Process Dynamics

Process Dynamics
Fourth Year
Units 3
Fourth Year - Process Dynamics Theoretical 2 hr/week
Tutorial 1 hr/week
Practical - hr/week
Course Outline
1. Laplace and Laplace Inverse
Quick Review (4 hrs)
2. Linear Open-Loop Systems
Response of First-order Systems, Transfer Function, Transient Response. (4 hrs)
3. Physical Examples of First Order Systems
Dynamic behavior of 1st order system. (6 hrs)
4. Response of First-Order Systems in Series
Non-interacting System, Interacting System. (6 hrs)
5. Linearization of non-linear systems (4 hrs)
6. Higher-Order Systems
2nd order Under-damped System, 2nd order Over-damped System, Transportation Lag. (6 hrs)
Course Description
This course will introduce the concepts of systems modeling, and transient response analysis.
Process dynamics is concerned with the study of steady-state and transient behavior of processes.
At the end of this course, students will be able to:
1. Develop mathematical models of chemical and biological processes by writing unsteady-
state mass and energy balances.
2. Recognize and fit various simple empirical models that are used for designing controllers.
3. Analyze linear dynamical systems using Laplace transforms.
4. Model and simulate the behavior of 1st, 2nd and higher order dynamical systems.
Textbook
1. Donald R. Coughanowr and Steven E. LeBlanc, Process Systems Analysis and Control,
3rd edition, McGraw Hill, 2009.
Reference Books
1. Stephanopoulos G., Chemical Process Control: An Introduction to Theory and
Practice, Prentice -Hall, New Jersey, 1984.
2. Luyben W. L., Process Modeling, Simulation and Control for Chemical Engineers,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 2nd Ed., 1990.
3. Marlin, T., Process Control: Designing Processes and control systems for dynamic
Performance, McGraw Hill, New York, 1995.
Course Instructors
Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor Dr. Haider Al-Rubaye
80063@uotechnology.edu.iq haa9r6@mst.edu
Laplace Transforms
1.1 Introduction
Laplace transform techniques provide powerful tools in numerous fields of
technology such as Process Dynamics and Control where knowledge of the system
transfer function is essential and where the Laplace transform comes into its own.
Definition
The Laplace transform of an expression f (t ) is denoted by L f (t ) and is defined as

the semi-infinite integral: L f (t )   f (t )e
 st
dt .
t 0
The parameter s is assumed to be positive and large enough to ensure that the integral
converge. In more advanced applications s may be complex and in such cases the real
part of s must be positive and large enough to ensure convergence.
In determining the transform of an expression, you will appreciate that the limits of
the integral are substituted for t, so that the result will be an expression in s.

Therefore: L f (t )   f (t )e
 st
dt  F ( s)
t 0
In practice we do not usually need to integrate to find Laplace transforms, instead we

use a table, which allow us to read off most of the transforms we need.
Function Transform Valid for …
f (t ) F (s)
1
1 s0
s
a
a s0
s
1
t s0
s2
n! n = positive
tn
s n1 integer
a
sin at
s  a2
2
s
cos at
s  a2
2
a
sinh at
s  a2
2
s
cosh at
s  a2
2
1
e  at
sa
Process Dynamics 1 Fourth Class

Dr. Zaidoon M. Shakor Dr. Haider A. Ali
1
te at
(s  a) 2
n!
t n e  at
( s  a) n 1
w
e  at sin wt
( s  a) 2  w 2
sa
e  at cos wt
( s  a) 2  w 2
1.2 Special Laplace Transform Functions

1- Step function
0 t0 A
f (t )  
A t0
.
A
f ( s)  0 Time
s
If A=1 the change is called unit step change
0 t0
f (t )  
1 t0
1
f ( s) 
s
Step function with Time Delay

0 ta
f (t )  
A ta
A
A
f ( s )  e  as
s
0 a Time
2. Pulse function
0 t0

f (t )   A 0 t  a
A
0 ta

A A  as
f ( s)   e 0 a Time
s s
A
 (1  e  as )
s
a  a
L f (t )   Ae
At A A
 st
  0e  st
  e  st   (e  sa  e  s 0 )  (1  e  sa )
0 a
s 0 s s
if A=1unit Pulse (Impulse)

3. Impulse function
0 t0 A Area=1

f (t )   A 0  t  t
0 t  t
 Unit Impulse Time
f ( s )  area  A  t
This function is represented by δ(t). The unit impulse function is a special case of the
pulse function with zero width (tw →0) and unit pulse area (so a = 1/tw). Taking the
limit and applying L’Hopitals rule:
L (t )  lim
1 1
[1  e st w ]  lim [ se  st w ]  1
t w 0 t s t w 0 s
w
4. Ramp function
0 t0
f (t )   Slope=A
 At t0
f(t)
A
f ( s)  2
s Time
   
A  1  st
LAt    Ate  st  
At  st A At
e   e  st dt   e  st  e
0
s 0 s s 0 s s 0
A A A
 (e    0e  0 )  2 (e    e  0 )  2
s s s
Ramp function with time delay
0 ta
f (t )   Slope=A
 At t  a
A f(t)
f ( s )  2 e  as
s
a Time
5. Sine function A _______T_______

0 ta
f (t )  
 A sin wt ta
A
f ( s)  2
s 2
  2f
-A
1
T
f

Example: Find the Laplace transform for
Solution:
1. At t=0 the function looks like the very basic unit step function. But unit function
knows only about 0 and 1, here we have f(t)=2. That means we have to use 2u(t).
2. Then in time t=2 its value changes from 2 to −1 (i.e. 3 down at t=2) which means
we have to add −3u(t−2).
3. Finally the value at t=3 jumps 1 higher, which brings member u(t−3).
f(t)=2u(t)−3u(t−2)+u(t−3)
So far we collected unit step functions to express function from the graph.
L f (t )  L2u(t) - 3u(t - 2)  u(t - 3)  L2u(t) - 3Lu(t - 2) + Lu(t - 3) =
2 3 - 2s 1 -3s
- e + e
s s s
Example: Determine the Laplace transform of the function

0 t 1
1 1  t  3

f (t )  3 3  t  5
2 5  t  6

0 t6
Solution:
f (t )  0u(t  0)  1u(t  1)  2u(t  3)  1u(t  5)  2u(t  6)
1 2 1 2 1
F ( s)  e  s  e  3s  e  5 s  e  6 s  (e  s  2e  3s  e  5 s  2e  6 s )
s s s s s
Example:
0.5
0 0.5 1.5 2 3 3.5
-.5
Solution:
f (t )  0.5  1u (t  0.5)  0.5u (t  1.5)  0.5u (t  2)  1u (t  3)  0.5u (t  3.5)
0.5 1  0.5 s 0.5 1.5 s 0.5  2 s 1  3s 0.5  3.5 s
f ( s)    e  e  e  e  e
s s s s s s

Example: Find F(s) for
0 t0
t 0  t 1

f (t )  
2  t 1 t  2
0 t2
Solution:
f (t )  tU (t )  t (t  1)U (t  1)  (t  1)U (t  1)  (t  2)U (t  2)
 tU (t )  2(t 1)U (t 1)  (t  2)U (t  2)
L f (t )  LtU (t )  2(t 1)U (t 1)  (t  2)U (t  2)
 LtU (t )  L2(t  1)U (t  1)  L(t  2)U (t  2)
1 2 1
 2  2 e s  2 e 2 s
s s s
Example: Determine the Laplace transform of the function
Solution:
f (t )  5tu(t )  5(t  1)u(t  1)  5(t  3)u(t  3)  5(t  4)u(t  4)

5 5 5 5 5
F ( s)  2  2 e  s  2 e  3s  2 e  4 s  2 (1  e  s  e  3s  e  4 s )
s s s s s
Example: Find the Laplace transform of f(t) shown in Fig.

2t 0  t 1
2 1 t  4

 2t 4t 5 2
 Slope=2
f (t )  0 5t 6
 2t 6t 7
 0 1 4 5 6 7 8
2t 7t 8
0 t 8 -2

Solution:
f (t )  2tu(t )  2(t  1)u (t  1)  2(t  4)u (t  4)  2(t  5)u (t  5)  2(t  6)u (t  6)
 2  2(t  7)u (t  7)  2(t  8)u (t  8)
2 2 2 2 2 4 2
f ( s )  2  2 e s  2 e 4 s  2 e 5 s  2 e 6 s  2 e 7 s  2 e 8 s
s s s s s s s

Example:
1
0 1 3 4 5
T
Solution:
f (t )  tu(t )  (t  1)u (t  1)  2(t  3)u (t  3)  2(t  4)u (t  4)  (t  5)u (t  5)
1 1 2 2 1
f ( s)  2  2 e s  2 e3s  2 e 4 s  2 e5 s
s s s s s
1.3 Inverse Laplace Transforms

The Laplace transform is an expression in the variable s which denoted by F (s) . It is
said that f (t ) and F (s)  L f (t ) form a transform pair. This means that if F (s) is the
Laplace transform of f (t ) then f (t ) is the inverse Laplace transform of F (s) . We
write as: f (t )  L1F (s) or L1F (s)  f (t )
1
The operator L is known as the operatorfor inverse Laplace transform. There is no
simple integral definition of the inverse transform so you have to find it by working
backwords. Here we have the reverse process, i.e. given a Laplace transform, we
have to find the function of t to which it belongs. We use the following table:
Table of inverse transforms

F (s) f (t )
a
a
s
1
e  at
sa
n!
tn
s n 1
1 t n 1
sn (n  1)!
a
sin at
s2  a2
s
cos at
s  a2
2
a
sinh at
s2  a2
s
cosh at
s  a2
2

Response of first order systems
2. Dynamic behavior of first order system
Before studying the control system it is necessary to become familior with the
response os some of simple basic systems (i.e study the dynamic behaviour of the
first and second order systems).
2.1 The transfer function:

The dynamic behaviour of the system is described by transfer function (T.F)
( )
( )
X(s) Transfer Y(s)

Input functionG (s) Output
Forcing function Responce
Block diagram
( )
( )
( )
This definition is applied to linear systems
2.2 Development of T.F for first order system:

2.2.1.Mercury Thermometer
It is a measuring device use to measure the temperature of a stream.

Consider a mercury in glass thermometer to be
located in a flowing stream of fluid for which the
temperature x varies with time.
The opject is to calculate the time variation of the
thermometer reading y for a particular change of x
The following assumptions will be used in this analysis:-
1. All the resistance to heat transfer resides in the film surrounding the bulb (i.e.,
the resistance offered by the glass and mercury is neglected).
2. All the thermal capacity is in the mercury. Furthermore, at any instant the
mercury assumes a uniform temperature throughout.
3. The glass wall containing the mercury does not expand or contract during the
transient response.

It is assumed that the thermometer is initially at steady state. This means that,
before time zero, there is no change in temperature with time. At time zero the
thermometer will be subjected to some change in the surrounding temperature x(t).
(i.e at t<0 , x(t)= y(t) =constant there is no change in temperature with time).
At t=0 there is a change in the surounding temperature x(t)
Unsteady state energy balance:
( ) ……………… (1)
1st order differential equation
Where
A: area of the bulb
Cp: heat capacity of mercury
m: mass of mercury in the bulb
t: time
h: film heat transfer coefficient
h depend on the flowrate and properties of the surounding fluid and the dimension
of the bulb.
The dynamic behaviour must be defined by a deviation variables.
At steady state (s.s.) , t<0 , x(t)=constant=xs , y(t)=constant=ys , x(t)=constant=xs
( ) ……………… (2)
Substract eq. (2) from eq. (1)
( )
( ) ( )
at t=0 Y(0)=0 and X(0)=0
Let = time constant and has time units
[ ( ) ( )] ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

( )
( )
( ) ……………… (3)
( )
( )
( )
Any system has a T.F of the form of equation (3) it is called first order system which
is a first order differntial equation (Linear).
2.2.2.Liquid Level Tank
Consider the system shown in below figure which consists of:

1. A tank of uniform cross-sectional area A.
2. Valve attached to the output flow which resistance constant=R.
qo: The output volumetric flowrate (volume/time) through the resistance, is related to
the head h by the linear relationship.
qo  h Linear Valve
h
qo  ……………..(1)
R
Where:
R is related as a linear resistance
If qo h n (n  1) Non linear valve
q(t) is a time varying volumetric flowrate with constant density ρ.
Find the T.F. that relates the head to the input flowrate q(t).
We can analyze this system by writing a transient mass balance around the tank:
Mass flow in - mass flow out = rate of accumulation of mass in the tank
dV
q  qo   (V  Ah)
dt
dh
q  qo  A
dt
h dh
q  A ………………(2)
R dt
At staedy state
hs dh
qs   A s 0 ………………(3)
R dt
Substracting Eq(3) from Eq. (2)
h  hs d (h  hs )
( q  qs )  A
R dt
let Q  q  qs , H  h  hs

dH H
A  Q
dt R
dH
AR  H  RQ Taken laplace for both sides of equation
dt
(s  1) H (s)  RQ(s) where   AR
H ( s) R
 First order system equation …………………(4)
Q( s ) (s  1)
R
H ( s)  Q( s ) …………………(5)
(s  1)
Comparing the T.F. of the tank with thr T.F. of the thermometer we see that eq. (5)
contain the factor (R) which is relate H(t) to Q(t) at s.s. as s  0 , t  
R
For this reason, a factor R in the transfer function is called the steady state gain
s  1
To show that
1
Take Q( s ) 
s
R 1
Therefore H ( s)  .
s  1 s
Final value theorm
R 1 R
lim H (t )  lim sH ( s)  lim s .  lim  R s.s gain
t  s 0 s 0 s  1 s s0 s  1
Also to find the level as a function of time

H (t )  L1H (s)
Example: Liquid level with constant flow outlet
Liquid level with constant flow outlet
In this example the resistance R is replace by a constant flow pump (𝑞𝑜)

Required: the transfer function H(s)

Basic assumptions:
a) Constant density.
b) Constant flow outlet.
c) Constant cross sectional area.
i. Unsteady state mass balance

dh
qi - qo = A
dt
ii. Steady state mass balance
dh s
q is - q os = A 0
dt
iii. Subtract the steady state equation from the unsteady state one
d(h - h s )
(q i - q is ) - (q o - q os ) = A
dt
dH
Qi - Qo = A
dt
iv. Taking the transform of the resulting equation
Qi (s) - Qo (s) = AsH(s)
Q i (s) Q o (s)
H(s)  -
As As
2.2.3.Mixing Tank
Consider the mixing process shown in Figure in which a

stream of solution containing dissolved salt flows at a
constant volumetric flow rate q into a tank of constant
holdup volume V. The concentration of the salt in the
entering stream x (mass of salt/volume) varies with time. It
is desired to determine the transfer function relating the
outlet concentration y to the inlet concentration x.
If we assume the density of the solution to be constant, the flow rate in must equal the
flowrate out, since the holdup volume is fixed.
F: Volumetric flowrate
x, y : Input and output salt concentrations (mass or mole/vol)
Unsteady state material balance
dVy dy
Fx  Fy  V
dt dt
Steady state
dys
Fxs  Fys  V 0
dt

Subtracting the above both equations and introducing the deviation variables
d ( y  ys )
F ( x  xs )  F ( y  ys )  V
dt
X  x  xs
Y  y  ys
dY
V  FY  FX
dt
V dY
Y  X
F dt
dY
 Y  X
dt
(s  1)Y (s)  X (s)
Y ( s) 1
 1st order system , where  
V
X ( s ) (s  1) F
Example:
Find the T.F for the system shown in figure F1 F2
Solution:
h dh
F1  F2   A
R dt
hs dh h
F1s  F2 s  A s qo
R dt
let F1  F1  F1s , F2  F2  F2 s , h  h  hs
h dh
F1  F2  A
R dt
dh
AR  h  F1 R  F2 R
dt
(s  1)h (s)  F1 (s) R  F2 (s) R
R R
h ( s)  F1 ( s)  F2 ( s)
(s  1) (s  1)
R R
When F1 constant  F1 ( s )  0  h ( s)  F2 ( s)
(s  1) (s  1)
R R
When F2 constant  F2 ( s )  0  h ( s)  F1 ( s)
(s  1) (s  1)

2.2.4.Heating Tank
Energy balance equation.

dT
VC  wC (Ti  T )  Q
dt
Assumption: constant liquid holdup and
constant inflow(w is constant), a linear
model result.
dT
If the process is at steady-state, 0
dt
0  wC (Tis  Ts )  Qs Figure: Continuous stirred-tank heater.
Subtract equations
dT d (T  Ts )
VC  VC  wC [(Ti  Tis )  (T  Ts )]  (Q  Qs )
dt dt
Define some important new variables(Deviation variables).
T  T  Ts , Ti  Ti  Tis , Q  Q  Qs
By substituting deviation variables for variables.
dT
VC  wC (Ti  T )  Q
dt
V dT
 Ti  T  Q / wC
w dt
Let k  1 wC ,  V w
Apply Laplace Transform.
sT ( s )  (Ti ( s )  T ( s ))  kQ ( s )
(s  1)T ( s )  Ti ( s )  kQ ( s )
1 k
T (s)  Ti ( s)  Q ( s)
s  1 s  1
T (s) k
If Ti ( s )  0 , G1 ( s)  
Q ( s) s  1
T (s) 1
If Q ( s )  0 , G2 ( s)  
Ti ( s ) s  1

2.2.5. CSTR with constant holdup:
dC A
V  FC Ai  FC A  VKCA
dt
dC A,ss
at steady state V  FC Ai,ss  FC A,ss  VKC A,ss
dt
by subtracting both equations
d (C A  C A,ss )
V  F (C Ai  C Ai,ss )  F (C A  C A,ss )  VK (C A  C A,ss )
dt
dC A
V  ( F  VK )C A  FCAi  ( F  VK )
dt
V dC A F
 CA  CAi
( F  VK ) dt ( F  VK )
Let   V and K 
F
( F  VK ) ( F  VK )
dC
 A  C A  K CAi
dt
Taking Laplace Transform:
(s  1)C A (s)  KCAi (s)
K CAi ( s)
C A ( s) 
(s  1)
2.3 Properties of transfer functions

T.F relates two variables in a physical process. One of these is (Forcing or Input
variable) and the other is the effect (Reponce or Output).
( )
( )
( )
If we select a particular input variation x(t) for which the L.T is x(s) then the reponce.
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
If G(s) is 1st order of a thermometer
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
x(s) G(s) y(s)
The ultimate value is final steady state value

U .V  lim y( t )  lim sy( s )
t  s 0

2.4 Transient response for different changes
( ) ( )
Y(t)=? For different types of x(t)
1-Step Change
A
X (t )  A X ( s) 
s
K A
Y ( s)  .
s  1 s
Solving by partial fractions
K A o 
.   1
s  1 s s s  1
KA   o (s  1)  1s
s  0   o  KA
1
s  1 /   KA   o ( /   1)  1 then 1  KA

KA KA KA KA 1 /  KA KA
Y ( s)      
s s  1 s s  1 1 /  s s  1/
t  t 
Y (t )  KA  KAe  KA(1  e )
The above equation is the general form of first order system response to step change.
Characteristics of step response

A. The value of the output reaches 63.2% of its ultimate value after t=
B. If the initial rate of change is maintained the response will be completed after t=
C. The speed of the response of a first-order system is determined by the time
constant for the system. As t increases, it takes longer for the system to respond to the
step disturbance.

D. When the time elapsed is 2 , 3 , and 4 , the percent response is 86.5%, 95%, and
98%, respectively.
E. The response is completed after t= 5
Figure: Step response for first-order system

Example:
A thermometer having a time constant of 0.1 min is at a steady state temperature of
90 Fo. At time t = 0, the thermometer is placed in a temperature bath maintained at
100°F. Determine the time needed for the thermometer to read 98 Fo.
Solution:
At s.s. xs=ys=90 Fo
A
Step change X (s) 
s
A=100-90=10
10
X( s ) 
s
1 A 1 10 10 10 A B
Y( s )      
s  1 s 0.1s  1 s s( 0.1s  1 ) 0.1s( s  10 ) 0.1s s  10
A( s  10 )  B( 0.1s )  10
10
s 0 A 1
10
s  10  B  10
1 10 10 10
Y( s )    
0.1s s  10 s s  10
By taken laplace inverse for the equation
Y ( t )  10  10e 10t  10( 1  e 10t )
Substitute Y(t)=y(t)-ys =98-90
Y(t)=8
8  10( 1  e 10t )

0.8  1  e 10t
ln( e 10t )  ln( 0.2 )
 10t  ln( 0.2 )
t   ln(0.2)  0.1
t=0.161 min
2-Impulse Input
X (t )  A (t ) x(t)
Y ( s) K

X ( s ) s  1
Area
X ( s)  A
K KA KA 1
Y ( s)  A ( )
s  1 s  1  s  1/
KA
Y (t )  y (t )  ys  e t 

A
y (t )  e t   ys

3-Pulse Input
H 0tT
X(t )  
0 t T
Write the function X(t) in terms of the two unit step function
X (t )  H u(t )  H u(t  T )
H H Ts
X ( s)   e
s s
K H H Ts
Y ( s)  (  e )
s  1 s s

H K H K Ts
Y (s)   e
s s  1 s s  1
t ( t T )
 
Y (t )  KH [1  e ] KH [1  e  
]
then
t

Y (t )  KH [1  e  ] for t < T
t ( t T )
 
Y (t )  KH [1  e  ] KH [1  e 
] for t > T
4-Ramp Input
X (t )  At
where A is the slope of the ramp function
Y ( s) K

X ( s ) s  1
A
X ( s) 
s2
KA
Y ( s) 
KA
 
s (s  1) s 2 ( s  1 )
2

Solving by partial fractions
o 1 2
Y ( s)  2
 
s s 1
s

KA 1 1
  o ( s  )  1 s ( s  )   2 s 2
  
s 0 :  o  KA
1
s1 :  o   0  1   0   KA

s 2 : 1   2  0   2  1  KA
KA KA KA
Y ( s)   
s2 s s
1

KA KA KA
Y ( s)   
s2 s s
1

t

Y (t )  KAt  KA  KA e 
t

Y (t )  KAt  KA (1  e ) 
5-Sinsoidal input
x( t )  xs  A sin wt t 0
x( t )  xs  A sin wt
X (t )  x(t )  xs  A sin wt
Aw
X( s ) 
s  w2
2
Aw 1 1
Y( s )  2   Aw[ ]
s  w 2 ( s  1 ) ( s 2  w 2 )( s  1 )
This equation can be solved for y(t) by means of a partial fraction expansion as
described in previous lectures.
1  o s  1 2
Y ( s )  Aw[ 2 ]  Aw[  ]
( s  w 2 )( s  1 ) ( s 2  w 2 ) ( s  1 )
(  o s  1 )( s  1 )   2 ( s 2  w 2 )  1
 o s 2   o s  1s  1   2 s 2   2 w 2  1
s0 1   2 w 2  1 (4)
s1  o  1   0   o   1  (5)
s2  o    2  0   2   o  (6)
By substitution eq.(5) in eq.(6)
 2  1  2 (7)
By substitution eq.(7) in eq.(4)
 1  1  2 w 2  1
1 2 
1  , 2  , 0 
1  2 w2 1   2 w2 1   2 w2
 1 2
s
Y ( s )  Aw[ 1   2 2
w 1  2 w2  1  2 w2 ]
( s 2  w2 ) ( s  1 )
1  s  1 2
Y ( s )  Aw [  ]
1   2 w2 ( s 2  w2 ) ( s  1 )
Aw  s 1 w 2 
Y( s )  [   ]
1   2 w 2 ( s 2  w 2 ) ( s 2  w2 ) w ( s  1 ) 
Aw  s 1 w 
Y( s )  [ 2   ]
1   w ( s  w ) w ( s  w ) ( s  1/  )
2 2 2 2 2
Aw 1
Y (t )  [ cos wt  sin wt  e t  ]
1 w
2 2
w
Using the definition
p cos  q sin   r sin(   )
p
r p2  q2 tan 
q
p
  tan1
q
1
q p  
w
  tan1 ( w )
1  w2 2
r  ( ) 2     
1 1
2
  2

w w2 w
1
  cos wt  sin wt  r sin( wt   )
w
Aw t  1  w2 2
Y (t )  [e  sin( wt   )]
1   2 w2 w
Aw t  A
Y (t )  e  sin( wt   )]
1 w
2 2
1  w2 2
where
  tan 1 ( w )
As t   then e t   0 , the first term on the right side of main equation
vanishes and leaves only the ultimate periodic solution, which is sometimes called the
steady-state solution
A
Y( t )  sin( wt   )]
1  w2  2
A X(t) _______T_______
-A
By comparing Eq. for the input forcing Y(t) function with Eq. for the ultimate
periodic response X(t), we see that
1. The output is a sine wave with a frequency w equal to that of the input signal.
1
2. The ratio of output amplitude to input amplitude is 1.
1 w 2 2
3. The output lags behind the input by an angle  . It is clear that lag occurs, for the
sign of  is always negative.
0 phase lag
0 phase load
Example:
A mercury thermometer having a time constant of 0.1 min is placed in a temperature
bath at 100°F and allowed to come to equilibrium with the bath. At time t= 0, the
temperature of the bath begins to vary sinusoidally about its average temperature of
l00oF with an amplitude of 2°F If the frequency of oscillation is 10/ cycles/min, plot
the ultimate response of the thermometer reading as a function of time. What is the
phase lag?
In terms of the symbols used in this chapter

  0.1
t 0 x s  y s  100
t 0 x( t )  100  2 sin( wt )
10
f 

Solution
10
w  2f  2   20 rad / min

1 1
T   0.314 min
f 10

X ( t )  x( t )  xs  100  2 sin 20t  100
X ( t )  2 sin 20t
2  20
X( s )  2
s  20 2
Ultimate response t   then e t   0
A
Y( t )  sin( wt   )]
1 w 2 2
  tan (  w )  tan 1( 20  0.1 )  tan 1( 2 )

1
  63.5o
Ultimate response at the above angle
2
Y( t )  sin( 20t  63.5 )]
1  ( 0.1  20 ) 2
2
Y( t )  sin( 20t  63.5 )]
5
Y ( t )  0.896 sin( 20t  63.5 )] Ultimate response
In general, the lag in units of time

is given by:-
 1
phase lag 
360 f
63.5 cycle  min
phase lag 
360 10 cycle
 0.0555 min

A frequency of means that a complete cycle occurs in ( ) . since cycle
is equivalent to 360 and lag is 63.5o
o
How to calculate the time constant ( ) for first order system

1) Mathematical method
Using the definitions
m cp
 Thermometer
hA
  AR Liquid level tan k
V
 Mixing tan k
q
2) Exponential method(Step change in the input variable)

A
0.63 A
Y (t )  A(1  e t  )
as t   Y ()  A(1  e  )  A
as t   Y ( )  A(1  e 1 )  A(1  0.3678)  0.63 A
Time constant ( )is the time required for the response to reach 63% of the its utimate
value.
3. Third method
Y ( t )  A( 1  e t  ) A
dy A
  Ae t  ( 1  )  e t 
dt  Y(t)slope
dy A A
lim  e 0 
t 0 dt  
A t
Slope of the tangent at t=0 is  t
A
Therfore  
slope
Y ( t )  A( 1  e t  )
Y ( t )  A  Ae t 
Ae t   A  Y ( t )
A  Y( t )
e t  
A
A  Y( t )
 t   ln
A
AY( t )
Let B  A
1
ln B  t

let y  ln B and x  t
1
slope  

Y(t) A  Y( t ) ln B t
B lnB
A slope  
1

1
slope  

1
 
slope
Example: Fitting of a first order system

Below figure gives response of the temperature T in a continuous stirred-tank reactor
to a step change in feed flow rate w from 120 to 125 kg/min. Find an approximate
first-order model for the process for these operating conditions.
Figure: Temperature response

of a stirred-tank reactor for a
step change in feed flow rate.

Solution
First note that Δw = M = 125-120 = 5 kg/min.
Since ΔT = T(∞) – T(0) = 160 – 140 =20 ºC, the process gain is
The time constant obtained from the graphical construction shown in above Figure is
5 min.
Note that this result agrees with the time constant when 63.2% of the response is
complete, that is
T = 140+0.632*20 = 152.6 ºC
Consequently, the desired process model (Transfer Function) is:
( )
( )
Example: The level in a tank responds as a first order system with changes in the
inlet flow. Given the following level vs. time data that was gathered after the inlet
flow was increased quickly from 1.5 gal/min to 4.8 gal/min, determine the transfer
function that relates the height in the tank to the inlet flow. Be sure to use deviation
variables and include units on the steady state gain and the time constant.
Time Time Time
Level (ft) Level (ft) Level (ft)
(min) (min) (min)
0 4.8 1.2423 8.9354 2.4847 11.4513
0.138 5.3673 1.3804 9.2805 2.6227 11.6612
0.2761 5.9041 1.5184 9.6071 2.7607 11.8599
0.4141 6.412 1.6564 9.9161 ………….. …………..
0.5521 6.8927 1.7945 10.2085 14.3558 15.3261
0.6902 7.3475 1.9325 10.4853 14.4938 15.328
0.8282 7.7779 2.0705 10.7471 14.6319 15.3297
0.9663 8.1852 2.2086 10.9949 14.7699 15.3313
1.1043 8.5706 2.3466 11.2294
Solution:
( )
( ) ( )
This height occurs at t  2.5 min = .
( )
The transfer function is thus:
( )
In this equation: H(s) and Q(s) are deviation variables.
H(s) = h(s) 4.8 ft and Q(s) = q-1.5 gal/min.

Response of first order systems in series
Many physical systems can be represented by several first-order processes connected

in series as shown in figure:-
Figure 5.1 Two-tank liquid-level system: (a) Non-interacting; (b) interacting.
h1
In fig (5.1 a) variation of h2 does not effect on q1 then q1 
R1
h1  h2
In fig (5.1 b) variation of h2 does effect on q1 then q1 
R1
1-Non Interacting System
Material balance on tank 1 gives

h dh
qi  1  A1 1
R1 dt
h1s dh
At s.s. qis   A1 1s  0
R1 dt
By substracting both equations
h h d ( h1  h1s )
( qi  qis )  1 1s  A1
R1 dt
H1 dH1
[ Qi   A1 ]  R1
R1 dt

dH1
R1Qi  H1  R1 A1
dt
H1( s ) R1
 where 1  A1 R1
Qi ( s ) 1s  1
Material balance on tank 2 gives

h1 h2 dh
  A2 2
R1 R2 dt
h1s h2 s dh
At s.s.   A2 2 s  0
R1 R2 dt
h1  h1s h2  h2 s d ( h2  h2 s )
  A2
R1 R2 dt
H1 H 2 dH 2
  A2  R2
R1 R2 dt
dH 2 R
A2 R2  H 2  2 H1
dt R1
R2
 2 sH 2 ( s )  H 2 ( s )  H1( s )  2  R2 H 2
R1
R2
(  2 s  1 )H 2 ( s )  H1( s )
R1
R2 R1
H 2( s )  H1( s ) By substituting the lapace transform of H1(s)
( 2 s  1 )
R2 R1 R
H 2( s )   Qi ( s ) 1
( 2 s  1 ) 1s  1
R2
H 2( s )  Qi ( s )
( 1s  1 )(  2 s  1 )
H 2( s ) R2

Qi ( s ) ( 1s  1 )(  2 s  1 ) Non-interacting system
In the case of three non-interacting tanks in sereies the transfer function of the system
will be as below:-
H 3( s ) R3

Qi ( s ) ( 1s  1 )(  2 s  1 )( 3 s  1 )
Example:
Two non-interacting tanks are connected in series as shown in Fig. 5.1 a. The time
constants are τ2 =1 and τ1 =0.5; R 2=1. Sketch the response of the level in tank 2 if a
unit-step change is made in the inlet flow rate to tank 1.
Solution:
The transfer function for this system is found directly from Equation above thus
R2
H 2( s )  Qi ( s )
( 1s  1 )(  2 s  1 )
1
Substituting Qi ( s )  Unit step change in Qi
s
R2 1
H 2( s ) 
( 1s  1 )(  2 s  1 ) s
o 1 2
  
s ( 1s  1 ) (  2 s  1 )
R2   o ( 1s  1 )(  2 s  1 )  1s(  2 s  1 )   2 s( 1s  1 )
let s  0   o  R2
1 1 1  1  
let s    1(  )(  2 (  )  1 )  R2  1( 22  )  R2  1( 2 2 1 )  R2
1 1 1 1 1 1
12
 1  R2 ( )
 2  1
1 1 1  1  
let s     2 (  )( 1(  )  1 )  R2   2 ( 12  )  R2   2 ( 1 2 2 )  R2
2 2 2 2 2 2
 22
  2  R2 ( )
1   2
R2 12 1  22 1
H 2( s )   R2 ( )  R2 ( )
s  2  1 ( 1s  1 ) 1   2 (  2 s  1 )
1   1   1
H 2 ( s )  R2 [  ( 1 2 ) 1 ( 1 2 ) 2 ]
s  2  1  2 ( 1s  1 ) 1   2 1 (  2 s  1 )
1  1 1  1 1
H 2 ( s )  R2 [  ( 1 2 ) ( 1 2 ) ]
s 1   2  2 ( s  1 / 1 ) 1   2 1 ( s  1 /  2 )
 1 2 1 1
H 2 (t )  R2 (1  ( )( e t /   e t /  ))
1 2
1  2  2 1
1  0.5 1 t / 0.5 1 t / 1
H 2( t )  1  ( )( e  e )
0.5  1 1 0.5

0.5
H 2( t )  1  ( )( e 2t  2e t )
 0.5
H 2 ( t )  1  e 2t  2e t )
R1
H1( s )  .Qi ( s ) H2 (t)
1s  1
H1(t)
R1 1
H1( s )  .
1s  1 s
H 1( t )  R1( 1  e t / 1 )
Substitute R1=1
H 1( t )  1( 1  e t / 0.5 )
H 1( t )  1  e 2t
Example:
Obtain the transfer function of the following system (no reaction):
Where:
F = volumetric flow rate, Fi = F1 Fi , Ci
C = conc. of solute in stream
FiiCii
V = liquid volume in tank
F1, C1
V1 c1
Solution:
Mass balance on concentration; i.e.
In – out = accumulation V2, C2 F2, C2
dC (non-interacting system)
Tank 1: Fi Ci - F1 C1 = V1 1
dt
dC1
1  C1  Ci where τ1 = V1/F1
dt
Laplace transform →  1 s C1 (s) + C1 (s) = Ci (s)
C1 ( s) 1
 1
Ci ( s )  1s  1 …. (1) Ci (s)
 1s  1
C1 (s)
dC2
Tank 2: F1 C1 + Fii C ii - F2 C2 = V2
dt
V2 dC 2 F F
 C2  1 C1 + ii C ii
F2 dt F2 F2
dC 2
2  C 2  K1C1  K 2 Cii
dt
V2 F1 Fii
2  , K1  , K2 
F2 F2 F2
Laplace transform →  2s C2 (s) + C2 (s) = K1 C1 (s) + K 2 Cii (s)

K1 K2
C 2 ( s)  C1 ( s)  Cii ( s)
 2s 1  2s 1
Substitute C1(s) from Eq. (1)

K1 K2
C 2 ( s)  Ci ( s)  Cii ( s)
( 1 s  1)( 2 s  1)  2s 1
2.Interacting System
Material balance on 1sttank

dh
qi  q1  A1 1
dt
h h dh
qi  1 2  A1 1
R1 dt
Steady state
h  h2 s dh
qis  1s  A1 1s  0
R1 dt
h h h  h2 s d ( h1  h1s )
( qi  qis )  1 1s  2  A1
R1 R1 dt
H 2 H1 dH
[ Qi    A1 1 ]  R1
R1 R1 dt
dH1
Qi R1  H 2  H1  A1 R1
dt
dH1
1  H1  Qi R1  H 2
dt
( 1s  1 )H 1( s )  R1Qi ( s )  H 2 ( s )
R1 1
H1( s )  Qi ( s )  H 2( s ) …………..(1)
( 1s  1 ) ( 1s  1 )

Material balance on second tank
h1  h2 h2 dh
  A2 2
R1 R2 dt
h1s  h2 s h2 s dh
  A2 2 s  0
R1 R2 dt
H1 H 2 H 2 dH 2
[    A2 ]  R2
R1 R1 R2 dt
dH 2 R
A2 R2  H 2  2 ( H1  H 2 )
dt R1
R2
(  2 s  1 )H 2 ( s )  ( H1( s )  H 2 ( s )) …………..(2)
R1
Substituting for H1(s)from eq(1) in eq(2)
R R1 1
(  2 s  1 )H 2 ( s )  2 [ Qi ( s )  H 2 ( s )  H 2 ( s )]
R1 ( 1s  1 ) ( 1s  1 )
R2 Qi ( s) R2 H 2 ( s) R2
[( 2 s  1) H 2 ( s)    H 2 ( s)]  ( 1 s  1)
( 1 s  1) R1 ( 1 s  1) R1
R2 (  s  1 )R2
(  2 s  1 )( 1s  1 )H 2 ( s )  R2Qi ( s )  H2( s )  1 H 2 ( s )]
R1 R1
1 R2 s
( 1 2 s 2  1s   2 s  1 )H 2 ( s )  H 2 ( s )  R2Qi ( s )
R1
1 R2 A1 R1 R2
Let   A1 R2  12
R1 R1
( 1 2 s 2  ( 1   2  12 )s  1 )H 2 ( s )  R2Qi ( s )
R2
H2( s )  .Qi ( s ) Interacting system
1 2 s  ( 1   2  12 )s  1
2
R2
H 2( s )  .Qi ( s ) Non- Interacting system
1 2 s 2  ( 1   2 )s  1
The difference between the transfer function for the non-interacting system, and that
for the interacting system, is the presence of the cross-product term A1R2 in the
coefficient of s. 12  A1 R2

Example:
To understand the effect of interaction on the transient response of a system, consider
a two-tank system for which the time constants are equal (τ1=τ2=τ).
τ1 = τ2 = τ12=τ
Q2(t)=? Output flow rate
1
Qi ( s ) 
s
Solution:
Non-interacting system
H 2( s ) R2
 1 =  2
Qi ( s ) 1 2 s 2  ( 1   2 )s  1
H 2( s ) R H (s)
 2 2 2 but Q2 ( s )  2
Qi ( s )  s  2s  1 R2
Q2 ( s ) 1 1 1 2
 2 2  ( )
Qi ( s )  s  2s  1 ( s  1 )( s  1 ) s  1
1
If Qi ( s ) 
s
1 1 o 1 2
Q2 ( s )  .   
( s  1 )2 s s ( s  1 )2 s  1
By multiplying both sides by s( s  1)2 and expanding, we get
 o ( s  1 )2  1s   2 s( s  1 )  1
 o (  2 s 2  2s  1 )  1s   2 ( s 2  s )  1
s 2 (  o  2   2  )  s( 2 o  1   2 )   o  1
s0  o  1
s2   o  2   2   0   2   2   0   2  
s1  2 o   1   2  0  2  1    0  1  
1  
Q2 ( s )   
s ( s  1 )2 s  1
1  
Q2 ( s )   
s ( s  1 ) 2
s  1
1 1 1 1
Q2 ( s )   
s  ( s  1 /  )2 s  1 / 
t
Q2 ( t )  1  e t /   e t /  for non-interacting


Interacting system
If the tanks are interacting, the overall transfer function, according to Equation of
interacting system (assuming further that A1=A2)
1 1
Q2 ( s )  2 2 .
 s  3s  1 s
By application of the quadratic formula, the denominator of this transfer function can
be written as
1 1
Q2 ( s ) 
s ( 0.38s  1 )( 2.62s  1 )
 1 2
Q2 ( s )  o  
s 0.38s  1 2.62s  1
let s  0   o  1
1 1
let s    1  0.38  0.0664
0.38 2.62( 
1
) 1
0.38
1 1
let s    1  2.62  3.664
2.62 0.38( 
1
) 1
2.62
1 0.0664 3.0664
Q2 ( s )   
s 0.38s  1 2.62s  1
1 0.0664 / 0.38 3.0664 / 2.62
Q2 ( s )   
s s  1 / 0.38 s  1 / 2.62
1 0.17 1.17
Q2 ( s )   
s s  1 / 0.38 s  1 / 2.62
Q2 ( t )  1  0.17e t / 0.38  1.17e t / 2.26 
Figure: Effect of interaction on step response of two tank system.

Linearization of non-linear systems
To solve non-linear systems there are two methods:-
1-Non-linear solution
It is difficult and give exact solution
2-Linearization method
Making the non-linear function as linear using Taylar series and give approximate
results.
Linearization Technique
y  2t 
 Linear(all terms to power =1)
y t  x 
y  t2 


y2 t  Non-Linear (power ≠1)
y  ln x 


To make the non-linear function linear one use Tayler series.

d f ( x) 1 d 2 f ( x)
f ( x )  f ( xo )  ( x  xo )  ( x  xo ) 2  ...............
dx x  xo 2! dx 2 x  xo
Neglacting the non linear terms because their value are very small.
Then
d f ( x)
f ( x )  f ( xo )  ( x  xo )
dx x  xo

Example:
The flow of water through a valve or other construction usually follow a square-root
law.
h qi
If qo  Linear valve
R
qo  c h Non-linear valve
c is a constant
h
qo
d ( V ) dh
qi   q o    A
dt dt 𝒒𝒐 = 𝒄 𝒉
dh
qi  ch1 / 2  A ……..(1)
dt
qo may be expanded around the s.s. value hs using linearization method
1 1
h1 / 2  hs1 / 2  (h  hs )
2 h1S / 2
 1 1  dh
qi  c hs1 / 2  1/ 2
( h  hs  A
) …….. (2)
 2 h s  dt
  dh
qis  c hs1 / 2  A s  0
dt
at s.s h=hs …….. (3)
1 1  d ( h  hs )
( qi  qis )  c  1 / 2 ( h  hs )  A
 2 hs  dt
c 1  dH
Qi   1 / 2 H   A
 2 hs  dt
c 1
assume 
2 hs R
H dH
 Qi  A
R dt
dH
RA  H  RQi
dt
By taking laplace transform
( s  1 )H ( s )  RQi ( s )
H( s ) R
 ………….. 1st order system
Qi ( s ) s  1
2 hs
Where R  and   AR
c
1-Transfer function is similar to linear.
2- R depends on the s.s. condition (at steady state the flow entering the tank equals to
the flow leaving the tank,then qo=qos).
Example: CSTR with constant holdup

2A  B  C
Re action Rate  r  kc 2 F, ci
C( s )
G( s )  ?
Ci ( s ) F, c
ci,c : Composition of component (A)
V: Constant=L
F: Constant=L/min
Solution:
In - out - rate of reaction = accumulation
dc
Fci  Fc  Vkc 2  V Un-steady state
dt
c 2  cs2  2cs ( c  cs )
dc
Fci  Fc  Vk [ cs2  2cs ( c  cs )]  V
dt
dcs
Fcis  Fc s  Vkcs2  V  0 Steady state c=cs
dt
d ( c  cs )
F ( ci  cis )  F ( c  cs )  Vk [ 2cs ( c  cs )]  V
dt
dC
V  ( F  2Vkcs )C  FC i  ( F  2Vkcs )
dt
dC
  C  RCi
dt
C( s ) R
 1st order system
Ci ( s ) s  1
Where C  c  c s , Ci  ci  cis
V F
 , R
F  2Vkcs F  2Vkcs

Linearization of nth order nonlinear differential equation
th
Consider the n order nonlinear differential equation f ( x1 , x2 ..., xn )  u( t )
Expanding the nonlinear function in a Taylor series about an operating point that
xio , i 1,2...,n satisfies the original differential equation and retaining only the linear
terms yields:-
df ( x1 , x2 ,...xn )
f ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn )  f ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) x  x0  ( x1  x1o )
i i dx1 x  x0i i
df ( x1 , x2 ,...xn ) df ( x1 , x2 ,...xn )
 ( x2  x2o )   ( xn  xno )
dx2 x  x0
dxn x  x0
i i i i
Example:
Mixing tank F, ci
C( s )
G( s )  ? F, c
F( s )
c : Variable (kg/L)
F: Variable (L/min) h
Ci: Variable (kg/L)
V: Constant
Solution:
dc
Fc  Fc
 V
i non linear term dt
non linear term
f f
f ( x , y )  f ( xs , y s )  x  xs ( x  xs )  x  xs ( y  ys )
x y  ys y y  ys
 Fci  Fs cis  cis ( F  Fs )  Fs (ci  cis )
 Fc  Fs cs  cs ( F  Fs )  Fs (c  cs )
dc
[ Fs cis  cis ( F  Fs )  Fs (ci  cis )]  [ Fs c s  c s ( F  Fs )  Fs (c  c s )]  V Un s.s
dt
dc s
Fs cis  Fs c s  V 0 s.s
dt

d (c  c s )
cis ( F  Fs )  Fs (ci  cis )  c s ( F  Fs )  Fs (c  c s )  V
dt
d (c  c s )
(cis  c s )( F  Fs )  Fs (ci  cis )  Fs (c  c s )  V
dt
Making F  F  Fs , ci  ci  cis , c  c  cs
dc
(cis  c s ) F  Fs ci  Fs c  V  Fs
dt
(cis  c s ) V dc
F  ci  c 
Fs Fs dt
dc
KF  ci  c  
dt
Where
V (cis  c s )
 , K
Fs Fs
Taking lapalace and re-arranging
KF ( s )  c i ( s )  c ( s )   s c ( s )
KF ( s )  ci ( s )  c ( s )( s  1)
K F ( s ) ci ( s )
c ( s)   st
s  1 s  1 1 order system
Example: Heating tank of constant volume
The nonlinearity arise from the product term FT

and FTi:
Solution:
Total mass balance
For constant volume tank = therfore =

Heat balance
= ( )
=
By linearization of non linear terms
= ( ) ( )
= ( ) ( )
Substituting the last two equations gives:
= ( ) ( ) ( ) (
)
At steady state:
=
Subtracting:
( ) ( )
= ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
̅ ̅
= ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
̅ ̅
̅= ̅ ( )̅
̅ ( ) ̅
̅=̅ ̅
let
( )
= = =
̅
̅=̅ ̅ ̅
Taking Laplace
̅( ) ̅( ) = ̅( ) ̅( ) ̅( )
( ) ̅( ) = ̅ ( ) ̅( ) ̅( )
̅( ) ̅( ) ̅( )
̅( ) =
( ) ( ) ( )

Example: Heating tank of variable volume
The nonlinearity arises from the product term VT,

FT and FTi:
Solution:
Total mass balance
=
Heat Balance
=
By linearization of non linear terms
= = ( )
= ( ) ( )
= ( ) ( )
Substituting the last three equations gives:
( )= ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
At steady state:
( )=
Subtracting:
( )
( ) ( )= ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
̅ ̅
̅= ̅ ̅ ̅
̅ ̅
̅= ̅ ̅ ̅

̅ ̅
̅= ̅ ̅ ̅
let
= = = = =
̅
̅= ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
Taking Laplace
̅( ) ̅( ) = ̅( ) ̅( ) ̅( ) ̅( )
( ) ̅( ) = ̅ ( ) ̅( ) ̅( ) ̅( )
̅( ) ̅( ) ̅( ) ̅( )
̅( ) =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Time Delay
The most commonly used model to describe the dynamics of chemical process is
First-Order Plus Model Delay Model. By proper choice τd , this model can be
represent the dynamics of many industrial processes.
 Time delay or dead time between inputs and outputs are very common
industrial procsses, engineering systems, economical, and biological systems.
 Transportation and measurement lags, analysis times, computation and

communication lags.
Any delay in measuring, in controller action, in actuator operation, in computer
computation, and the like, is called transportation delay or dead time, and it always
reduces the stability of a system and limits the achievable time of the system.
The Transportation Lag

The transportation lag is the delay between the time an input signal is applied to a
system and the time the system reacts to that input signal. Transportation lags are
common in industrial applications. They are often called “dead time”.

Dead-Time Approximations:-
qi(t) qo(t)
Dead
Time
qi(t) = Input to dead-time element.

qo(t) = Output from dead-time element.
The simplest dead-time approximation can be obtained qraphically or by physical
representation.
qo (t )  qi (t   d )
Qo ( s )  Qi ( s )e  d s
Qo ( s)
 e  d s
Qi ( s)
The accuracy of this approxiamtion depends on the dead time being sufficicently
small relative to the rate of the change of the slope of q i(t). If qi(t) were a ramp
(constant slope), the approximation would be perfect for any value of τd. When the
slope of qi(t) varies rapidly, only smal τd’s will give a good approximation.
If the variation in x(t) were some arbitrary function, as shown in figure below, the
response y(t) at the end of the pipe would be identical with x(t) but again delayed by t
Figure Response of transportation lag to various inputs.

Second order system
A linear second order system under dynamic condition is given by the differential
equation:-
1 d 2Y 2 dY
  Y  kX
n2 dt 2 n dt
1

n
d 2Y dY
 2  2  Y  kX
dt 2 dt
Where:-
k : Steady state gain
Y : Response value
X : Input disturbing variable
ωn: Natural frequency of oscillation of the system.
Y (0)  Y (0)  0
ξ : Damping factor (damping coefficient)
By taking laplace for the above second order differential equation
 2 s 2Y ( s)  2sY ( s)  Y ( s)  kX ( s)
( 2 s 2  2s  1)Y ( s )  kX ( s )
Y ( s) k
G(s)   2 2 T.F. of second order system
X ( s )  s  2s  1
If x is sudden force, such as, step change inputs, Y will oscillate depending on the
value of damping coefficient ξ .
ξ <1 Response will oscillate (Under damped)
ξ>1 Response will oscillate (Over damped)
ξ=1 Response critical oscillation (critical damped)

Response of second order system
1) Step change response
A k A k 2 A
X ( s)   Y ( s)  2 2    ……(1)
s  s  2s  1 s 2 1 s
s2  s 2
 
The quadratic term in this equation may be factored into two linear terms that contain
the roots
2 2 4 4 2 4  2 1
  ( ) 
2
 2
s1, 2     2     2  2    2
2  2  2
 2 1

  =Two real roots
 
 2 1
   2 1
s1   and s2   ……(2)
   
Eq. (1) can now be re-written as

kA  2
Y ( s) 
s( s  s1 )( s  s 2 )
ξ>1 Overdamped Two distinct real roots

ξ=1 Critically Damped Two equal real roots
0<ξ<1 Underdamped Two complex roots
k A 0 1 s   2
Y ( s)    
 2 s 2  2s  1 s s  2 s 2  2s  1
 o ( 2 s 2  2s  1)  1s 2   2 s  kA
s0  0  kA
s1 2 0   2  0   2  2kA
s2  0 2   1  0   1  kA 2
1  2 s  2
Y ( s)  kA[  2 2 ]
s  s  2s  1

 
s2 s2
1
Y ( s )  kA[   1
]  kA[   ]
s  1  2
 2
s  2 1 2
(s  2 s  2 )  2  2 (s  2 s  2 )  2  2
       

s2
1
Y ( s )  kA[   ]
s  2 1  2
(s  ) 
 2
1) For ξ<1 ==> under damped system

  
s2 s 
1
Y ( s )  kA[   1
]  kA[    ]
s  1  2 s  1  2
(s  ) 2  ( ) 2
(s  ) 2  ( )2
   
 
s
1
 kA[     ]
s  1 2 2  1  2 2
(s  ) 2  ( ) (s  ) 2  ( )
   
   1  2
s  
1   1  2 
 kA[   ]
s  2 1 2 2  2 1  2 2
(s  )  ( ) (s  )  ( )
   
(  /  ) t 1 2  (  /  ) t 1  2
Y (t )  kA[1  e cos t e sin t]
 1 2 
1  2
w


Y (t )  kA[1  e (  /  )t (cos wt  sin wt ]
1  2
 1
r p2  q2  1 ( )2 
1  2 1  2
p 1 1  2
  tan 1
 tan 1  tan 1
q  
1  2
Y (t )  kA[1  e (  /  )t (r sin( wt   ))]

2) For ξ>1 Overdamped system
  
s2  s
1
Y ( s )  kA[   1
]  kA[    ]
s  2 1  2
s  2  2 1
(s  )  2 (s  )  2
   
 
s
 kA[ 
1    ]
s   1 2
2
  1 2
2
(s  ) 2  ( ) (s  ) 2  ( )
   
    2 1
s  
1    2 1 
 kA[   ]
s   1 2
2
  1 2
2
(s  ) 2  ( ) (s  ) 2  ( )
   

sinh wt ] where w    1
2
Y (t )  kA[1  e ( /  )t (cosh wt 
 2 1 

Terms Used to Describe an Underdamped System
Second order system response for a step change
1.05 b
0.95 b
tp
Figure (8.3) Terms used to describe an underdamped second-order response.
1. Overshoot (OS)
Overshoot is a measure of how much the response exceeds the ultimate value (new
steady-state value) following a step change and is expressed as the ratio in the Fig.
(8-3).
 
OS  exp
1  2 )
OS %  100  OS
2. Decay ratio (DR)

The decay ratio is defined as the ratio of the sizes of successive peaks and is given by
in Fig. (8.3). where C is the height of the second peak
 2
DR  exp  (OS ) 2
1  2
3. Rise time(tr)
This is the time required for the response to first reach its ultimate value and is
labeled in Fig. (8.3).
1  2
  tan 1

tr 
w
4. Response time
This is the time required for the response to come within ±5 percent of its ultimate
value and remain there. The response time is indicated in Fig. (8.3).
5. Period of oscillation (T)

The radian frequency (radians/time) is the coefficient of t in the sine term; thus,
2
T
1 2
6. Natural period of oscillation

If the damping is eliminated (ξ=0), the system oscillates continuously without
attenuation in amplitude. Under these “natural” or undamped condition, the radian
1
frequency is . This frequency is referred to as the natural frequency wn.

1
wn 

The corresponding natural cyclical frequency fn and period Tn are related by the
expression:-
1 1
fn   Thus, τ has the significance of the undamped period.
Tn 2
7- Time to First Peak(tp ) :

Is the time required for the output to reach its first maximum value.
 
tp  
w 1  2
Figure(8.4) Characteristics of a step response of underdamped second-order system.

Derivations
1-Over shoot
wt      n
n
t max or min n=1, 2, 3 ……
w
If n=0, 2, 4, 6, …………….  min

If n=1, 3, 5, 7, …………….  max
1st max when n=1
n 
t 
w w

1 
y (t )  kA[1  e w
sin ( w   )]
1  2 w

1 1 2
y max  kA[1  e ( sin  )]
1  2
For Underdampded system
1  2
cos    , sin   1   2
, tan  


1 1 2
 y max  kA[1  e ( 1   2 )]
1  2

1 2
y max  kA[1  e ]
A max  B
Overshoot  
B B

1 2
kA[1  e ]  kA
Overshoot 
kA
 
Overshoot  exp
1 2 )

2-Decay Ratio
C
Decay ratio  (The ratio of amount above the ultimate value of two sucessive
A
peaks).
n 3
t for n=3 then t 
w w

1 2
First peak at n=1 y max  kA[1  e ]
3
1 2
Second peak at n=3 y max  kA[1  e ]
3 3
 2
1 2 1 2
kA[1  e ]  kA e 1 2
Decay Ratio  
 
e
1 2 1 2
kA[1  e ]  kA e
 2
Decay Ratio  exp
1 2
3. Rise time (tr)

It is the time required for the response to first tauch the ultimate line.
t
1
y (t )  kA[1  e  sin (tw   )]
1  2
At tr y(t)=kA
t
1
kA  kA[1  e 
sin (t r w   )]
1 2
0  sin (t r w   )]
sin 1 (0)  
tr 
w
1  2
n  tan 1
n   
tr   
w w
1 2
  tan 1

tr  for n=1
w

4-Period of oscillation (T)
1  2
w  Radian frequency 

1
w  2f also T 
f
1 2
f 
2
2
T 
1 2
5. Natural period of oscillation (Tn).

The system free of any damping for ξ=0
1  2 1
w, radian of frequency   wn  for   0
 
1
w n  2f n   2f n

1
fn 
 2
6-Response time(ts)
The time required for the response to reach (±5%) of its ultimate value and remain
there.
7- Time to First Peak (tp )

Is the time required for the output to reach its first maximum value.
n
t
w
First peak is reached when n=1
n  
tp   
w w 1  2

2- Impulse Response
If impulse δ(t) is applied to second order system then transfer response can be written
as.
k
Y ( s)  2 2 X ( s)
 s  2s  1
X (s)  Area  A
k
Y (s)  .A
 2 s 2  2s  1
kA /  2 kA /  2
Y ( s)  
2 1 2 1  
s 
2
s  2 s2  s  2  ( )2  ( )2
    
kA /  2 kA /  2
 
2  2 1  2  1  2
s 
2
s( )  2 ( ) (s  ) 2  2
     
i) ξ>1
kA   2 1
kA /  2 kA /  2   2 1 
2
Y ( s)   
 2 1  2    2
 
2
   2 1 
2
(s  )  2 (s  ) 2  
1  (s  ) 2  
         
   
t
kA
Y (t )  e  sinh wt
  1
2
 2 1
w

ii)ξ<1
kA  1  2
kA /  2 kA /  2  2 1  2 
Y ( s)   
 1  2  2  1   2 
2
 2  1   2 
2
(s  ) 2  2 (s  )   (s  )  
         
   
t
kA
Y (t )  e  sin wt
 1  2

1  2
w

iii)ξ=1
kA /  2 kA /  2 kA /  2
Y (s)   
 1  2 1 1  12 1
(s  ) 2
(s  ) 2  2 (s  ) 2  2
    
kA
Y (t )  te t /
 2
Example: A step change from 15 to 31 psi in actual pressure results in the measured
response from a pressure indicating element shown in Figure.
Assuming second-order dynamics, calculate all important parameters and write and
approximate transfer function in the form
R' ( s ) K
 2 2
P' ( s)  s  2s  1
where R' is the instrument output deviation (mm), P' is the actual pressure deviation
(psi).
Solution:
11.2 mm  8 mm
Gain   0.20 mm / psi
31 psi  15 psi
12.7 mm  11.2 mm
Overshoot   0.47
11.2 psi  8 psi
   
Overshoot  exp   0.47
 1 2 
 
  0.234
2
Period   2.3 sec
1 2

1  0.2342
  2.3 sec  0.356 sec
2
R' ( s ) 0.2

P' ( s) 0.127s  0.167 s  1
2
Example: A control system having transfer function is expressed as:

Y (s) 5
G(s)   2 2
X ( s)  s  2s  1
The radian frequency for the control system is 1.9 rad/min. The time constant is 0.5
min. The control system is subjected to a step change of the magnitude 2.
Calculate :
(i) Rise time
(ii) Decay ratio
(iii) Maximum value of Y(t)
Solution:
Given
2
X (s) 
s
Time constant   0.5 min
Radian frequency w  1.9 rad / min
1 2 1 2
w  1.9     0.312
 0.5
i) Rise time
1 2 1  0.3122
  tan 1 3.1416  tan 1
 0.312
tr    1.0 min
w 1.9
C  2  2 0.312
ii) Deacay ratio =  exp( ) = exp( )
A 1 2
1  0.312 2
Decay ratio  0.127
iii) Ultimate value of the response Yultimate (B) at t  
Y ( s) 5

X ( s) 0.25s  0.316s  1
2
2
X (s) 
s
10
Y (s) 
s (0.25s  0.316s  1)
2
10
lim t  Y (t )  lim s0 [ sY ( s)]  lim s0  10
(0.25s  0.316s  1)
2

Yultimate (B)  10
B
Maximum value of response  B(1  )
A
B  
Overshoot=  exp( )
A 1 2
Decay ratio=Overshoot2
0.127=Overshoot2
B
overshoot = 0.356 =
A
Maximum value of response =10(1+0.356)=13.56

Extra Examples (Process Dynamics)
Example 1: A thermometer having a time constant of 1 min is initially at 50oC. It is

immersed in a bath maintained at 100oC at t = 0. Determine the temperature reading
at t =1.2 min.
Solution
Thermometer with τ=1 min
Let x = bath temperature, y = indicated temperature Thermocouple
T(t=0) = 50oC
ys = 50oC
Y = y(t) – ys = y(t) – 50
X = x(t) – xs = x(t) – 50
Y (s) 1
= = 1 100oC
X (s)  s  1 s  1 Bath
50 1
X(t) = 50u(t)  X(s) = 50/s  Y(s) =  Y(t) = 50(1 – e-t)
s s 1
Y(1.2) = 50(1 – e-1.2) = 34.9oC  y(1.2) = Y(1.2) + 50 = 34.9 + 50 = 84.9oC
The thermometer reading is 84.9oC at t = 1.2 min
Example 2: Derive the transfer functions Hl(s)/Q(s) and H2(s)/Q(s) for the liquid
level system shown in Fig.(1). The resistances are linear and R1 = R2 = 1. Note that
two streams are flowing from tank 1, one of which flows into tank 2.
Fig.(1). Liquid Level tanks
Solution:
Material balance on 1st tank
dh1
q - q a - q1 = A1
dt
h1 h1 dh1
q- - = A1
R1 Ra dt
1 1 dh1
q - h1 ( + ) = A1
R1 Ra dt
1 dh1 1 1 1
q - h1 ( ) = A1 where = +
R dt R R1 Ra
Steady state
1 dh1s
q s - h1s ( ) = A1
R dt
h1 - h1s d ( h1 - h1s )
( q - qs ) - = A1
R dt
H1 dH 1
Q= + A1 ×R
R dt
dH 1
QR = H 1 + A1 R
dt
dH 1
QR = H 1 + τ 1 where τ 1 = A1 R
dt
( τ 1 s + 1 )H 1 ( s ) = RQ( s )
H1( s ) R
=
Q( s ) ( τ 1 s + 1 )
H1( s ) Q1 ( s )R1 R Q1 ( s ) R / R1
Q1 ( s ) = ⇒ = ⇒ =
R1 Q( s ) ( τ1s + 1 ) Q( s ) ( τ 1 s + 1 )
H1( s ) Qa ( s )R a R Qa ( s ) R / Ra
Qa ( s ) = ⇒ = ⇒ =
Ra Q( s ) ( τ1s + 1 ) Q( s ) ( τ 1 s + 1 )
Similarity for tank 2
Q2 ( s ) 1
=
Q1 ( s ) ( τ 2 s + 1 )
H2( s ) R2
=
Q1 ( s ) ( τ 2 s + 1 )
By substitute Q1(s)
H 2 ( s ) H 2 ( s ) Q1 ( s ) R / R1 R2
= =
Q( s ) Q1 ( s ) Q( s ) ( τ 1 s + 1 ) ( τ 2 s + 1 )

Example 3: Consider the nonlinear differential equation
dy
 (1  y ) y  u  2
dt
a) Derive the linearized differential equation using deviation variables.
b) Derive the transfer function between input u and output y.
Solution
dy
a)  (1  y ) y  u  2
dt
dy
= y + y2 + u + 2
dt
By linearization the term of y2
y 2 = y s2 + 2 y s ( y - y s )
dy
= y + y s2 + 2 y s ( y - y s ) + u + 2
dt
b) Re-write the equation at steady state
dy s
= y s + y s2 + u s + 2
dt
By subtracting equations
d ( y - ys )
= ( y - y s ) + 2 y s ( y - y s ) + ( u - us )
dt
dY
= Y + 2 y sY + U
dt
Where
Y=y-ys
U=u-us
Taking laplace
sY ( s ) = ( 1 + 2 ys )Y ( s ) + U ( s )
sY ( s ) - ( 1 + 2 ys )Y ( s ) = U ( s )
[ s - ( 1 + 2 ys )]Y ( s ) = U ( s )
Y( s ) 1
=
U ( s ) [ s - ( 1 + 2 y s )]

Example 4: Interacting systems.
For a mercury thermometer with the a thick glass
bulb as shown in figure (1), the thermal
conductivity of glass must be taken into
consideration in heat balance and hence in
deriving the transfer function of the mercury
temperature. Derive a transfer function to describe
the mercury temperature as a function of ambient
temperature Tm(s)/Ta(s).
Where:- A2 , h2
p density, Cp specific heat capacity, V volume.
A1 , h1
A1 and A2 are inside and outside surface areas of
the spherical bulb.
h1 and h2 are inside and outside heat transfer Ta Tg Tm
coefficient ρm , Cpm , Vm
Figure (1): Mercury thermometer with the a thick
glass bulb
Solution: ρg , Cpg , Vg
Heat balance on mercury
dTm
h1 A1 (Tg  Tm )  Vm  m Cp m
dt
Vm  m Cp m dTm
Tg  Tm 
h1 A1 dt
dTm
Tg  Tm   1
dt
dTm ,ss
At Steady state Tg ,ss  Tm,ss   1
dt
dT m
T g  T m 1
dt
By taking laplace
T g ( s )  T m ( s )   1 sT m ( s )
T m (s) 1

T g ( s)  1s  1
(1)
Heat balance on glass
dTg
h2 A2 (Ta  Tg )  h1 A1 (Tg  Tm )  V g  g Cp g
dt
h1 A1 V g  g Cp g dTg
(Ta  Tg )  (Tg  Tm ) 
h2 A2 h2 A2 dt

h1 A1 V  Cp dTg
Ta  (Tg  Tm )  Tg  g g g
h2 A2 h2 A2 dt
h1 A1 dTg
Ta  (Tg  Tm )  Tg   2
h2 A2 dt
h1 A1 dTg , s
At steady state Ta ,s  (Tg , s  Tm, s )  Tg , s   2
h2 A2 dt
By subtracting both equations
h1 A1 dT g
Ta  (T g  T m )  T g   2
h2 A2 dt
h1 A1
T a (s)  (T g ( s)  T m ( s ))  T g ( s )   2 sT g ( s ) (2)
h2 A2
By subtracting eq. (1) in eq. (2)

h1 A1 T g ( s)
T a ( s)  (T g ( s)  )  ( 2 s  1)T g ( s)  ( 1s  1)
h2 A2  1s  1
h1 A1
T a ( s)( 1s  1)  (( 1s  1)T g ( s )  T g ( s ))  ( 1s  1)( 2 s  1)T g ( s)
h2 A2
h1 A1
T a ( s)( 1s  1)   1sT g ( s))  ( 1s  1)( 2 s  1)T g ( s)
h2 A2
h1 A1 h A V  Cp V  Cp
Let  1  1 1 m m m  m m m   12
h2 A2 h2 A2 h1 A1 h2 A2
T a ( s )( 1s  1)   12 sT g ( s ))  ( 1s  1)( 2 s  1)T g ( s )
( 1 2 s 2  ( 1   2   12 ) s  1)T g ( s )  T a ( s )( 1s  1)
T g (s) ( 1s  1)

T a ( s)  1 2 s  ( 1   2   12 ) s  1
2
T g ( s)
By substituting equation (1) T m ( s) 
 1s  1
T m ( s) 1

T a ( s)  1 2 s  ( 1   2   12 ) s  1
2


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0 0.5 1.5 2 3 3.5

Process Dynamics 4 Fourth Class

f (t )  5tu(t )  5(t  1)u(t  1)  5(t  3)u(t  3)  5(t  4)u(t  4)

Example: Find the Laplace transform of f(t) shown in Fig.

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1.3 Inverse Laplace Transforms

Table of inverse transforms

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2. Dynamic behavior of first order system

2.1 The transfer function:

X(s) Transfer Y(s)

2.2 Development of T.F for first order system:

It is a measuring device use to measure the temperature of a stream.

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at t=0 Y(0)=0 and X(0)=0

Let = time constant and has time units

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2.2.2.Liquid Level Tank

Consider the system shown in below figure which consists of:

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Also to find the level as a function of time

Example: Liquid level with constant flow outlet

Liquid level with constant flow outlet

In this example the resistance R is replace by a constant flow pump (𝑞𝑜)

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i. Unsteady state mass balance

Consider the mixing process shown in Figure in which a

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Energy balance equation.

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2.3 Properties of transfer functions

x(s) G(s) y(s)

The ultimate value is final steady state value

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Y(t)=? For different types of x(t)

Characteristics of step response

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Figure: Step response for first-order system

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  tan (  w )  tan 1( 20  0.1 )  tan 1( 2 )

In general, the lag in units of time

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How to calculate the time constant ( ) for first order system

2) Exponential method(Step change in the input variable)

Example: Fitting of a first order system

Figure: Temperature response

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Many physical systems can be represented by several first-order processes connected

Figure 5.1 Two-tank liquid-level system: (a) Non-interacting; (b) interacting.

1-Non Interacting System

5. Sine function A _T_