Pectin

Pectin is a naturally occurring biopolymer that is progressively used in the pharmaceutical

field and is also used in the food and biotechnology industries. (Suman R. Y. et al., 2015). It is a

structural hetero polysaccharide, and it is also biocompatible in nature, typically derived from

citrus fruit peels, and finds prime industrial application in the food industry as a gelling agent

and stabilizer, and it displays a variety of properties such as filler and disintegrate (Kanmani P. et

al., 2014).

Moreover, pectin is a part of the essential elements of the plant cell wall that is commonly

obtained by aqueous extraction, followed by a determined precipitation using alcohol or salt, of

the required plant materials and ultimately from citrus fruit peel and apple pomace, etc. In the

presence of a certain amount of sugar and acid or calcium ions, the key functional characteristic

of pectin is to create gel by using its gelling ability in aqueous solutions. Pectin, which makes it

more essential, has very good aqueous solubility and gel forming potential.

General properties of pectin

Pectin is known to have strong solubility in pure water. Dry powdered pectin, when added to

water, hydrates easily and forms clumps. These clumps consist of semi-dry packages of pectin

and are contained in a heavily hydrated outer coating envelope. The forming of clumps can be

avoided by dry mixing of pectin powder with water-soluble carrier content or by the use of

pectin with increased dispersibility during processing by special treatment (Sharma V. et al.,

2018). Like several features, pectin solutions have viscosity, solubility, and gelation. Factors that

boost gel strength, for example, can strengthen gel propensity, decrease solubility, and increase

viscosity, and vice versa. The best known property of pectin is its gel-forming ability with sugar
and acid. This can be seen as a partial dehydration between solution and precipitation of the

pectin molecule to a degree that it is intermediate. Any basic restrictions are enforced by the

specific configuration of pectin. Unlike alginate, high methoxyl pectin does not contain adequate

acid groups to gel or precipitate with calcium ions, however, under such conditions, other non-

food ions, such as aluminum or copper, induce precipitation. The molecule has an adequate

negative charge at a pH well above the pK value for the acid groups to escape gelation under

functional conditions in sugar-water systems. As the pH is gradually decreased, the pectin is

capable of forming a gel at very high sugar content (around 80% on the refractometric scale) and

at progressively lower sugar content as the pH is decreased. A pectin that quickly sets with an

esterification degree of above 72% will form a gel with 55%, or slightly less sugar at pH values

well below 3”0. If the sugar content is kept stable, as will be usual in the manufacture of

preserves, the result of a pH shift is seen as a lack of intensity above a certain critical pH and a

steady decrease of the setting temperature as pH rises towards that amount. The lower limit of

the functional pH range for creating a gel by concentrating the device by boiling out water is

described by very elevated setting temperatures. If the setting temperature approaches the boiling

point, boiling and eventual shearing of the mass disrupts the gel structure. Since the gelation

process is not entirely reversible, it is no longer possible to form a total gel network and the

structure is vulnerable to syneresis, a non-homogeneous 'broken' texture resulting in more

extreme situations.

Gel Formation Properties of Pectin

The main application of pectin is based on its ability to form gel. Any unique restrictions

are enforced by the special form of pectin. Its gel-forming ability is due to its hydrogen bonding

on the pectin molecules between free carboxyl groups. The carboxyl ions are converted to
largely unionized carboxylic acid groups when acid is added. The decline in the number of

negative charges leads to a reduction in the attraction between molecules of pectin and water and

thus a reduction in the repulsive forces between molecules of pectin. By vying for water, sugar

further lowers the hydration of pectin. Such conditions allow the pectin to persist in a dissolved

state. The unstable dispersing of less hydrated pectin contributes to the formation of a gel when

cooled. In order to explain the essence of pectin, a continuous network of pectin contributes to

retaining the aqueous solution and the rate at which gel formation takes place is very significant.

Sugar, however is not only important for the formulation of gel, but also the presence of small

quantities of sugar (10-20%) helps to minimize syneresis and add the requisite firmness of these

gels. The amount of calcium needed to form the gel is reduced when any sugar is present. High

sugar concentrations (60% or higher) conflict with the formulation of gel due to sugar

dehydration that favors hydrogen bonding (Sharma V. et al., 2018).

Sources of pectin

Pectin is commonly found in plant tissues as a cementing agent in the middle lamella and

as a thickening agent on the cell wall, the number of sources that can be used for the commercial

production of pectin. By itself the detection of a significant volume of pectin in a single fruit is

not necessary to qualify the fruit as a commercial source of pectin. Currently, it is found that the

key origins of commercially suitable pectin are citrus peels. They often contain a significantly

different volume of pectin, making them more suited for particular applications. The sugar beet

and residues from the seed heads of sunflowers are other types of pectin that are found to be

considered. The capacity of the pectin to form gel depends on the molecular size and other

factors; due to the differences in these parameters, the pectin from different sources does not

have the same gelling potential. Pectin content is recorded in the literature of different fruits.
 Any useful compounds, including pectin, are present in fruit peels. Pectin refers to certain

water soluble pectin acids (colloidal polygalacturonic acids) with varying methyl ester content

and degree of neutralization capable of forming sugar and acid gels under sufficient conditions

(Castillo-Israel K. et al., 2014). Pectin has market importance in the food industry as a gelling

agent in food products. The gelling function of pectin gels is strongly dependent on the degree of

methoxylation under such conditions (DM).

In the tropical and subtropical regions of the world, bananas (Musa spp.) are an important

fruit crop. Banana fruit is a good source of fresh or processed energy and minerals that are

normally consumed to make many products, such as chips, powder, jam and wine. Banana peels

account for 40% of the fresh fruit's overall weight. The peel is not used and at considerable cost,

is recycled as solid waste. Huge amounts of banana peel are discarded or cheaply eaten as animal

feed due to the growth of the banana processing industry and increased demand of refined fruit

products. This is both uneconomical and non-environmentally friendly. The banana-processing

industry has therefore been looking for pectin-based applications of banana peel.

Applications

The use of pectin in conventional high sugar jams is one of the best known uses and is

also one of the major markets for pectin. Since pectin is present in the fruit and this is

supplemented by the added pectin, pectin has a special position and is often the only allowable

gelling agent, and is definitely the most apparent alternative. Depending on the form and amount

of fruit, usually just 0.2-0.4% pectin would need to be applied. There are two requirements

within the EEC, jam and extra jam, containing a minimum of 30-45% of fruit pulp, with certain

variations. The higher quality of jam also appears to be manufactured with better fruit quality, so
much less pectin is required. Strong methoxyl pectin, above around 60% soluble solids, is only

helpful in normal jams.

Ion Exchange

An ion is a charged atom or molecule. When the number of protons in an atom does not

match the number of electrons, ions are formed. The ion is positive and is known as a cation if

more protons are present; if more electrons are present, the ion is negative and refers to as an

anion.

Ions can be traded, and electrolytes and even precipitates can be removed by treating the

solution with a solid ion exchanger. By no means are these reactions a new discovery. Nature

uses them widely and has done so long before man tried to elucidate and apply his beliefs and to

copy and exceed his results. In inanimate soils, sands, and rocks and in living species, ion

exchange occurs. At first, chemists, geologists and biologists did not notice these methods. Later,

after ion exchange in soils was observed, it was known to be an extraordinary occurrence, a

"miracle" in which it was expected to have a function other than merely natural causes. To

explain that here, too in the second half of the 19th century, the well-established laws of nature

maintained scientists' duties. Much later, about two decades ago, organic chemists were able to

synthesize ion exchangers that were much superior to natural materials. For most critical

functions, ion exchange in living organisms is indispensable, but its importance has remained

elusive until recently. In understanding this phenomenon, improvement has only been made in

our day (Helfferich, 1995).

According to Harland (1994), an ion exchange reaction can be described as a reversible

ion exchange between a solid phase (the ion exchanger) and a solution phase, where the ion
exchanger is insoluble in the medium in which the exchange takes place. If an ion exchanger
+¿ ¿

M −¿ A ¿, carrying cations A as the exchanger ions, is placed in an aqueous solution phase

+¿ ¿

containing B+¿¿ cations, an ion exchange reaction takes place which may be represented by the

following equation:

+¿ ( solution) ¿ +¿ ( solution) ¿
+¿ (solid )+ B + ¿ (solid )+ A
Eqtn (1)
¿ ¿

M −¿ A ¿
⇌ M −¿ B ¿

+¿ ¿

Here, M −¿ A ¿
represents a solid carrying a negative charge (solid anion or fixed anion)

neutralized by A+¿ ¿ ions inside its structure. In the solution process, the A+¿ ¿ ions are initially

replaced by B+¿¿ (normally aqueous). To suit the strict concept of ion exchange, the mechanism

must be totally reversible. In reality, however, interference from other reversible events cannot

occur. The inhibition of salt molecules, precipitation reactions, chelating effects, phase shifts and

surface sorption are examples of detrimental forces that will have to be tackled (Aguda et al.,

2019).

Ion exchangers are insoluble solid materials which carry exchangeable cations or anions,

by general definition. When the ion exchanger is in contact with an electrolyte solution, these

ions can be substituted with a stoichiometrically comparable quantity of other ions of the same

symbol. Carriers of exchangeable cations are called cation exchangers, and carriers of

exchangeable anions, anion exchangers. Certain materials are capable of both cation and anion

exchange. These are called amphoteric ion exchangers (Helfferich, 1995).

A typical cation exchange is

2NaX + CaCl2 (aq) ⇌ CaX2 + 2NaCl (aq) Eqtn (2)

and a typical anion exchange is

 2XCL + Na2SO4 (aq) ⇌ X2SO4 + 2NaCl (aq) Eqtn (3)

Ion exchange is a reversible operation, with very few exceptions. For example, in water

softening, a cation exchanger can be regenerated with a solution of a sodium salt such as NaCl

that has lost all its Na+¿¿ions and thus has become depleted. The mechanism (2) is reversed

during regeneration, and the ion exchanger is reconverted to the form of Na.

Furthermore, ion exchange resembles sorption in that a dissolved species is absorbed by a

solid in all situations. The characteristic distinction between the two phenomena is that in

contrast to sorption, ion exchange is a stoichiometric operation. Each ion that is withdrawn from

the solution is replaced by an equal quantity of the same sign from another ionic species. On the

other hand, in sorption, a solvent (electrolyte or non-electrolyte) is removed without being

substituted by another species. This gap is clear-cut. However as almost any ion exchange

mechanism is followed by electrolyte sorption or desorption, it is often difficult to implement it

in practice, and most common sorbents such as alumina and activated carbon may serve as ion

exchangers in turn (Helfferich, 1995).

Occasionally, ion exchange has been referred to as a “chemical” process, in contrast to

adsorption as a “physical” process. This distinction, though plausible at first glance, is

misleading. Usually, in ion exchange as a redistribution of ions by diffusion, chemical factors are

less significant than in adsorption where the solute is held by the sorbent by forces which may

not be fully electrostatic. The absence of an actual chemical reaction also explains why the heat

evolved in the course of ion-exchange processes is usually rather small (often less than 2

kcal/mol, unless ion exchange is followed by reactions such as neutralization, etc.). It was stated

that the concentration ratios of the opposing counter-ion species in the ion exchanger and in the

solution are not the same in ion-exchange equilibrium. As a general, one species favors the ion-
exchanger to the other. This indicates that it is not strictly statistical to redistribute the counter

ions (Helfferich, 1995).

Ion Exchange Membrane

In a variety of processes, ion-exchange membranes are used that are very different in

their basic definition, their functional application, and their technological importance. However,

membranes bearing electrical charges are used in all these methods to regulate the movement of

ionic species and to selectively isolate them from a mixture of neutral elements (Tanaka et al.,

2012).

Ion-exchange membrane separation processes can be divided into three main groups on

the basis of their application elements (Yaroslavtsev & Nikonenko, 2009):

 Mass separation processes such as electrodialysis, Donnan and diffusion dialysis,

and electrodialysis with bipolar membranes.

 Chemical synthesis processes such as the chlorine-alkaline electrolysis and the

hydrogen and oxygen production by water electrolysis.

 Energy conversion and storage processes such as fuel cells and electrical batteries.

Both ion-exchange membrane separation processes are based on the same basic concept,

i.e. the pairing of electrical charge transfer, i.e. electrical current with mass transport, i.e. cat- or

anions through a perm-selective membrane due to an electrical potential gradient externally

applied or internally produced. The technological and economic importance of the various

processes and their current state of growth are very different. For instance, electrodialysis is a

mature process with a multitude of fascinating applications in the desalination of water and in the

food and drug industries. The chlorine- alkaline electrolysis is also a method of stale-of-the-art.
However its use is limited to a very tiny consumer segment. Fuel cells are also in an early

embryonic stage. It is considered that their possible technological and commercial significance

as an effective and convenient source of energy with a multitude of potential applications is very

high (Yaroslavtsev & Nikonenko, 2009).

The Structure of Ion Exchange Membrane

1. Classification

Ion-exchange membranes that resemble strongly swollen ion-exchange resins in sheet

form are the main components in electrodialysis and associated processes. Five different

kinds of ion-exchange membranes are available (Aguda, 2019):

Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram of each kind.

 Figure 5. Schematic illustration of different ion exchange membrane (IEM) types:
(a) anion exchange membranes (AEMs), (b) cation exchange membranes (CEMs), (c)
amphoteric IEMs, (d) bipolar IEMs, and (e) mosaic IEMs. The circles depict the counter-ions
in the membrane matrix, while the background patterns differentiate between the fixed ionic
groups (Lou et al., 2018)

1.1  Cation Exchange Membranes or Proton Exchange Membrane, which have

cation exchange groups (anionic charged groups), and cations selectively

permeate through the membranes;

1.2 Anion Exchange Membranes, which have anion exchange groups (cationic

charged groups), and anions selectively permeate through the membranes;

 1.3  Amphoteric Ion Exchange Membranes, in which there are both cation and

anion exchange groups at random throughout the membranes;

1.4 Bipolar Ion Exchange Membrane, which have a cation exchange membrane

layer and anion exchange membrane layer; and

1.5 Mosaic Ion Exchange Membrane, which have domains with cation exchange

groups over cross-sections of the membranes and also of anion exchange groups.

An insulator may exist around respective domains.

The anions that are mobile are referred to as coions. Owing to their electrical charge that

is similar to that of the fixed ions, they are more or less entirely absent from the polymer matrix.

A cation-exchange membrane enables only the movement of cations because of the absence of

the coions. Positive charges fixed on the polymer matrix are borne by anion-exchange

membranes. They remove all cations, however, and are only permeable to anions (Yaroslavtsev

& Nikonenko, 2009).

Therefore, from the elimination of coions from the membrane process, the selectivity of

ion-exchange membranes results. The degree to which the coions are withdrawn from the

membrane of ion exchange depends on both the membrane and the properties of the solution. In

addition, cation and anion exchange membranes, depending on the degree of dissociation of the

fixed charged group in an aqueous solution, are known as strong acid and strong base, or weal:

acid and weak base membranes. As charged groups, solid acid membranes contain sulfonic acid.

The separation of substances by membranes is essential in industry and human life. Of

the various separation membranes, the ion exchange membrane is one of the most advanced and

is widely used in various industrial fields: electrodialysis, diffusion dialysis, separator and solid
polymer electrolyte in electrolysis, separator and solid polymer electrolyte of various batteries,

sensing materials, medical use, a part of analytical chemistry, etc.

Two different origins derived from the ion exchange membrane: the observation of ion

exchange phenomena in the soil and the clarification of biological phenomena in cell

membranes. The English farmer, H.P Thompson, and the chemist, J.T., noticed the ion exchange

phenomenon. In 1850, Way, who noticed the ammonium sulfate adsorption on soil as follows,

Ca-Soil + (NH4)2SO4 = 2NH4-Soil + CaSO4

The ion exchange membrane is ion-conductive, that is, with water molecules, ions can

penetrate through the membrane. Transporting ions and solvents across the membrane has

several driving forces. The chlor-alkali procedure is a standard use of the membrane for

electrolysis. In electrochemical organic synthesis, the ion exchange membrane is often used as a

separator while anolyte and catholyte do not combine. Agents of oxidization, O 3, H2O, etc. A

composite of the membrane and electrodes is used to synthesize those (Yaroslavtsev &

Nikonenko, 2009).

Moreover, these membranes are hydrophilic since ion exchange membranes have ionic

groups and are hydrated. Examples of these features are the use of an ion exchange membrane in

a pervaporation mechanism that dehydrates water-miscible organic solvents by membrane

evaporation (liquid phase E/vapor phase). While membranes do not need ion exchange groups to

occur in the membrane for pervaporation processes, in this process, the ion exchange membrane

demonstrates excellent efficiency. These properties are also useful when different gases are

dehumidified. The membrane also displays the properties of a humidity sensor, since the

membrane adsorbs water molecules according to humidity (hygrometer).

 JOURNALS/ARTICLES

Castillo-Israel, K A T Baguio, S F B Diasanta, R C M Lizardo, & E I And Mejico.

(2015). Extraction and characterization of pectin from Saba banana [Musa ’saba’(Musa
acuminata x Musa balbisiana)] peel wastes: A preliminary study. International Food Research

Journal, 22(1), 202–207. http://www.ifrj.upm.edu.my/22%20(01)%202015/(29).pdf

Khamsucharit, P., Laohaphatanalert, K., Gavinlertvatana, P., Sriroth, K., &

Sangseethong, K. (2017). Characterization of pectin extracted from banana peels of different

varieties. Food science and biotechnology, 27(3), 623–629. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10068-017-

0302-0

Kumar, Vipul & Sharma, Dr & Singh, DR. Lalit. (2018). PECTIN FROM FRUIT PEELS

AND ITS USES AS PHARMACEUTICAL AND FOOD GRADE: A DESCRIPTIVE REVIEW.

5.

Luo, Tao & Abdu, Said & Wessling, Matthias. (2018). Selectivity of Ion Exchange

Membranes: A Review. Journal of Membrane Science. 555. 10.1016/j.memsci.2018.03.051.

May, C. D. (1990). Industrial pectins: Sources, production and

applications. Carbohydrate Polymers, 12(1), 79–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/0144-

8617(90)90105-2

Ran, Jin & Wu, Liang & He, Yubin & Yang, Zhengjin & Wang, Yaoming & Jiang,

Chenxiao & Ge, Liang & Bakangura, Erigene & Xu, Tongwen. (2016). Ion Exchange

Membranes: New Developments and Applications. Journal of Membrane Science. 522.

10.1016/j.memsci.2016.09.033.

Vanitha, Thiraviam & Khan, Mahejibin. (2019). Role of Pectin in Food Processing and

Food Packaging. 10.5772/intechopen.83677

Yaroslavtsev, A., & Nikonenko, V. (2009). Ion-exchange membrane materials:

Properties, modification, and practical application. Research Gate.

 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226500609_Ion

exchange_membrane_materials_Properties_modification_and_practical_application

‌BOOKS

Harland, C. (1994). Ion Exchange-Theory and Practice (2nd ed., Vol. 3, p. 1). The Royal

Society of Chemistry.

‌ H Strathmann. (2004). Ion-exchange membrane separation processes. Elsevier.

‌ Toshikatsu Sata. (2004). Ion exchange membranes : preparation, characterization,

modification and application. Royal Society Of Chemistry, Cop.