidence. | | consistently use classroom assessment information to revise instruction. | | give frequent and descriptive (often specific feedback to students that inform their learning My students are actively involved in their own assessment. (My students actively communicate with others about their achievement status and improvement. | ‘My students can describe what achievement targets they are to hit and what comes nextin their learning. A, Chapoiue J, and Chappis, § (2004), Classroom assesement 3, p81! Assessment Taming Instiute, 217 §.¥¥ Alder, Sune From the results we have reviewed in numcrous training sessions using the (wo surveys, it is clear that the majority of respondents do nor routinely + Inform students about assessment results or instructional goals + Involve students in assessment + Assess student performance relative to instructional goals + Differentiate instruction based on assessment information. + Encourage student autonomy | All of the Assessment C} bulleted activities are important in carrying out the Classroom le. For example, the first three activities in the bulleted list are critical both co clarifying learning rargets and to collecting evidence of student learning, the firs evo quadrants of the cycle. GROOMER Suen MROnOMP M HER Dp NMMen ae well Lot dlferetatng istracin bed on asesment nf mation clay invlves the quadtne of nabing dat and maiinginsrucon, ‘Once the survey results are tabulated for the participants in our professional devel: ‘opment session, we often discuss the results with the whole group, particularly high- lighting the mismatches found berween the desirability and implementation sectionsRevising Feedback and Instructional Plans of the first survey and alo highlighting che numbers with question marks on the sec- cond survey: Ie was in one of these whole group discussions that Marcie, a math teacher. articulated a response representative of the feelings of many other teacher participants: When you lay it out like chat, it makes me realize that I'm still assessing students I was assessed. My teachers never tald us what we were supposed to learn and never involved in the assessment process (unless we graded each others’ papers when the teacher called out the answers). The only results I really got were graded papers and report cards and those always came afer a task. I dont remember ever hav ing an assessment that helped me understand what I needed to study in order to. improve. Irs depressing, but I see myself doing these same things, now that I'm a teacher. Assessment is something I do at the end of teaching (Butler, personal com- ‘munication, 1999) Marci’ statement reiterates sentiments we have heard again and again QS AF such beliefs and practices perpetuate, there i litle chance that improvement in J the w assessment will cake place. How can teachers climb out of this unrelenting cycle of “assess as you were assessed?” What might help teachers see asessment as a continuous process, constantly interwoven with instruction? The kind of information we have presented so far may be helpful. In addition, in the remainder of this chapter we will examine instructional concepts chat may help teachers see practical ways to begin the process of changing their own instructional strategies and practices Instructional Strategies to Fit Particular Learning Targets i improve insrscton, ESSE EY PEP EES TEED (ASTM toscructional stracegies are approaches co instruc- tion that enhance student learning. For example, Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock (2001) list nine instructional strategies that they find to have the greatest impact on. student achievement. These nine are {OGRE ing Sinica eiEFERESS| SEARS (GRATED generating and testing hypotheses and questions, cues and advance organizers” (2001, p. 146). Most qualified teachers would read this lst and immedi- ately recognize and identify with it, as most are using the already. lnsruconal agin ones. ate al dhe casemate that si Experienced teachers have found, however that some work bet- types of earning strategies ter than others. Which ones are the “good” instructional strategies? They arc the ones that enable active learning to occur in the classroom; ones that involve students in ?No. The teacher muse differentiate their own learning, Is there one “magic” strateg 135| | | strategies: she ruse (GEERT IS ae Hiei ORD CO NETaFE RHE MINERS NESTA SURGEERAAEREPOBUIAIGABC onsiscent use of the same strategy (note taking, for example) can quickly curn students off. Thus, using a variety of instructional strate gies isa key to unlocking student motivation, an accomplishment that can then lead to enhanced learning. : One way to categorize instructional strategies is to organize them according to the instructional model they tend co support. For example, the direc instructional model often features teacher-centered instructional strategies (lecturing, modeling, and demonstrating). However, such strategies may also be categorized according to the purpose (or target) of instruction. Table 9.2 presents a modified table used by Prince ‘William County Schools in Virginia (2004) shat associates learning targets (behavior, cognitive, application-process, and other) with general instructional strategies, Such, ‘an organizing scheme can be useful to teachers who are seeking to choose appropriate instructional strategies to match particular learning targets, 7 If the learning target {refer to Table 9.2) is a skill carget, strategies listed under Behavior will be the best match, as these include demonstrating and modeling the skill for the students, The modified chart displayed in Table 9.2 is a useful cool, then, for helping select appropriate instructional strategies. As we saw in Chapter Two when unpacking TABLE 9.2. INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES. L Behavior tion/Process Other Cognitive. Applic More skill mastery, learning facts symbols, recalling content, or just | rote learning. Learning is mare teacher directed. Strategies include: Some ststegies are | commento all areas of teerning They are | | | Creative, eriical,and || Process is key. Learning rellectve thinking are key. || focus is problem based Concept attainment and. || or actvity-based development are Creative, critical, and || appropriate for all || important. Learning is || synthesizing thinking are | | content areas also. collaborative between the || important. Teacher isa || feenarane student. facilitator of learning. || | Strategies include’ “Strategies include: ~“Sirategies include ‘= Demonstrations Modeling," Lecture Puzzies/games Discussion Jigsaws « Choral readings Creating lists Mnemonic strategies Cooperative learning Vocebutary Builing | Round table, etc} Brainstorming [+ Conflict resolution Homework | Reciprocal teaching || Information Practice . Concept mapping management Providing feedback + Simulations + Advance organizers ||+ Identying similarities + Role playing + Debates and diferences | + KWL + Inguiry based (ike Questioning | + Direetreading || scientific method) Reinforcing eon | | 6 Thinking activities.” |/+ Interviews, Providing recognition + Kagan structures © Projects Setting learning goals | Coope-ative learning Conducting earning styles questionnaires Guided practice Selt-assessment Thematic units Seeking out answers | to questions Conversations + Testing hypothesis Creating metaphors, * Problem solving {[t_Using snalogies || (Think/Pair Share, ~ || * Socratic seminars Summarizing and note taking Source Prince Wiliam County Schools, Veginia (hp imwew pues edulcumnculurvsoiMiowehertRevising Feedback and Instructional Prans standards for embedded learning targets, there isa great deal of overlap among these categories. Just as the knowledge learning target overlaps all others (including reason- ing, skills, products, and dispositional targets), the Cognitive category overlaps all the others in Table 9.2, This means thar some strategies listed under Behavior or Application/Process would also apply to Cognitive and vice versa. When using this chart asa tool, teachers should simply view strategies listed under categories as strong matches, but should feel fice to "borrow" strategies from other categories if appropriate. In the following sections, we describe one or more specific instructional strategies that a teacher might choose for each of the learning target categories (what students should know and be able ro do) Behavior Since @ERRUSEIERERINIRGER (sce Table 9.2) s for their math skills co see whether the modification was working and whether there were other prob- Jems thar came up that might call for additional modifications. Many teachers, like the elementary teacher and the high school teacher described earlier, rake the time to differentiate instructional practices. When they do, they are blending instruction and assessment strategies that help students improve in their aca- demic performances. Research-Based Best Practices of Teaching Recent educational literature may hold a key to helping teachers use assessment and instructional modification routinely in their classrooms. Researchers are constantly striving to define best practices in teaching, Some of these best practices have impli- cations for assessing students and as an aid in making instructional modifications After reviewing educational literature on factors relating to best practices, Guild (1997) identified six areas chat were common to the multiple intelligence theory, learning styles theories, and theories of brain-based education. All these theories advocated education that + Was learner-centered @ Required the teacher to be a reflective practitioner and decision maker © Encouraged a reflective practitioner student role Mandated that the curriculum embody substance, depth, and quality Supported education of the whole person QPromored diversityRovising Feedback and nstructional Plans These areas of commonality found by Guild are closely ted to some of the areas as described carlier in this chapter, found difficult o implement, These commonalities ate also that the professional development participants who took our sury emphasized by many of Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock's (2001) nine instructionab strategies. These nine, presented earlier in this chapter, are “identifying similarities and differences, summarizing and nore taking, reinforcing effort and providing recog- nition, homework and practice, nonlinguistic representations, cooperative learning, setting objectives and providing feedback, generating and testing hypotheses, and questions, cues, and advance organizers’ (2001, p. 146). For example, teachers need to consider a learning-centered environment where students can actively learn how to identify similarities and differences, summarize and take notes, complete homework and practice, and generate and test hypotheses. All of these activities support a reflec- tive practitioner student role and support the teaching of the whole child. By pre~ senting nine different strategies, Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock (2001) also advocate diversity of instructional strategies. In support of a teacher reflective practitioner role hey «icc, COTTE 2 sicusions. We szongly recommend that you keep this in mind as you review the strategies presented ... and apply them in classrooms. Instructional strategies are tools only” (Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock, 2001, p. 8). The authors imply that (@BWBn their classroom to determine which tools work best in par and for particular students, sular situations Since teachers’ beliefs and practices will, in large part, determine what they want their students to understand and be able to do, as well as how they instruct and assess students, it is important that teachers understand each of the above commonalities before planning instruction and implementing assessments. Once teachers begin adopting these’ best practices they will find thar changing assessment practices and. modifying instruction is often a logical next step. We have already discussed the demands of the curriculum and the importance of differentiating instruction to respond to student diversiry: Therefore we concentrate here on the remaining four areas. We define each of the areas, describe appropriate instructional strategies, and make clear the connections 0 classroom assessment, The Environment Is Learner Centered Learner-centered schools, according (@UIANGNP p. 30). “focus their energies on helping all students to be successful learners. They weigh decisions about structure, rituals, routines, class composition, curriculum content and materials, and assessments effect on learners.” In leatning-centered classrooms QD Thus the learner-centered classroom is in contrast to the teacher-centered classroom, where and evaluation for thei the teacher is the primary planner, source of information, and assessor. The concept of learner-cenceredness arises from the educational philosophy of constructivism. ur| Unlike an approach in which the role of the teacher is to transmit existing knowledge from teacher to student in as efficient 2 method as possible (“knowledge is piped from the full container of the teacher's head to the empty vessels of the student’ heads” [Tobin, Briscoe, & Holman, 1990, p. 410]), past experiences. This leads to rejecting and revising some ideas, The individual ch new experience is evaluated in light of knowledge gained from changes his perceptions and experiences intellectual growth. Since the individual must construct knowledge, this is an active process. ‘onstructivists, then, believe that they must provide experiences to students that will allow them to construct knowledge. They believe that students must take an active role in this process, and they reject the idea thar knowledge can be passively trans- nitted from one individual to another. ‘Teachers with learner-centered classrooms tend to value learning :hat demonstrates constructing and applying information, rather than memorizing what the teacher or text has stared. Their assessments are more likely to ask students to demonstrate their understandings or to apply information. They plan classroom activities and use teach- ing strategies based upon these beliefs. They encourage student involvement in all aspects of learning and assessing. ‘One learner-centered, or constructivist, teaching strategy is the cognitive appren- ticeship approach. In this model, the role ofthe teacher isco Gy. The three behaviors most often used to do so are modeling, supporting, and fading. “Teachers first model their strategies in the context and/or make their tacit knowledge explicit. Then, the teacher supports the students’ attempts at implement- ing the strategies .. . and finally, they leave more and more room for the student co work independently” (Roth,-1993, p. 147). . Susan used this model after a unit in her classroom culminated with oral reports given by the students. The students had been given the assessment criteria one week in advance of the report and were given time in class to prepare the report. However, when the reports began, Susan was disappointed in the quality of the students’ work. The stu- dents did nor exhibit the behaviors outlined in the criteria (attention-getting introduc- tion, clear speaking style, organization of thoughts, and so forth). It became obvious to Susan that the students did nor know what an excellent oral report Ieoked like. To help students understand the art of oral reporting, Susan asked the class to eval- uate another group's oral report, using the pre-arranged criteria. Then she asked for student feedback about the report during a whole class discussion session. During this session, students shared the strengths and weaknesses in the delivery of the oral report. By reiterating and emphasizing particular student comments, Susan reinforced the knowledge she hoped to teach. She also used questioning techniques to elicit com- ments about some behaviors that were not immediately apparent to students. For example, she asked, “Did José seem comfortable when he was speaking to the class?”Revising Feedback and Instructional Plans to draw student attention to distracting behaviors such as twitching or shifting from foot to foot. Through these comments and questions, as well as using the assessment criteria, Susan modeled an example of excellent oral reporting. She also encouraged student self-assessment, an important aspect of a student-centered environment, ‘The next stage in the cognitive apprenticeship mode of teaching is to support stu dent efforts. After the class discussion concerning the oral reports, Susan asked the student groups to revisit and redesign their own reports, During this activity, she cir- culated around the room, again using questions and comments to probe student understanding and to encourage student reflection on what they had leamed. These revised oral reports showed great improvement over the first artempr. Later in the semester, students were once again called upon to make oral presentations. Susan repeated her supporting strategies but found she needed to interject fewer and fewer of her own comments when speaking with student groups. In fact, she was able to fade inco the background at this point. She was still available to assist students but found less need to do so. In her “fading” role, she often simply circulated among groups, lis~ tened to their discussions, and waited for students to elicit assistance, if necessary. ‘As this example clearly indicates, Susan did most of her teaching during the mod cling phase. In her support role, she was not actually teaching new behaviors, just reminding students of concepts or skills previously learned. Then, during the fading phase of reaching, Susan was primarily responding to student questions, unobrsusively monitoring their learning, o using what is often referred co asthe formative assess- ment process to provide feedback to improve student learning, In all three phases, however, Susan used questioning (discussed in Chapter Four) to assess student understanding, stimulate student thinking, and help students become more perceptive sel-assessors By applying the cognitive apprenticeship model and questioning, she fostered a learner-centered environment, encouraging student involvement and facilitating com- munication between teachers and students. —{ The Teacher Is a Reflective Practitioner and Decision Maker ‘They monitor the application of new teaching ideas in order to evaluate benefits or decriments of each. Then they integrate practical, sensible teaching skills garnered from examination of research into instruction. In the process, they apply new theo- retical knowledge, reflect on the efficacy of the application, and refine their teaching techniques over time. In other words, reflective practitioners perform action research in their classrooms. Grundy (1987), suggests that action research encourages reflecting on practice in order 143ro comprehend the practice and thereby create more meaningful epporcunities for students to learn. In this way, action research “fosters interpretation and understand- ing, and promotes rational decision-making as the basis for classroom practice” (Grundy, 1987, p. 191), This teacher-as-action-researcher role can encourage teachers to undertake all the Classroom Assessment Cycle steps we have presented. Teacher researchers collect data via classroom assessments of many types in order to (1) judge effectiveness of instruction and (2) evaluate student achievement, They teflect on the assessment results (analyze the data) to find parcerns and formulate inferences abour student learning and inscruction strategies on may be neces- to explain the patterns. To examine these inferences, more data colle sary. The teacher may need to review lesson plans to ascertain whether important con- cepts were actually explored by the students. She may look at the formar used for student assignments, the number of assignments, and the grades on the assignments before find- ing evidence to support one or more of the inferences. Viewing all these findings, the teacher may decide to revise teaching strategies or assessment methods. This implemen- tation-reflection-revision process is an ongoing, iterative cycle of veacher activity Reflective practitioners, then, view their teaching as a continuous research proj- ect, where scrutiny of current practice is used to refine the art of teaching. They regard information from student assessments as feedback for the effectiveness of their instruc- tional strategies and assessments, as well as feedback for student achievement. In order to implement such self-examination, they know they must schedule time for reflection, One strategy that fosters the reflective practitioner role for the teacher is switch- ing metaphors. In order to enact new teaching behaviors, the teacher may need 10 reconceptualize his teaching role. This is no easy task. Identifying 2 metaphor for the new teaching style often facilitates this change process (Tobin, 1990). For example, when Susan was using the lecrute-example-practice mode], her teathing metaphor was “teacher as initiate of the temple of sacred knowledge” (Butler, 19972). She says, I viewed my pupils, then, as novices, or suppliants who could capture the pearls of wisdom if properly initiated. However, to advance from the novice to the initiate stages, the students had to perform certain rites. They had to listen in class, do their homework, read the textbook, and perform laboratory experiments, Through these activities, however, the mysteries of the sacred knowledge would unfold for the stu- dents” (Butler, 1997a, pp. 235-236). In order to change her mode of teaching Susan first had to identify a new metaphor for herself. She was at first hesitant to share this new metaphor, fearing, ridicule. However, she eventually confessed, “I began to see my role in the classroom to be not unlike the role of the holodeck computer on the Starship Enterprise in the TV program, Star Trek: The Next Generation. On the show, this computer is respon- sible for the sectings: Paris in springtime, London in the time of Sherlock Holmes, a Spanish galleon sailing the seas, etc. The holodeck computer also introduces holo- graphic characters that interact with the protagonists and it maintains safeguards toRevising Feedback and Instructional Plans ensure that no one gets hurt (gunshots or phaser blasts don't injure the real people) However, the behaviors of the protagonists ditect the action—the computer simply’ reacts co these behaviors by introducing new characters or changing the scene. In times, of emergency or when the action goes awry, the protagonist can stap the program and, call for help from the computer. So, like the holodeck computer, which everyone understands is running in the background, 1, to0, was present [in my classroom], but unobtrusive” (Butler, 1997a, pp. 256-257). This change in teaching metaphor enabled Susan to incorporate new teaching. behaviors into her classroom repertoire. However, metaphors can be used for more than just making behavioral adaprations. By identifying a teaching metaphor, instruc tors can “become aware of their belief systems and how theie perceptual frameworks affect cheir teaching roles and the roles their students play in response” (Marshall, 1990, p. 128). In other words, the metaphors teachers use can structure the way they perceive situations, opening their eyes t0 some possibilities while shutting out others. There is of course no one right metaphor for teaching. However, since everyone's actions are often governed by unconsciously held metaphors, teachers must bring these underlying perceptions to the surface in order to understand their own behavior. By identifying their own current metaphor for teaching, they can evaluate its power in determining their actions. And they can use a change in teaching metaphors to help them change their teaching behaviors. Therefore, reflective practitioners seek to uncover the metaphors that govern their teaching, The examples in Exhibit 9.4 are commonly held teacher metaphors. You may wish to review these metaphors and iden- tify the one thar guides your own teaching. An examination of personal teaching metaphors can be the focus for reflection and change. The Students Are Reflective Practitioners Student reflective practitioners, according to Guild (1997, p. 31), “are engaged in exploring, experimenting, creating, applying, and evaluating their ways of learning, as well as interacting actively with the content and concepts they are studying.” Such a definition again evokes the constructivist epistemology, To learn, students must be active participants rather than passive receivers of ceacher-disseminated information. ‘They must become self-assessors rather than relying on the teacher as the sole judge of the quality of their work. When teachers are the source of knowledge, practices will include lecturing, requiring students to raise their hands in order to be selected to speak, and using classroom assigaments that have only one right answer or that include no room for student choice in the method of completion or assessment. To foster student autonomy, teachers may need to rethink these traditional stu- dent and teacher roles. Only by abdicating some control in the classroom can teach- ers empower students to monitor and make decisions about their own learning. Students must have the freedom to move around the room or even be absent from the classroom in order to pursue alternative pathways for learning. To facilitate learning, 151EXHIBIT 9.4. METAPHORS FOR TEACHING. + Teacher as Boss: Student-workers are supervised by teachermanagers, who cajole students 10 “get back to work” or “do your homework" or “finish yout. seatwork” + Teacher as Nurturer: The teacher cares for the students, protecting them and fostering their fearn- ing. The images of caretaking, affection, love, and warmth are stimulated by this metaphor. + Teacher as Captain ofthe Ship: No mutinies alowed here.The teacher barks outorders and the students ump to comply + Teacher ‘as Expert The purpose of thé escher sto be an information source. Teaching, inthis context. isollng others. The “others” (students) are passive receivers ofthe knowledge + Teacher 08 Doctor: The teacher diagnoses the lerning needs ofthe students and prescribes spproptiateitervetions for them, ‘+ Teacher as Coach: Students are novices who must practice skills in order to develop expertise. ‘The teacher models the deired eile, etructures practice times and events, and encourages stu dent achievement, + Teacher as Performer The teacher must capture the interests of he students by acting in an ‘entertaining way. | + Teacher asTiafic Cop: Many avenues of earning are open to students, butthe teacher a8 traic | cop helps prevent collisions, introduce order, and ensure safety. ‘+ Teacher as Judge: The teacher sets the standards for learning and assesses students against this j standard, with the students. The “right” answer to questions is not known but must be researched or cre: ated through reasoning and problem-solving activities. | | | source adapted with permission rom Lakot G. and Johnson, M. (1960), Metazners We Live By Fgure 98, 9p 26-26, | | | Urverenyet oneaae ess Cnege noe self-assessment, and the exchange of ideas, they must be fiee to engage in conversa tions with peers and to participate in peer tutoring, Students must be given oppor- tunities to assess their own work, as well as the work of others. Through such activities, scudents develop decision-making skills and enhance their judging capabilites. They learn to budget time and resources in order to accomplish goals. In short, when scu- dents are given responsibilities and the freedom to make choices, they are more likely to become autonomous, self-directed learners and confident self-assessors One instructional strategy that fosters the reflective practitioner role for the student is pursuing emancipatory interests. Grundy writes of human “interests” (people are interested in that which gives them pleasure) (Grundy, 1987, p. 8) and contrastsRevising Feedback and Instructional Plans. 183. three classroom interests: practical technical, and emancipatory (iO oe ua atonoms and esponsiiiy Grands vats that the ince this interest is 20 GEER GRAAL EAGAN AREA hrs psing xn interests will make all the decisions for the students, for example, mandating how stu- dents will demonstrate mastery of knowledge. Generally, these teachers assess all stu- dents in exactly the same way (for instance, all students take che same written exam) ‘Therefore, students as reflective practitioners are rarely found in classrooms governed by teachers operating in the sphere of technical interest. Practical interes view the universe as subjectsrather than object, yet chey are sill sThey do not promote the equality of participants in the classroom. For example, a teacher pursuing a practical interest might invite stu- dents to aid in the design of scoring rubrics. A class meeting is held, and student sug- gestions are aired. However, the comments of the teacher “lead” students to incorporate only the ideas that the teacher endorses into the rubric design. Although the assessment in this classroom appears more emancipatory than that in the techni- cal interest classroom, true autonomy has nox been achieved. Grundy (1987, p. 19) identifies the emancipatory interest as “a fundamental inter- est in emancipation and empowerment ro engage in autonomous action arising out of authentic, critical insights into the social construction of human society.” She fur- ther states that, “at the level of practice, the emancipatory curriculum will involve the participants in the educational encounter, both teacher and pupil, in actions which attempt to change the structures within which learning occurs and which constrain freedom in often unrecognized ways.” In the classroom utilizing emancipatory inter- «sts, reachers and students share the assessment workload, with students having major responsibility for formative assessments (ongoing assessments that monitor growth) and teachers assuming the responsibility for summative assessments (final assessments that evaluate achievement). In their roles a formative assessors, students are expected to perform peer reviews and give feedback to other students about performance. For example, students in a biology class learning to use microscopes might be given “check-off” skill sheets. The students would fist practice the skill listed on the sheets | individually, performing self-assessment. Next, when they felt confident in cheir abil ity to correctly manipulate the microscope, these students would demonstrate their proficiency to other students (formative or learning assessment). Finally, after suc- cessfully demonstrating their microscope skills to themselves and to others, the stu- dents would ask the teacher co perform an evaluation of their performance (summative ‘final assessment). In this fashion, students are empowered to critically review their own and others’ work and yer the legalities of grading are respected, in that che teacher serves asthe official grader. inshore ifstudens arr become reflective practioners and atonomouslerners,eu practices, and encouraging them to practice self- and peer evaluation. Teaching that emphasizes the education of the whole person connects classroom learn- ing to the student’ life outside the classroom. To Guild (1997, p. 31) this means{paQn@) zzz interested in this holistic approach to education take the time to know their students, ot just as students but also as people. While taking into account the developmental stage of the student and planning for experiences designed to best meet the student’ learning needs, the teacher also adapts instruction to capitalize on the interests of the student and on the student's furure plans. Enhancing the reality of learning may mean branching out from the specific dis- cipline taught by the teacher in order to help the student make connections to other academic content. For example, few “real” people operate in only one academic dis- cipline. A scientist may be primarily concerned with science, but she will also cer- tainly use communication, language arts, and mathematical skills. Therefore, when teachers educate the “whole person” they emphasize the necessity of incorporating content from several different academic disciplines into their work. In this context assessments should reflect an incorporation of concent across disciplines, and passi- bly from the world of the arts as well, and provide opportunities for students to demonstrate how well they understand and can apply connections, Ca eee One instructional strategy that fosters education of the whole person is problem- based learning. Bridges and Hallinger (1991) define problem-based learning as learn- ing that begins with a problem. The problem should be one that students :-* apt to face in the future of at least similar in context to possible furure problems. The subject _matcer in the course or class should be organized around the problera rather than into separate disciplines, In working through the problem, learning occurs mostly within the context of the problem in small groups, rather than in large, lecture-oriented assemblies. Within the small groups, individuals assume the major responsibility for their own learning and, indeed, for their own instruction and self-assessment. This learning progresses through group and individual efforts, as follows, Students are first presented with the problem and chen work in small groups to separate known facts from learning issues. Once the “know” and “need to know” categories are desig- nated, students perform research activities to change the unknown into the known. Groups analyze the results of this research, formulate solutions, and present these solu- tions to a public. An evaluative activity then follows the solution presentation. This entire process is illustrated in Figure 9.2. 1 iteRevising Feedback and rstructional Plans 156 FIGURE 9.2. FLOWCHART FOR PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING. iat Se cr Pa Coreen COC CRIS PES) Pease (GHRAEIIIIBNB uses the term “ill-defined” to describe the complex prob- lems typically used in the problem-based learning (PBL) classroom. Gallagher, Stepien, Cordeiro and Campbell (1996, p. 8) concur with this view, dividing PBL problems into “high ground” or “swampy” Sher, and Workman (1995) call them “ill-structuret problems. High-ground problems are of a technical nature, where a well-rehearsed procedure for solving is available. A mathematical word problem or a science labora- tory experiment in which students re-perform work previously discovered by others is a high-ground problem. Cordeiro and Campbell (1996, p. 8) discard the idea of using high-ground probléms in problem-based learning, urging the use of swampy problems instead. Swampy problems, they state, are more complex, and occur “when one only vaguely understand the situation, has no clear way of knowing what wouldbe better and lacks procedures for addressing obstacles or constraints of the situation. Gallagher, Stepien, and Rosenthal (1992) further describe such proslems as having no one single best way to be tackled and no single right answer. In fact they state that students may never be 100 percent sure of making the correct solution selection, since some information is always missing, Such ill-scructured problems best resemble the nacure of problems as they occur in the real world, and this “real world” essence of PBL problems is what makes them so valuable. Boud (1985) points out that these “real” problems are also inherently interdisciplinary, as real-world problems do not usually limir themselves to one pat- ticular discipline. How does assessment fit into the PBL picture and how does this assessment aid in the holistic education of students? PBL problems are reality-basee and interdisci plinary leading students to a connected view of academic disciplines. The assessments used for PBL experiences can enhance chis connectivity. For example, rather than using a multiple-choice test at the end of a PBL unit, the teacher can choose a more realistic form of assessment. The assessment or capstone performance for the PBL unit should match the problem presented and should engage students in real-life roles. For instance, students working as forensic scientists to determine the cause of death in a potential poisoning case could serve as “expert witnesses” at che trial of the accused. A proble: concerning mosquito infestations might culminate in a town meeting in which the Mosquito Board has to field questions from concerned citizens. Students examining the implementation of school uniforms could present their finding to the parent-teacher association. Engineering students could submit competing bids to a homeowner wishing to move his house from point A to point B. In each of these ‘examples, students remain in the role created by the PBL problem even through the evaluation process. Each would also require students to use shlls from several aca- demic disciplines. These capstone performances could also incorporate the arts (visu- als and graphics for presentations, role playing, perhaps even an enacted skit for the parents that shows advantages and disadvantages of school uniforms, and so forth). he creativity of the students are the only limits ‘The imagination of the teacher and to the possibilities for assessment of PBL. Creating a learner-centered environment, becoming a teacher researcher, encour- aging student autonomy, and providing holistic education are all endeavors endorsed by curtent educational research. They may also be mechanisms for change, if change is desired. Before a teacher can know whether she wishes to implement changes in her classroom, however, she must first examine her own beliefs and teaching practices. In light of the information presented here, the teacher may wish to take the surveys at the beginning of the chapter (if she has not done so already), identify personal teach- ing metaphor, and reflect on possible changes to be made. Such changes will not, however, be easy to make or be instantaneous. Work within school districts facing assessment change indicates that such change is slow and it must