Fire Safety Journal 36 (2001) 181}199

Assessing "re damage to r.c. elements

Paolo Cioni, Pietro Croce*, Walter Salvatore
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Strutturale, Universita% di Pisa, Via Diotisalvi 2, 56126 Pisa, Italy
Received 26 October 1999; received in revised form 25 July 2000; accepted 11 September 2000

Abstract

An original method is illustrated for assessing the "re damage to reinforced-concrete

buildings. The basic idea underlying the method is to reconstruct the thermal history and the
evolution of stress "elds in the building during the "re by utilising the irreversible thermo-
chemical reactions of the concrete aggregates as temperature indicators. By way of example, the
method is applied to real cases to demonstrate its validity and e!ectiveness.  2001 Elsevier
Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Fire; Concrete; Damage

1. Introduction

Fire damage to buildings is usually divided into two types, aesthetic and functional.
Aesthetic damage is generally easy to repair, while functional impairments are more
profound and may require partial or total repair or replacement, depending on their
severity [1].
In planning for the rehabilitation of a r.c. civil or industrial building which has
sustained a "re, the extent and gravity of the resulting damage must "rst be appraised
and quanti"ed in order to determine whether it is advisable to demolish and rebuild,
rather than repair.
De"ning the appropriate rehabilitation operations and their scale, and estimating
the relative costs naturally call for preparing a damage chart, in which the elements
involved in "re are classi"ed according to the degree of damage sustained.
Obviously, the damage induced by "re in structural elements depends on the
material as well as on variations in stress and strain "elds during and after the "re

* Corresponding author. Tel.: #39-050-835-711; fax: #39-050-554-597.

E-mail address: p.croce@ing.unipi.it (P. Croce).

0379-7112/01/$ - see front matter  2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 3 7 9 - 7 1 1 2 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 5 0 - 3
182 P. Cioni et al. / Fire Safety Journal 36 (2001) 181}199

itself. For this reason, apart from direct observations, damage evaluation requires
accurate theoretical thermal and mechanical studies. In fact, although examination of
the external surface of structural elements after a "re may be signi"cant for determin-
ing aesthetic damage, it is in itself insu$cient for quantifying the functional damage
involving both the inner and outer portions of columns and beams. So damage chart
drawing calls for an exhaustive reconstruction of thermal events and stress}strain
histories for each element.
Given the current state of assessment methods, damage cannot be evaluated by
using exclusively experimental non-destructive techniques, which are not yet su$-
ciently calibrated for such problems; nor can solely theoretical methods be relied
upon, as their application implies knowing the e!ective temperature histories acting
upon structural elements. Thus, the most advanced and promising research methods
combine experimental non-destructive or semi-destructive techniques with re"ned
theoretical or numerical thermo-mechanical modelling [2].
The temperature curve at any point P of a structure clearly depends on the material,
on the type of "re, on the location point, on the time between the "re's start and the
institution of "re-"ghting measures, on the time employed to extinguish the "res and,
"nally, on the natural or forced cooling phases. As the most signi"cant parameter
characterising such a curve is the maximum temperature, ¹ , attained at P during
. 
the "re, in most cases the curve can be simpli"ed and approximated by a standard
curve de"ned over the interval [0, ¹ ], in which ¹ is the maximum temperature
 
on the element's surface corresponding to ¹ at P. In this way, if the function
. 
¹"¹(t) conventionally assigned by standards is considered, the study of the real
temperature history is reduced to the determination of ¹ and ¹ alone.
.  
A classic method for estimating the maximum surface temperature reached by
reinforced concrete elements is based on the observation of the permanent colour
variations undergone by concrete containing aggregates of siliceous or limestone rock
after exposure to high temperatures. Such colour changes depend upon the maximum
temperature: the surface takes on a pink or red hue when exposed to temperatures of
300}6003C; dark grey, if the temperatures are in the range of 600}9003C; brown, if the
maximum temperature reached is between 900 and 12003C; and "nally, yellow if it
exceeds 12003C [3,4]. Unfortunately, this simple method is so approximate as to be
absolutely inapplicable when the information is required to constitute the basis for
precise analysis.
It seems evident that, despite the simpli"cation of limiting the search only to the
maximum temperatures reached during the "re, the study of the buildings' thermal
history still remains quite complex. In e!ect, a posteriori search for the maximum
temperatures requires a multidisciplinary approach by which, by taking advantage
of the combined and integrated information furnished by di!erent branches of ap-
plied science, one may discover in the structure some kind of memory of the thermal
history.
The paper presents an original procedure for reconstructing the history of thermal
actions and analysing the "re damage to reinforced-concrete buildings. Practical
application of the method and its potentials are illustrated through detailed analyses
of some actual cases.
 P. Cioni et al. / Fire Safety Journal 36 (2001) 181}199 183

2. The damage assessment method

The proposed interdisciplinary damage assessment methodology was developed

through a number of stages and is summarised brie#y here. More details will be given
in the following and illustrated through the case study of real "res in two Tuscan
paper mills.
The "rst stage involves examining the building with experimental non-destructive
methods in order to locate the areas and elements most exposed to "re. The sub-
sequent step, semi-destructive investigations, will then concentrate on these structural
elements. In particular, after identifying the hardest-hit elements, core tests are carried
out to reveal the crack pattern as well as to obtain the samples necessary for the
completion of chemical and physical analyses.
As already mentioned, the method's most original aspect is that it employs the
mineralogical transformations of concrete aggregates as temperature indicators. This
allows us to locate the points P where the maximum temperature reached ¹ ,
 
considering that the boundary of the reaction occurring at this temperature is the
maximum penetration depth of the corresponding isotherm during the "re.
The maximum temperature on the surface of each element, ¹ , can be evaluated

as the surface temperature corresponding to ¹ at points P , provided that the
 
temperature variation on the surface, ¹"¹(t), is known. Assuming that the function
¹"¹(t) follows a standard "re curve, it is possible through "nite-element thermal
analysis to recognise ¹ , setting the upper limit of the rising branch of the "re curve

itself.
Once the rising branch of the temperature curve is determined with respect to the
most highly exposed elements, thermo-mechanical analysis can then be performed to
de"ne the stress and strain "elds and crack patterns inside the structure and the
corresponding damage.
Naturally, in order for the method to be applicable, we must ascertain signi"-
cant thermo-chemical reactions of the minerals commonly present in concrete
aggregates.

3. Preliminary on-site examination of damaged structures

The "rst stage in the procedure is to delimit the most heavily damaged area by
means of non-destructive tests, consisting of visual inspection, ultrasonic tests, sclero-
meter readings and/or Windsor probing.
Simple visual checks often allow the elements most a!ected by the "re to be
identi"ed with relative ease. For example, Figs. 1 and 2 show "re e!ects on a wall and
a column, respectively, in a paper storage warehouse located in Prato.
Ultrasonic readings are the most important of the non-destructive tests (Fig. 3),
while sclerometers and Windsor probes are generally used to provide supplementary
measurements for calibrating the ultrasonic results. The information obtained
through ultrasonic tests is however strictly qualitative and serves solely to identify
major damage, not the degree of the damage.
184 P. Cioni et al. / Fire Safety Journal 36 (2001) 181}199

Fig. 1. Fire e!ects on wall of a paper warehouse * Prato.

Fig. 2. Fire e!ects on column of a paper warehouse * Prato.

 P. Cioni et al. / Fire Safety Journal 36 (2001) 181}199 185

Fig. 3. Ultrasonic tests.

Fig. 4. Ultrasonic measurements.

Ultrasonic tests of r.c. structures are based on the well-known correlation between
the strength of the concrete and the propagation speed of ultrasonic waves through it.
Given concrete castings of the same makeup, the ultra-sound propagation speed
increases as a function of strength. However, as the velocity of propagation varies
considerably with the concrete mixture, the relationship between speed and strength
cannot be considered unequivocal.
In any case, the speed variations of the ultrasonic waves detected through oblique
and direct ultrasonic tests (Fig. 4) in di!erent areas of the same element or in distinct
186 P. Cioni et al. / Fire Safety Journal 36 (2001) 181}199

Fig. 5. Ultrasonic test results in damaged column * Porcari (Lu).

Fig. 6. Ultrasonic test results in undamaged column * Porcari (Lu).

elements of the same type can be very useful to con"ne the areas of greatest "re
damage. Figs. 5 and 6 present the results of ultrasonic measurements, made on dam-
aged and undamaged columns, respectively, in a paper mill heavily damaged by "re.
 P. Cioni et al. / Fire Safety Journal 36 (2001) 181}199 187

Comparison of Figs. 5 and 6 results demonstrates that the wave speed is nearly
constant, in the range 4700}5100 m/s, throughout the thickness of the undamaged
column, while in the damaged one it is undoubtedly variable, ranging between 2000
and 4000 m/s. Moreover, as expected, damage reduces signi"cantly the speed of the
ultrasonic waves.

4. Semi-destructive tests

The damaged parts of the structure as determined through the non-destructive tests
can be studied in detail through more sophisticated techniques, allowing systematic
investigations of the crack pattern induced by "re, which in r.c. elements involve not
only the concrete cover, but also the structure's deep layers, as well.
In order to determine the state of cracking, semi-destructive tests using core
samples are extremely useful. In fact, cracks caused by "re can be directly detected by
observing the samples and the lateral surface of the core-holes.
This kind of investigation, for example, allowed to discover inside the most highly
exposed columns signi"cant cracks perpendicular to the surfaces attacked by the
#ames.
Cracks like these, caused by the extreme temperature gradients, are evident in
Figs. 7 and 8, showing damaged column samples from the Porcari paper mill and
Prato warehouse, respectively, cored perpendicular to the "re-enveloped surfaces. In
addition, the presence of the same cracks on the later surface of the core-holes allowed
to exclude that the cracks reported in Figs. 7 and 8 are due to the coring procedure.
Being limited to the elements directly studied, the information attained through
experimental methods alone cannot be extended to other sections or provide

Fig. 7. Crack pattern in a column core sample from the paper mill at Porcari.
188 P. Cioni et al. / Fire Safety Journal 36 (2001) 181}199

Fig. 8. Crack pattern in a column core sample from the warehouse at Prato.

quanti"cation of the overall damage, therefore the a posteriori evaluation of the

structure's "re history requires additional elaborations. On the other hand, the
knowledge of the actual "re curve, or at least of the maximum temperatures attained,
is essential not only in reconstructing the building's response, but also in determining
its residual strength and planning appropriate strengthening measures.
As stated, the study of the penetration depth of the characteristic irreversible
thermo-chemical reactions in the concrete aggregates can represent an useful means
to identify the maximum temperatures induced by "re. Clearly, the percentage of the
aggregate a!ected by these reactions also depends on time, but for the purpose of the
present study it is only su$cient to recognise where the reactions started.

5. Studying the characteristic thermo-chemical reactions

From a very general perspective, under the seemingly reasonable hypothesis that
the original mineralogical composition of the concrete was substantially uniform
throughout its thickness, an element's thermal history can be reconstructed by
examining the variations in concrete composition through its thickness, beginning
with the surface exposed to "re. Because these variations are caused by the aforemen-
tioned irreversible mineralogical transformations of the aggregate components, their
extension into the element reveals the maximum penetration of the isotherm corre-
sponding to the characteristic temperature of the speci"c reaction.
Such a study can be performed in a non-destructive fashion, that is, by sampling the
material necessary for mineralogical analysis through micro-core holes. The original
composition of the concrete corresponds to that of the element's innermost areas,
which were subjected to more modest temperature variations.
The mineralogical analyses of the crystalline phase are performed essentially
through di!ractometry, while the gel and amorphous phases are examined by means
of other methods, such as, for example, scanning electron microscope (SEM) studies.
 P. Cioni et al. / Fire Safety Journal 36 (2001) 181}199 189

Fig. 9. Spectrogram of undamaged concrete * Porcari.

The most signi"cant transformations detected until now are those a!ecting dolo-
mite, CaMg(CO ) , and calcite, CaCO . At 8323C dolomite decomposes into calcite,
 
carbon dioxide, CO , and periclase, MgO, while at temperatures over 9003C, calcite

liberates carbon dioxide and calcium oxide, CaO [5]. It must be stressed that periclase
produces, by hydratation, brucite Mg(OH) . These reactions are extremely signi"cant

because, apart from their high characteristic temperatures, dolomite and calcite are
typical constituents of limestone and sandstone so often used as concrete aggregates.
The presence of mineralogical reactions a!ecting the crystalline phase and their
penetration depths can be revealed by comparing the results of di!ractometric studies
at di!erent depths from the "re-exposed surfaces.
A conspicuous example of the evident dissociation of the dolomite can be seen in
the columns of the paper mill at Porcari, by comparing the spectrogram obtained on
a deep specimen (Fig. 9), whose composition is held to be representative of the
original, and the spectrogram obtained on a super"cial specimen, taken from the face
exposed to the "re (Fig. 10). The dolomite, which is present in the deep sample (Fig. 9),
has been completely decomposed in the super"cial one, according to the previously
mentioned transformation, while the calcite has been only partly dissociated. In fact,
the spectrograph of Fig. 10 shows that in the super"cial sample, while dolomite was
not present any more, periclase and brucite appeared.
Obviously, the transformation of periclase in brucite is due to the water used to put
out the "re.
As the reaction extends down to a depth of 6 mm from the "red surface, it can be
concluded that during the "re at this depth the temperature reached 8323C, which is
the dissociation temperature of dolomite.
190 P. Cioni et al. / Fire Safety Journal 36 (2001) 181}199

Fig. 10. Spectrogram of concrete subjected to high temperatures * Porcari.

Fig. 11. SEM photo: 200 mm depth * Prato.

Important information can also be obtained through SEM studies, though inter-
preting the results is much less immediate on account of the wide range of components
present in concrete. Nonetheless, they do serve to identify areas of liquefaction or to
detect progression of other relevant reactions. This is evident, for example, in the SEM
photographs (originally 1500;) reported in Figs. 11}13, relative to similar areas of
concrete samples drawn at depths of 200 and 1 mm and on the surface, respectively, of
a "re-damaged column in the warehouse at Prato.
In the specimen at 200 mm depth (Fig. 11), the presence of the cement paste is
evident, while it disappeared in the other samples. In the specimen at 1 mm depth
 P. Cioni et al. / Fire Safety Journal 36 (2001) 181}199 191

Fig. 12. SEM photo: 1 mm depth * Prato.

Fig. 13. SEM photo: column surface, Prato.

(Fig. 12) it can be easily seen that calcite crystals have di!erent sizes, denoting that
calcite transformation is not complete. Finally, the surface specimens (Fig. 13) exhibit
areas of liquefaction: the origin of this lique"ed material is not completely clear as the
melting point of concrete components depend not only on the components themselves
but also on the percentage of carbonates and oxides present in the concrete. Research
is currently under way to de"ne the main parameters in#uencing the melting of
concrete components and, if possible, to quantify the e!ect.

6. Thermo-mechanical analysis in damage studies

Once the signi"cant reactions and their relative isotherms have been identi"ed
through the physical and chemical analyses described in the foregoing, the maximum
192 P. Cioni et al. / Fire Safety Journal 36 (2001) 181}199

surface temperatures reached during the "re can be derived by means of a standard
time}temperature curve. This is done by simply extending the heating stage of the
standard "re curve until the points of the relevant limit isotherms reach the trans-
formation temperature. The heating curve thus obtained represents the input data for
the successive stage of theoretical thermo-mechanical analysis aimed at reconstruct-
ing the evolution of the structure's stress}strain "eld during the "re.
The "rst step of the reconstruction of the "re in the Porcari paper mill consisted in
the thermal analysis of the column to determine the temperature on "re-exposed
surface corresponding to a temperature of 8323C at 6 mm depth. For the purpose of
analysis the temperature variations on the "re-ward face were assigned according to
the standard Eurocode 1 "re curve [6].
The issue of thermal transients was resolved numerically by utilising the "nite-
element program COSMOS/M v. 2.00. The r.c. column, whose cross section is
illustrated in Fig. 14, was modelled by means of three-dimensional eight-node
isoparametric SOLID elements, which accounted as well for the presence of the steel
reinforcements made up of longitudinal rods and stirrups. As the column in question
was situated in the building's reinforced concrete outer wall, the thermal #ux on the
column's two lateral faces was considered to be nil, while the air}concrete convection
coe$cient on the external side was assumed to be 25 W/(m 3C) with an external air
temperature of 203C.
The results of analysis show that 8323C is reached within the column at 6 mm from
the "re-exposed surface after about 3900 s, when the surface temperature is 9573C,
as shown in Fig. 15, where the surface temperature curve following EC1 is compared
with the temperature curve at the reference point, at 6 mm depth. The subsequent
thermo-mechanical analyses can therefore be executed by using the "re curve ob-
tained by truncating the standard EC1 curve at the temperature of 9573C.
The heating stage is naturally followed by a "rst stage of forced cooling induced by
the "re hoses, after which a subsequent period of natural cooling ensues. The forced
cooling has been simulated by assuming that the temperature of the "re-ward face is
"rst reduced to 203C in 30 min at a constant rate, and then that the temperature
remains constant at 203C for a further 30 min (Fig. 15). For the natural cooling stage,

Fig. 14. Column cross-section * Porcari.

 P. Cioni et al. / Fire Safety Journal 36 (2001) 181}199 193

Fig. 15. Temperature * time curves.

which takes place over a 50-h period, the exposed face is once again assumed to have
an air}concrete convection exchange coe$cient of 25 W/(m 3C). The assumptions
regarding the materials' physical and mechanical properties are illustrated in the
following.
The thermal analysis was performed utilising a constant time interval of 300 s for
the heating and forced-cooling stages, while the adopted interval was increased to
1800 s for the 50 h natural cooling stage.
Some particularly salient results are presented in Figs. 16 and 17. Fig. 16 shows the
temperature "eld in a transverse section when the exposed surface reaches the
maximum temperature (9573C), while Fig. 17 plots the temperature}distribution
curves throughout the column at di!erent times during the analysis (the origin of the
abscissa represents the cool face).
Once the heating curves have been determined, the evolution of the stress}strain
state can be studied through linear and non-linear thermo-mechanical analyses.
Such analyses were conducted for the column in question, utilising two di!erent
mechanical models for the concrete.
A "rst preliminary analysis was performed considering both the steel and concrete
to be linear elastic materials whose mechanical properties (Young's modulus, shear
modulus) and thermal parameters (thermal capacity, convection coe$cient and ther-
mal conductivity) are held to vary with temperature, as per the most recent interna-
tional standards. The second, more re"ned analysis, on the other hand, was based on
a sophisticated three-dimensional mechanical model for the concrete, termed the
`concrete modela.
194 P. Cioni et al. / Fire Safety Journal 36 (2001) 181}199

Fig. 16. Temperature "eld in a transverse section (¹ "9573C).



Fig. 17. Temperature distribution through the column's thickness at di!erent times.

The `concrete modela simulates the mechanical behaviour of the material as

independent of strain velocity. It is based on the de"nition of limit surfaces, by which
damage is represented by a scalar quantity correlated with the material's stress}strain
state. According to the model, the limit surface contracts uniformly within the stress
space as damage due to `strain softeninga increases and tensile cracking grows, while
the material's mechanical properties vary with the degree of damage, with the
isotropic part of the stress tensor and with the distance between the current stress state
and the limit surface [7,8].
The analyses were performed under the assumptions of the column being embedded
at its base and subjected to (apart from its own weight and the previously determined
 P. Cioni et al. / Fire Safety Journal 36 (2001) 181}199 195

thermal actions from the "re) a vertical load of 6.0 MPa uniformly distributed at the
top of column, simulating the e!ect of the vertical loads present during the "re.
Although the linear model does not correspond well to physical realities and is
actually an unsuitable representation of the behaviour of cracked concrete, the
relevant information it furnishes does however justify its application to revealing, at
least theoretically and as a "rst approximation, the true state of cracking. In fact, by
examining the stress "elds, two stages of crack evolution can be discerned: the "rst
cracks, limited to the areas near the longitudinal reinforcements, arise already at low
surface temperatures and are caused by the varying thermal capacities of the two
materials; the second stage, which involves the more internal layers where the
concrete's tensile strength has been exceeded, corresponds to high surface-temper-
ature values and can be attributed essentially to the thermal gradients created in the
concrete during the various stages of the "re.
By way of example, Figs. 18 and 19, respectively, present the column stress
distributions in the x and y directions, p and p , expressed in MPa 10\, at time
V W
t"1500 s, being x the normal to the exposed face. On the faces perpendicular to x, the
stress values, are rather limited in both cases. The extreme values for p are about
V
2.52 MPa in the central area and about !10.5 MPa on the faces parallel to x. The
extreme p values are instead about 8.26 MPa along the column's axis at a depth of
W
one third its thickness and about !10.3 MPa in correspondence to the arm of the
stirrup near the exposed face.
The tensile stresses p in the concrete are due to the restraining e!ect that the
W
column's colder inner portions exert on the layers nearer the exposed surface, an e!ect
augmented by the high-temperature gradients shown in Fig. 17. The compression "eld
p in the vicinity of the reinforcement stirrups and longitudinal reinforcing bars, on
W
the other hand, is essentially caused by the di!erent thermal capacities of the concrete
and steel in the high-temperature "eld.
The high p tensile values, incompatible with the concrete's tensile strength, provide
W
an explanation for the cracks perpendicular to the exposed surface that were found in
the pillar's interior during the course of the experimental studies.

Fig. 18. p distribution (MPa 10\) (t"1500 s).

V
196 P. Cioni et al. / Fire Safety Journal 36 (2001) 181}199

Fig. 19. p distribution (MPa 10\) (t"1500 s).

W

Fig. 20. Normal stress distribution in the steel reinforcement (MPa 10\) * t"1500 s.

Finally, because steel's Young's modulus is quite low at high temperatures, the
stresses in the longitudinal reinforcement and stirrups turn out to be extremely
modest (Fig. 20).
As stated, the results of such preliminary linear analysis can be re"ned considerably
by performing it in the non-linear "eld and representing the concrete through
a mechanical model such as the aforementioned `concretea one, which accounts for
crack formation and growth. For the example considered, referring to the temper-
ature}time curve presented in Fig. 15, the results of non-linear analysis lead to the
conclusion that the earliest cracking in the column occurs only after 81 s, that is, when
the surface temperature is 3903C, as shown in Figs. 21}23, which plot the normal and
shear stress distributions.
 P. Cioni et al. / Fire Safety Journal 36 (2001) 181}199 197

Fig. 21. p stress distribution (MPa 10\) * non-linear analysis * t"81 s.

V

Fig. 22. p stress distribution (MPa 10\) * non-linear analysis * t"81 s.

W

The distribution of normal stresses p (Fig. 21) is compatible with the formation of
V
the classical cracking pattern, consisting of cracks parallel to the exposed surface
localised in the concrete cover.
Instead, the distribution of normal stresses p (Fig. 22) indicates the occurrence
W
of two di!erent types of cracks perpendicular to the exposed surface: the "rst-type
cracks, whose propagation is hampered by the presence of discontinuities due to p ,
V
are relatively insigni"cant, as they are modest in extension and limited to the concrete
cover; the second-type cracks, of much greater consequence as well as more consistent
with experimental evidence, penetrate deeply into the element's interior. Lastly, the
shear stresses q (Fig. 23) result to be signi"cant only near the corners of the exposed
VW
face where, in fact, detachment occurred.
198 P. Cioni et al. / Fire Safety Journal 36 (2001) 181}199

Fig. 23. q stress distribution (MPa 10\) * non-linear analysis * t"81 .

VW

7. Conclusions

An original method has been presented for assessing the damage caused by "re in
reinforced-concrete buildings.
The rationale underlying the method is to use some of the irreversible thermo-
chemical transformations typical of the aggregate components of concrete as temper-
ature indicators, in particular, the dissociation of dolomite into calcite, carbon dioxide
and periclase, and calcite into carbon dioxide and calcium oxide. In "re-damaged
structural elements, the boundaries of the areas a!ected by such reactions mark the
maximum penetration depth of the isotherms corresponding to the characteristic
temperature for each of the transformations. Thus, the maximum temperatures
experienced by such elements on the surfaces exposed to "re can be determined
a posteriori and processed in reference to standard temperature curves.
The data obtained from such analysis then represents the input values for a second
stage of theoretical or numerical thermo-chemical studies, which enable reconstruc-
tion of the stress "elds' evolution and, consequently, the degree of structural damage.
The application to some real cases has revealed the proposed method's e!ectiveness
and potentialities. Further research currently under way aims to re"ne the method
identifying other signi"cant thermo-chemical transformations to be adopted as tem-
perature indicators.

References

[1] Bresler B. Behaviour of structures in "re environments. In: Pister KS (Ed.), Structural engineering and
structural mechanics, Englewood Cli!s, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1980.
[2] Lin WM, Lin TD, Power-Couche TD. Microstructure of "re-damaged concrete. ACI Mater
J 1996;93:199}205.
 P. Cioni et al. / Fire Safety Journal 36 (2001) 181}199 199

[3] Neville AM. Properties of concrete. London: Pitman Publishing Ltd, 1975.
[4] Lea FM, Davey N. The deterioration of concrete in structures. J Inst CE 1949;31:248}75.
[5] Deer WA, Howie RA, Zussmann J. An introduction to rock-forming minerals. London: Longman
Group Ltd, 1992.
[6] ENV1991-2-2, Eurocode 1: basis of design and actions on structures. Part 2.2: action on structures
exposed to "re, CEN, 1994.
[7] Chen ES, Buyukozturk O. Constitutive model for concrete in cyclic compression. J Engng Mech ASCE
1985;111(6):797}814.
[8] Moussa RA, Buyukozturk O. A bounding surface model for concrete. Nucl Engng Des 1990;121:
113}25.