Acknowledgments This book is the result of collaboration and discussion among many teachers. It's min purpose i to give teacher’ voices and experiences & cera place in the iterate on sacond language curiculum design. Thus the heat ofthe book ithe stories ofthe six teachers who describe the ins nd outs and ups and downs of developing a course. ‘Other teachers also contebuted during th fld-esting of the materia. ‘Thanks tothe thy teachers who fist used the material in my couse design clas at the School for Intemational Training and special thanks to ‘my *Tocus group” Siste Mofit, Jeanie Levesque, Beth Edwards, Holly Hahn, Joe Krupp, and Carolyn Layzer ~ for their suggestions and enthusiasm. ‘Steve Comwel, Susan Pomeroy, and Suzanne Meyer read the manu- serip and offered helpful comment t various stages in its development Lise Minovitz ents det hand in eding portion of the text. Stacia Houston and Helen Smith helped withthe mindmaps. My colleague Pat Moran provided me withthe Word problemaizng, and Lesley KoustafThelped me see the importance of it. 1 would also like t0 thank my two anonymous reviewers and Jack Richards, seis editor, who synthesized the reviewers! suggestion into a caherent plan of action. ‘Thanks to the edtril staff at Cambridge Univesity Press ~ Bonnie Biller, Sue André, Mary Carson, and Mary Vaughn ~ fr ther editorial expertise and suppor, Finally, thank to Donald Freeman for read berween and beyond the I Teachers as course developers Kathleen Graves Purpose of this book ‘One atemoon, a teacher came into my office to discus an independent study. "Ihave been asked to design an evening English course for adults in ‘my town in Nicaragua." He paused and then continued, “I've never ‘evelopeda couse before. Are there any guidlines? Istherea procedure to follow? Where do I star I elized as | Tisteed to him that I had heard these questions many times before, from many teachers the ifrence being the nature of each teacher's situation. For example, one teasher ‘explained that er chool needed a course forthe preteens who had finshed ther children’s course but were too young forthe teen couse. Another teacher ssi “T'm given some books and thn told I ean teach any way 1 want" A fourth teacher explained, "My students are in danger of losing thee first language literacy, How do I designs cours that enables them © maintain tray in both languages?” The situations were difret, but the (questions were the same: Are there any guidelines? What oI do Where Gol sar? ‘These teaches situations ae not unusual as teachers are increasingly ‘being ealed upon to design the courses they teach (Breen 1987; Nuran 1987; Rickards 1950; Yalden 1987) The challenge forme, as a teacher ‘educator, was both to help these teachers dea on their or experince 10 answer those questions and to provide them with a conceptual Framework for making sense of the course development proces. Tis book isan ‘tiempt to mee the challenge rom those two perspectives, Fis, twill help teachers Se that they do have experience in course evelopment and recog- ize how that experience can serve ar bass for developing new courses oF ‘modifying existing ones. Second, the book wil deseribe a framework ofthe ‘components ofcourse development that can help teachers make cene of complex proces. Thus the purpose ofthis book i o lead teaches to an ndersanding ofhow to develop courses fom their own experience aswell 25 from the experiences and theories of others. It attemps to capure that2 Kathleen Graves ses ination trough the tes of sic teacher, ech of developed course, oe - * of whom Premises of the book well at he ens of hers res quis aout th esp be Smo et Oo nease Seeds Canee baat Sevens aaa Sy ad ier ea coe ‘through contact with the experiences and theories of others.! : Serpe gr tae ae unpredictable, and individual process. The teacher herself isthe most im. mona Geet inanimate Stare do aeetntinareae Seotieiioaraciasce Contents of the book This book is abou teachers as course developers in two senses, It is about ‘teachers such asthe ones who asked the quetons inthe opening peragraph, | Fora mel of tow techs enact hl andesing f tle racic, se (oto tn SparLange (989, oe Teachers a8 course developers 2 dus ll teachers who ae asking the sme kinds of questions. Chaper 1 ‘discusses teachers as course developers inthis general sense. Chapter 2 ‘describes framework of components in course development and sues for the teacher to consider inthe process. The book is also about course tevelopers ina specific sense: the accounts of sx experienced teachers who esrb the process of developing 2 couse in Chapters 3 through 8 Each counts followed by an analysis and ase of questions that ask the reader to consider a pariular aspect ofthe framework discussed in Chapter 2. An “oated bibliography atthe end ofthe book is intended for reader iner- fed in Teaming more about euriculum theory and course design process. Course, curriculum, and syllabus “The terms course, curriculum, snd yilabus have been assigned meanings ty ther ses that often overlap. For example, Nunan (1987) discusses three ways in which the notion of euriulum has been interpreted by teachers asa product or set of items tobe taught, a a proces for erving Imateriels end methodology, and a the planning (8 oppsed 10 the ime ‘mentation or valuation) phase of program. Fr the purpose ofthis book, 1 curriculum wil be understood i the broadest sense as the philosophy, purposes, design, ad implementation ofa whole program. A syllabus will Fe dfined narrowly asthe specifation and ordering of content ofcourse for courses (White 1988). Hutchinson and Waters (1987:68) have defined a Chure as “an integrated series ofteaching-eaming experiences, whose mete aim sto lee the feamers toa particular state of knowledge” Thus Syllabus design isa part of eourse development, and a course is par of & Clrculum. However, such set definitions do not apply in practice, a5 Some teachers may refer to the “curtculum” for thei course and ober to ‘hesyllabus" forthe cucu, The distinction between a curscalum and ‘course is nevenheess important beetse some ofthe areas of concer in uriculum development may be out of the hands of teachers who are ‘developing courses fr example, societal needs analysis, testing for lace- tment purposes, o pogramde evaluation ina broad sence the process of course developments similar to that of curculum development. Course development includes planing a course, teaching if and modifying the plan both while the couse in progress and ‘ter the course is over Inthe tadiinal View of cureulum development, ‘which Johnson (1989) calls a “specialist approeh,” teachers have no role Tnibe planing stages, and specialists determine the purposes, plan the Syllabus and develop the material that eahers are then supposed to use in4 Kathloon Graves = = om, a Rowse a course To. a j\ pc nee ae Figure |The process ofcourse development forthe teacher their classrooms. Nevenbees, teachers who have never planed & new course sill have experience in course development. Tiss because course evelopment is more than jut planning a course also Includes teaching it, an experience that teachers, by definition, bie, Furthermore, most courses also ental modification ofthe course, both while i iin progress and afte it is over, In discussing the nature of decision making in curicu- lum development, Johnson proposes tha its “a continuing and cyclical process of development, revision, maintenance and eneval which neds to continue throughout the life of the cuiculum.” Simulry, teachers are involved in eyele of decison making about their courses, as shown in Figure I. Allteachers have experience wit tge 2, teaching a couse. Even wen following an assigned txt o labs, teacher must sil make decisions shout what to emphasize, leave ou, augment, and review and bow to ‘ractce,how much, with whom, and when. Mast eacers have experience with stages 3 and because they teach the same course of se the same fextbook ne semester afer another and change the way they teach accord it their experience. For example, a teacher may decid 0 spend more time on pronunciation or on Unit 3 the next tem because experience has shown tht those are problem area for her students In this respect, plan ring and teching lessons are 2 mieroversion of planning and teaching courses. Te teacher who decides that inthe 9:30 clas the students needed more ime wo practice Exerlse 3 and 0 gives the 11:30 clas extra time i operating ina way similar co the teacher who determines that in the ext term studeres wil ned to spend more time on Unit 3. A teacher's expense she level of planning and teaching lessons is thus bath par of sd simi tothe overall process of course development Teachers as course developers. 5 Problematizing ‘When a teacher who is about to design a new course asks, “Are here any guidelines Is thee a procedure to follow?” the hoped-for answer isyes.No teacher wants to reinvent the wheel, and if there isa procedure to fallow, she wants to know what it In practice, However, the answer tothe ‘questions is both yes and no: yes Because there ae models, guidelines, nd ‘rneipls to consider tat can help a teacher make sens of her situation, mobilize he resouress, and organize her progress no because te guide- Ties are not arecie. Ther iso set procedure ro fllow that wil guarantee st sucestfal course because each teacher and each teacher's situation Is ‘iferent Pu another way, there ino answer to give, but there isan answer to find A set of guidelines an principles wil be the subject ofthe next chapter. ‘They address the ares of needs assessment, goal and objective seting, conseptalizing and organizing conten, choosing o adapting materials and Activities, evaluation, and consideration of constraints and resoures. ‘Though they suggest an ordered process, it is probably more realistic to ‘view them a¢ a fmework of components that overlap both conceptually nd temporally and raise istues for the teacher to consider, Diflerent teachers will star with different issues, One teacher may stat by thinking bout who the students are, another by figuring out what 10 60 with the ‘equred material, and ancher by tying to formulate couse gols and ‘objectives, ‘Where teacher start in the process ofcourse design depends onthe constraints and resources of her situation and ow she perceives ther. To proced, she needs to understand the givens of hesitation, identity the ‘allenges that will shape he decisions, and to figure out what must and an be done. I call this process “problematiing” her situation? Prob- Tematizing and problem solving are not the sae. Problemating depends onthe teacher's perception ofthe context, ou of which ars problems © be solved. The teacher defines the problems. Problem slving assumes that the problems at givens thatthe teacher needs to address Asking questions and Keifying probleme are obvious means of problematizing. However, the procese is not necessarily ne that results an articulated statement because most teachers work autonomously. When teachers poblematize, they doo in concrete terms because the challenges ase fom a concrete 'siuaton, The generic questions maybe "What do seas the challenges of 2 Patlenatizng dere hom Palo Fee's tom problemaitn, about wich he tres “The roves fps taal someone's eflesion oc Tet which rr fom a cto eevion oe the 2 el node tat Setar Tope with adr within he famewock of real" reve 1918.8 Kathiéan Graves ny stuntion?* nd "What resources ur needed and are available to ares the challenges?” but to teacher the questions sound more like "What kind ‘of material works with teenagers?" or “How do I go about motivating the more advanced stadents in the clas?” As a teacher problematizes her uation, the ean begin to find workable solusion that make use of her experience and the resources available o hee. Problematiing requires tht the teacher recognize the value of her own ‘experience, Becaute ofthe oe played by experience, there sno such hing {stating «course from scratch.” The expertise acquired though exper ‘nce isan important source of angwers as a teacher problematizes her ‘Stuston tr often dieu fr teachers o acknowledge their own expet- tie: intend, they seek answers fom people he consider exper Valurble ‘hough the knowledge of experts may be, teaches themselves are expersin stings, and their pat experience and succeses can serve as bridges to new situations. Comespondingly, the experince of developing 2 course enables teachers to make sense ofthe theories and experise of others because it gives them opportunities elf thee understanding of ory and make it concrete. hei practice in tum changes thet understanding of theories. For example, examining neds assessment tools, understand- Ing the rationale of two diferent models for integrating conten, or examin- jing other course syllabuses can trigger the appropiate steps and solutions, In applying thet new knowledge, the needs assessment i modified ot expanded to fit the teacher's station, a thd way of puting together content emerges, or the course syllabuses are ound tobe inappropeate, ‘which helps the teacher decide what is appropriate Finding one's own way in designing a course does aot mean that all ways are equally effective. Successful course design depends onthe teacher's ‘making sense of what she i doing not just doing it Ga expertise and that of eters depends ona teacher her experience tough reflection and understanding, to make a bridge ‘between practice apd thought so that one can fluence the other. Teachers develop various ool oa in eMecton and analysis including journals, notes, reading, conversation, and rest. Just a they develop an approach to teaching that guides them in each ew teaching situation, teachers develop an approach to course develop- ‘ment that guides them in developing other courses. The approach is the result of experience not a condition Tort. The experience of developing & ‘course i not always a clearly articulated ational process. The approach ‘one develops can evenualy be ariculatdin cational ens, such at series ‘of steps ora framewerk. The ational look of famework or plan isa let result of the process. The framework does not exis pio. It evolves, Course development isa dynamic, ongoing process. The variables that ‘make a context unique continue to change, as does the teacher Tete i 8 Teachers as course develomrs 7 continuous infraction of prtice and the election that shapes i and is Shaped by it‘Thus an approach tat ean continue to serve in developing one's courses must be feible The stories of six teachers as course developers: ‘The eachers whose accounts makeup th Body of his book problematzed thei situations and developed courses in ways that made sense to them, Thele series are mean! to serve as examplesrather than a5 modes. They are rot cae stie that have boon constucted for specie purposes, such a8 ‘hose proposed by Shulman (1986): proterypes, which exemplify theoei- ‘al principles; precedents, which capture and communicate principles of Practice or maxims; and parables, which convey noms or values. Rater they are accounts or stores of experienc, told by the teachers who expe enced ther. Ihave chosen io use these tries a the feus ofthis book for ‘stveral reasons. Fist, accounts Such as these are useful in teacher edeaton because they are a way of “capucng the complexity, specificity, and Interconnectedness” of teachers" experiences (Carter 1993: 6). These a= ‘counts show teachers dealing wit the unpreiciabe an contexeal nature of couse development isues as they occur in el stuations. They lutte the dilemmas faced by these teachers and the web of factors influencing thei decisions. Second, they highlight various aspects of the fame werk in ‘Chapter 2, and yet, because they restos, they cannot be interpreted in fone way tnd thus “cannot be subsumed into what Bruner (1985) called paradigmatic knowledge,” which "equres consistency and noacontradie= tion (Canter 1993:7), Thus these stories contribute to our undersanding of the famework components by presenting them tus embedded inthe ‘complexity of real stuations. Finally, these concrete experiences provide readers with an opportunity to examine ther ow persona theories an est thei own sense of plausibly. “The six teachers were asked to write a native in response tothe following questions which are based onthe view of course development = a molistage process as ilstated in Figure | |. What process di you follow in designing your couse?” 2, How did you mosity the couse once you started teaching prompted you to modify i? 3. Inteviewing the process you went through in designing the course, wht ‘would you do diferent, and why? (nother words, what have you Jeamed about coure design?) ‘The teaches are allexprienced ESL or EFL eacers, wih experience at the time of writing the anatives ranging fom ive wo wen years. The and whats) ‘Nensing home (US) loveratonl schoo (apa) Canguage insite Gazi Sano college Language insite Language insite (enna (spa) Individually iret angwage ining Workplace ESOL a 3 i j i Tipe ofevuee Healthsare worker, uo high (mide Chinese Busioess personel, rutinaonal ‘Chaper —Stadene 7 4 5 6 Teachers and course fetes featured inthis book Tete Jian at Fiber Maa det Caen Bin Maia Esta ino ater Fjva Lr ul fethor Teachers as course developers 9 ‘excersand seirsiuations were chosentoeflecta range of contexts inthe Feld of Enpish anguage teaching. Tble | summarizes some ofthe charac: teristics of the cores they developed ‘Sx stories cannot possibly encompass all the contexts inthe broad fed of English language teachin, But they ean iusrate a diversity of ap- proaches to achieve a similar end, the development of course, Moreover, ‘hese stories are meant be examples from which the reader can learn nd ‘raw her own conclusions, not models thal the reader is expected fo em Inte. The teachers approached their stations in diferent ways, not ony because ofthe differences inthe types of courses they were developing but tleobecaute ofthe diferences in thet contents and thei pereptons of the challenges of those contents. In tha sense, these sx teachers ae both representative and unique, ‘Suggestions for using this book [As this book is based on the two premises that course development i & ‘rounded process and that eacers construct thei understandings through the ineraction of theory in the general sense theory inthe personal sense, and practice, one way t approach this book swith a course in mind, a 8 way of grounding what you read. The coure can be oe tht you ae developing oF will develop or one tha you have already taught In eading shout the famework of components in Chapter 2, you can we your chosen course te determine which aspects ofthe framework are usefl and appr: Priate to work with, a8 well a whch ise to explore, In reading the teaches’ accounts and subsequent analyses, your own context wil allow you to determine what is usefil, notice things that you may not have thought of before, nd consider other ways to approach course esi. The tasks that follow each account are designed o be eared out with reference to your choten context. The analysis fllows rater than precedes exch ‘ccout so that you cn interpre it in ight of your own experience ‘Another way to read this book ist choos one af the component inthe framework and analyze the way in which each teacher adresses hat comm ponent For example, des each teacher assess students’ needs? How? How foes each teacher conceptualize content? How does each teacher deal with cvauaton? ‘A third way is to use the fllowing questions, which are based on the concept ofproblemaiing 1. What steps did thie teacher follow in designing this course? 2. Where did tis eacer startin the process? Why? 3. What itis teacher see asthe main challenges or conideratios inherWhat. +4 be the bit, vals and pies or his teacher? How da this teacher draw on her own experience and expertise? How did thi teacher gain a perspective on what she was doing so that ‘she could make sense of 1? What were her "breakthroughs," and how ‘id they come about? 17, How di this teacher make sense of and use ofthe theories and expertise of others? 8, What are the characteristics ofthis teacher's approach to course design? ‘9. How wil hs teacher's approach seve her in the development of ther courses? Finally, you may simply wish to read the account as stories whose central figures are teachers engaged in understanding and shaping their teaching 85 they experience the sebacks, breakthroughs, problems, snd sccomplishmente of developing a couse. References Breen, M. 1987. Contemporary paradigms in sllaber design, Language Teaching 20 (2-3): 81-92, 157-174 Brune, J, 198, Neatve and puadigmatie modes of thought. In E. Eisner, ed, Learning and Teaching the aye of Knowing (Bath yearbook of the [Naionl Society forthe Stulyof Education), pp. 97-115. Chicago: Uni verity of Chicago Pres. Caner, K. 1995, The place of sory in the study of teaching and teacher ‘ication, Educational Researcher 22 (1). 5-12, 18 Colin, A: and. Sparks-Lange:. 1993. A conceptual Bamework to guide the ‘evelopment of teacher relection and decision making. Journal of Teacher Education 44 (1): 45-54 Fire, P1973. Education for Creal Conciousnes. New York: Sesbury Pres, Huchinion, T, and A. Water, 1987. English for Specie Purposes: A “Learning-Cenered Approach. Cambyidge: Cambidge University Press, Johnson, RK 1989, A decision-making framework forthe coherent angunge ‘curiculum. In K-Johason, ed, The Second Language Carica, pp, 1-23, Cambridge: Cambridge University Pree. Kennedy, M. 191. dn Agends for Research on Teacher Learning. East Lan. ing: Michigan State University, National Cer for Research on Teacher Lesming. Nanan, D! 1987. The Teacher as Curriculum Developer. Sydney: National ‘Crrculum Resource Cente, Adult Migrant Education Program. Pb, N- S199. Tere f no best method. Why? TESOL Quarry 24: 2. Richards, 1. 1990, The Language Teaching Manx, New York: Cambridge Universiy Pres Teachers as course devetpers 11 Shulman, L. 1986, Thote whe understand: Knowledge gro ducovonal Researcher 15 2): 4-14 hie RV 198. The ELT Curicalun: Deign Innovation and Managemen ‘Oxford: Blackwel vvalden ). 1987. Principles of Course Design for Language Teaching, New ‘York: Cambridge Univesity Press in sing