POLYT ECHN IC U N IVERS IT Y OF T HE PHILIPPIN ES

Chapter 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter contains the literature and studies related to verbal fillers.

Encompassed here are the classifications of speech (dis)fluencies, forms of verbal

fillers, and the possible factors that affect the speaker’s use of these linguistic fillers.

Also, it includes the advantages and disadvantages of using such fillers and the

techniques that can help students to overcome this kind of speech habit. At the end of

the chapter is a synthesis of all the reviewed literature and studies.

Foreign Literature

The foreign literatures below are relative to the research paper which includes

classification of speech (dis)fluency, forms of verbal fillers, disadvantages of using

verbal fillers, usage of verbal fillers, and techniques in overcoming verbal fillers.

Classifications of speech (dis)fluencies

“When humans communicate, their messages are conveyed by more than just

the words they use” (Clark, et al.). Spontaneous speech is filled with the so-called

speech (dis)fluencies. Likewise, Petrie (1998, cited in Williams, 2013) states that
 POLYT ECHN IC U N IVERS IT Y OF T HE PHILIPPIN ES 15

when a listener stops concentrating on what the speaker is talking about, and focus

on how it is being said, he or she will notice that speeches are full of(dis)fluencies.

Speech (dis)fluency is defined as any interruption or break in the normal flow of

speech (Williams, 2013).

Gillam (2000) defines (dis)fluency as a means to describe speech that is

marked by repetitions, interjections, pauses, and revisions. As examples he wrote,

Speakers do not speak in a perfectly fluent manner all the

time. Sometimes they repeat phrases (my paper, my
paper is right here), words (My, my paper is right here),
syllables (My pa, paper is right here), or individual
phonemes (M, m, my paper is right here). They may
prolong some sounds a little longer than usual (M---y
paper is right here). Sometimes they interject fillers (my
paper is, um, right here), pause in unusual places (My
[pause] paper is right here), or revise their sentences (My
paper, that paper I wrote last week is right here).

In line with this, Williams (2013) enumerate six types of speech (dis)fluency.

The first type is the repetition or correction where the speaker corrects or repeats the

words previously said though the idea of the corrected words is still carried. And then,

false start is when the speaker is saying something but stops in the middle of the

sentence to restart on a new idea. Subsequently, filled pauses such as uh, um, mm,

and like where the speaker uses filled pause as way to express pauses or to assist in

correcting statement. Next is the use of sounds that indicate agreement or in the

process of judging like yeah and oh. Then the terms, these are phrases that the

speaker uses in eliciting words before they complete the statement. And lastly,
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Williams includes the discourse matter which helps the speaker begin a statement for

instance are so, well, and now.

Similarly, both Clark and Waslow (1998) and Petrie (1998, cited in Williams,

2013) classify (dis)fluencies into unwanted pauses, fillers, editing expressions, word

fragments, self-corrections, and repeated words, incomplete phrases, stops, and odd

little sounds.

Furthermore, Yaruss and Reardon (2010) recognize some types of speech

(dis)fluencies and divide it into two which are the “Non-stuttered” and “Stuttered”

(dis)fluencies. “Non-stuttered” (dis)fluencies comprise of hesitations (pauses),

interjections (um, uh, er), revisions (“I want-I need that”), and repetitions (“I want-I

want that”). On the other hand, “Stuttered” (dis)fluencies include repetition of sounds

or syllables (“li-li-li-like this”), prolongations (“llllllike this”), and blocks (“l----ike this”).

Non-stuttered (dis)fluencies develop into stuttered ones because of the frequent use

of (dis)fluencies, the level of tension or struggle increases as well as the duration

(length) of the (dis)fluencies.

In the same way, Guo, Tomblin and Samelson (2008) divide speech

disruptions into silent pauses and vocal hesitations. Silent pauses refer to the periods

of time when no phonation is being made during spoken discourse. They further

explained that in a research on speech disruptions, silent pauses typically refer to the

silent intervals that are equal to or greater than 250 milliseconds while silent intervals

of fewer than 250 milliseconds, are considered to serve an articulatory rather than
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cognitive function in speech production and are not counted as silent pauses,

whereas, vocal hesitations denote filled pauses, interjections, repetitions, and

revisions. Meanwhile, filled pauses refer to conventional but non-lexical one-syllable

filler vocalizations such as um, uh, and ah while interjections refer to conventional

words or phrases that do not contribute information to an utterance for example are I

mean, well, like, and you know (Clark & Fox Tree, 2002). Repetitions, on the other

hand, denote repeated linguistic units like the segment, syllable, or word that does

not signal emphatic meaning. Finally, Guo et al. (2008) give details on revisions, they

wrote:

Revisions refer to “reliably recognizable

modifications of a unit already produced by the speaker”
(Dollaghan& Campbell, 1992), which result in the
alteration of lexical, morphological, syntactic, semantic, or
phonological material (Rispoli, 2003).

Repetitions and revisions are further explained by Guitar (2013). He states that

revisions are common in normal children and may continue to account for a major

portion of their (dis)fluencies as they grow older, while in repetition the most common

type of it used is the single syllable word repetition and it also involved longer

segments or phrases.

Hence, these (dis)fluencies come in different forms and each form has

different functions depending on how the speakers use it and because of these

(dis)fluencies, the speakers sound like they are often not fluent. These different

categorizations were needed to be defined because it is important to know what kind

 POLYT ECHN IC U N IVERS IT Y OF T HE PHILIPPIN ES 18

of (dis)fluencies the speakers use and to avoid confusion since some of these

(dis)fluencies look and sound similar to each other.

Forms of verbal fillers

Verbal fillers are words or phrases that are used during speaking (Clark,

2015). It is also referred to as speech disruptions; which occur in the steady flow of

spontaneous speech discourse that includes silent pauses and vocal hesitations

(Kowal et al.).

These verbal fillers come in different forms. As a matter of fact, Dlugan (2011)

categorizes fillers into three. One of these is the filler sounds such as um, uh, ah,

mm, and er. While the second one is the filler words like basically, actually, like and

literally. Then, third and last are the filler phrases, examples of these are: you know, I

mean, what I’m trying to say is.

On the other hand, two kinds of fillers are classified by an anonymous author

in the article, “The information value of Hesitation Phenomena”. The author states

that fillers are divided into two namely: open-filled pauses which cover the hesitation

‘uh’ is uttered with an open-mouth and the other one is termed close-filled pauses

such as ‘um’ which is produced with the mouth or lips are closed.

Furthermore, four classifications of verbal fillers were identified. These four

categories, given by Cappelli (2009), are (1) filled pauses, (2) discourse markers, (3)

explicit editing terms, and (4) asides or parentheticals. Filled pauses in English

include ‘ah’, ‘er’, ‘uh’, and ‘um’, while discourse markers consist of words such as
 POLYT ECHN IC U N IVERS IT Y OF T HE PHILIPPIN ES 19

‘anyway’, ‘well’, ‘so’, ‘okay’, and ‘now’. On the other hand, explicit editing terms for

instance are ‘I mean’, ‘sorry’, ‘excuse me’, and ‘rather’. Finally, examples of asides or

parentheticals are ‘say’ and ‘for example’.

These forms of verbal fillers indicate that fillers occur in different manners. Also,

these will be the basis of the study regarding the common verbal fillers used by the

informants. Out of these different forms, the study will make use of Dlugan’s (2011)

categorizations which are filler sounds, filler words, and filler phrases in classifying

the most common used verbal fillers by the participants.

Disadvantages of using verbal fillers

Using too much verbal fillers in speaking causes negative impact especially to

the students who are engaged in speech activities, therefore, they must be aware of

these disadvantages.

People communicate in three ways - verbally, visually, and vocally. So if a

speaker hesitates, even if the verbal message is clear and well-organized, listeners

are more likely to focus on the negative vocal and visual cues such as the hesitant

delivery (in most cases committing hesitation markers o fillers) and strained vocal

quality (Hamilton, 2015).

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In the same manner, the use of verbal fillers disrupts the quality of what is

being said and it could be annoying (Kurtus, 2015). The speaker may be perceived

as incompetent if the listener’s attention and judgment will be based on how the

speaker is speaking and not on what is being said.

In addition, using too many filled pauses is considered as a bad speech habit

because it can jeopardize personal appeal, misdirect attention away from the

message, and obstruct the intended purpose (Bell, 2014).

Another disadvantage of using excessive verbal fillers is that it makes a

speaker looks indecisive as well as lacking in knowledge and confidence (Clark,

1994). A speaker may be perceived negatively when he/she continuously uses

hesitation markers which for some listeners are a sign of being an ineffective

speaker. Also, hesitating or stuttering itself tends to evoke shyness and feelings of

inferiority. When the speaker commits fillers or hesitation markers they get negative

reactions from the listeners and those feedbacks make them feel more subordinate

and weak emerging into a more low self-esteem.

Additionally, Chomsky (as cited in Onion, 2015) argues that such phrases (uh

and um) are simply “errors in applying knowledge of language in actual performance”,

that these are not part of the language and these must be eliminated.

In support with the previous statement, Dlugan (2011) also states that since

the use of fillers contributes nothing to speech, it must be minimized. He also

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mentioned that it weakens the effectiveness of the speaker and defined two ways

how fillers affect the speaker:

Filler words represent verbal static that has to be

filtered out by your audience (It’s one of communication
barriers cited in a recent article by guest author Stacey
Hankey). And repeated that an excessive use of filler
words weakens your credibility. It may perceived as
indicating lack of preparation, lack of knowledge, or lack
of passion. All of these perceptions are bad for you.

Therefore, verbal fillers can be presumed as a communication barrier. It may be a

habit to speakers but it displays bad perceptions. It serves as errors and contributes

distraction on both speaker and listeners.

Usage of verbal fillers

Verbal fillers are not merely sounds that fill the speaker’s speech. It has its

own function in the spontaneous speech as written from some literary sources

gathered.

Fillers and hesitation devices are one type of communication strategies

according to Celce-Murcia et al. (1995). Speakers use fillers such as well, like, I

mean, and actually as time gaining strategy. Also, these devices are used to

compensate for a lack of second language knowledge.

In line with this, saying ‘ah’ and ‘um’ during a speech is used as subtle pause

to let the mind of a speaker search for the next word to be used (Kurtus, 2015). Hoff
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supported it when he pointed out that vocalized pauses are used by speakers to fill in

the air when they do not know what to say next. Moreover, it’s usual for normal

speakers to repeat phrases or whole words, to interject fillers, or to pause for them to

collect their thoughts before continuing (Gillam, 2000).

Further, Clark and Waslow (1998) wrote that (dis)fluencies such as fillers are

used in two different perspectives. The first is what they called the pure where

(dis)fluencies are outcome of mind processes and run without intervention while the

second one is called strategies in which the fillers are used under a person’s control.

The speaker consciously utters hesitation markers as a strategy.

In another article, Clark (as cited in Onion, 2015) believes that um, uh, and you

know play an important role in language. He further suggests that these phrases or

sounds serve as conversation manager. He accompanied this claim with the

statement explaining that there are two things people do when speaking; one is to

pay attention to the content and the other is to keep track of the interaction happening

between the speaker and listener. Whereas, Fox tree (as cited in Onion, 2015) tuned

into the function of the filler phrases “you know”, “I mean”, “oh”, and “like”. She

suggests that these fillers are often uttered to adjust the meaning or the structure of a

sentence as it is being spoken. For instance, given by Onion (2015), the statement “I

need to pick up orange juice and milk today, oh and cheese”. The oh suggests new

information. In other cases, when someone says “She would be a good runner, I

mean swimmer” the phrase I mean is used to correct something that was said earlier.
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Furthermore, fillers may function as an indicator of uncertainty or sometimes

used to maintain control of a conversation (Cappelli, 2009). Fillers function as an

indicator of problems with the speaker such as letting the listener know that he/she is

hesitating but do not add any new information to the conversation or the speech.

Thus, these verbal fillers have varied functions in formal and non-formal

speeches. Mostly, it is used as a speaker’s strategy and has a big role in language.

Techniques in overcoming verbal fillers

Considering the factors affecting the students’ speech development,

specifically in the production of verbal fillers, particular techniques, tips, therapies,

and treatments are suggested. Techniques and tips are under the same area where

useful information or methods are given to the students or to other speakers. On the

other hand, therapies and treatments are more complex actions to counterpart or to

lessen the excessive use of fillers. Thus, the following information divided into

techniques, tips, therapy, and treatments are all for the purpose of improving the

students’ speaking abilities.

Minimizing the use of verbal fillers will definitely create a positive effect to a

speaker. Techniques, tips, therapies, and treatments depend on the severity of the

(dis)fluency. Most include breathing techniques, relaxation strategies to help relax

speech-associated muscles, posture control, and other exercises designed to help

develop fluency (Williams, 2012).

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Clark introduced two techniques in empowering speech communication. He

supposes that fillers can be eliminated through practice and substituting the

disrupting filled pauses by good phrases. Practicing will make the students well-

prepared for the upcoming speaking activity and reducing the chance of committing

verbal fillers. While using phrases as a substitute for filled pauses will make a

speaker sound more prepared and knowledgeable.

Hamilton (2015), in the same way, suggests that some techniques in

managing one cause of committing verbal fillers which is anxiety. He wrote that every

speaking situation will cause butterflies in the stomach. He cites a quotation from a

journalist named Edward Murrow which states that “The only difference between the

pros and the novices is that the pros have trained their butterflies to fly in formation”.

He gives the following pointers on how to train these butterflies: (1) prepare and

practice, (2) do a warm up, (3) use deep breathing, (4) plan an introduction to relax

yourself and the listeners, and (5) concentrate on meaning. These simple steps would

lessen the anxiety experienced by a speaker because these help relax the mind and

body of an orator leading to a more confident presenter in front of the class.

On the other hand, Samuel D. Robbins (as cited in Bender and Kleinfield,

1938) of the Boston Stammerer’s Institute uses breath control to correct stuttering.

His theory is according to the James-Lange theory of the emotion, it is possible to

cultivate any emotion by manufacturing at will the outward manifestation of that

emotion. Just as “crying makes a child sadder and sadder the longer he cries, so

breathing in a calm way makes one calm”. As stammerers speak best when calm, a
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calm manner of breathing will do more than any other thing to make it possible for

them to speak without hesitancy. Robins finds that calm, normal speaker’s speech is

marked by: (1) “a pause for about a second on empty lungs before breathing”; (2)

slow breathing; and (3) breathing that is never held between inhaling and exhaling.

An additional tip given by Dlugan (2011) is to help reduce the fillers produce by

speakers. The first step is to assess how often you are using filler words. There are

ways to assess these filler words by recruiting an audience member, record your

voice, and record yourself on video. Then, understand why you are doing it and why it

is unnecessary. In certain contexts, filler words can serve a minor purpose. Raising

your level of preparation is the third step. Adequate preparation (which has many

benefits) will thus reduce the occurrence of filler words. Last is slowing and

embracing the pause. Slowing your pace will also reduce those ‘um's’ and ‘ah's’

because it makes it easier for your brain to keep it up. Replace the filler words with

silence. Since you have probably become accustomed to using filler words, replacing

it will take practice. Lastly, monitor your progress and be patient.

Accordingly, Pearson Education voices that one should possess good

communicating skills and he/she should have good speaking habits. To lessen the

(dis)fluencies that students have, Marshall claims that the first and most important

step towards more fluent speaking is to become aware of one’s distracting habits.

Being aware of other’s (dis)fluencies will make the students mindful of their own

speech behavior.
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In addition, Emden & Becker (1963) postulates that a speaker should look first

at the practical outcome of his/her speaking abilities. He added:

When we talk to other people, whether formally or in

conversations, we use at least three techniques: we vary
our voices use changes of tone and reveal body language,
a silent but eloquent way of sending a message... Our
tone of voice is also very powerful in showing your
meaning. Our choice of words is also conditioned both by
the person who is going to hear them and the situation in
which we find ourselves.

Knowing the practical outcome will help the speaker to internalize what he/she

has to do when he/she steps on the stage. For example, if the choice of words is

conditioned before the presentation there will be lesser tendencies in committing

fillers because the speaker’s mind would not have wide range of choices to think of

during his speech.

As the stammerer thinks that his/her malady is entirely due to fear, it could be

overcome by right thinking. Require the patient to say to himself/herself again and

again, with genuine conviction:

“I can speak easily and fluently"

“I will conquer fear”
“I am conquering fear”
“My fear is entirely imaginary”
"I am speaking with ever increasing confidence”

When (dis)fluencies are uttered excessively it is sometimes referred to as

stuttering. In case a person’s use of hesitation markers becomes worse, there are
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some recommendations on how to help him lessen the display of hesitations. That is,

corrective methods in stuttering are almost as numerous as the theories of causation.

The treatments outlined below are those used by leading correctionists, especially in

the United States.

A treatment called as “Fluency Shaping Therapy” is suggested by Gillam

(2000). It is a therapy used to teach a new speech style that is free of excessive

hesitations. This involves slower rates of speech, relaxed breathing, easy initiation of

sounds and smoother transitions between words. These exercises will also help the

children to manage their negative feeling towards speaking so they can feel more

positive in facing their listeners.

Moreover, Dr. Walter B. Swift (as cited in Bender and Kleinfield, 1938) of

Boston and his followers treat stuttering along the following lines:

1. Exercise classes are formed

2. Pupils are given a careful examination with a parent
present
3. Treatment is divided into three parts: relaxation,
concentration, visualization

To add more, there are seven specific treatments toward improving public

speaking namely: (1) utilize effective physical action while speaking, serves as a

safety value in releasing a pent-up in speech fright; (2) be more audience-centered

and less self-centered, audience analysis and adaptation is a must in effective

communication; (3) prepare thoroughly for public speeches, avoiding excessive

worries and procrastination lessens inadequate preparation in speaking; (4) seek

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constructive speaking opportunities, speaking experience must go on; (5) choose a

good topic, careful selection and development of the topic helps the speaker to reach

his/her audience and make himself/herself confident in what he/she is going to say;

(6) understand the principles of public speaking, such factors (delivery, introductions,

conclusions, main headings, transitions, style, support materials, audience

analysisand adaptation) are to be kept in our think tank; and (7) avoiding going over a

speech immediately before speaking, take a deep breath and go with the flow. These

treatments are effective solutions to speech fright by Cronin (1986).

The said exercises above show that there are ways in lessening the speakers’

utterance of verbal fillers and in improving their speaking abilities. These are

mentioned since this study would be a basis of a program that will enhance the skills

in speaking of the students.

Local Literature

The included local literatures below are relative to the research paper and its

themes: usage of verbal fillers, causes of committing verbal fillers and techniques in

overcoming verbal fillers.

Usage of verbal fillers

Verbal fillers, for other professionals involved in speech development are not

just sounds, words, or phrases that fill the pauses a speaker makes. Meanwhile,

some believe that they have functions to fulfill.

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Gupit (2011) identifies three legitimate purpose of filled pauses. One is to

divide sentences into thought phrases. Here, he explains that the only way to signify

the division of sentences into thought phrases is to pause between them. The second

one is to enable the audience to think of what the speaker had just said. This purpose

is said to take place when the speaker makes a startling statement, or his/her

utterance is replete with meaning and repercussions. The purpose identifies is to

create suspense. It is where the audience eagerly waits for the speaker to say

something so a speaker may heighten the level of interest of the audience by pausing

before stating.

Similarly, Perez (1997) also says that the use of pauses functions as a

suspense factor. Adding suspense factor in the speech being delivered is very

important because it makes the listeners hold onto listening to your speech; though

he mentioned that a speaker must avoid committing this pauses in important parts of

the speech.

Therefore, verbal fillers are usually used as a strategy that would help the

speaker in having a better speech presentation.

In addition, Avalos and Avalos (2007) state that fillers are a linguistic strategy

to fill up spaces in a kind of a communication breakdown. When the speaker utters

verbal fillers or takes a long pause, it is believed that the time spent in uttering the

fillers is the time where the speaker allows his/her next idea to enter his/her mind.
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There are different conventions on why speakers use these fillers and it is

important to know those usages, because it will lead to the further understanding of

verbal fillers.

Causes of committing verbal fillers

There are several factors that cause a person to commit filler words. The most

common factor experienced by students in speaking is under Psychological aspects.

Self-confidence and sincerity contribute much in the speaker’s speaking ability

(Padilla et al., 2003). When the students do not develop self-confidence, their ability

in delivering a good speech degenerates.

Another Psychological aspect which cause nervousness, tensing, and

quavering of voice is stage fright. Padilla (2003) also defines it as fear of oral

communication. There are some reasons why students possess stage fright such as

unpleasant past experiences and irrational thinking. Thus, the cases that were just

mentioned contribute to the speaking acts of the learners.

Being a neophyte is also categorized as one factor why the students used

fillers such as uh, ah, and er while doing a spontaneous speech (Nietes-buhay and

Hernandez, 1976). Normally, beginners speaking in front of other people feel

insecure and cause disruptions while they speak.

Physiological aspects can also affect the learners speaking ability. The habit of

saying ‘uh’, ‘ah’, and ‘er’, as stated by Nietes-buhay and Hernandez (1976), is caused

by being tired of thinking and reading for too long; but speakers should be reminded
 POLYT ECHN IC U N IVERS IT Y OF T HE PHILIPPIN ES 31

that having these ‘uh's’ scattered in a speech make them look funny and boring.

Students who feel exhausted might have a hard time remembering the ideas they

needed to expose or say, so the tendency is that more filler words and pauses would

occur. This means that as a speaker speaks, there is a possibility that they are also

thinking of ideas, scanning their vocabulary, organizing thoughts, coping with tension,

and some other things running in their minds which exhausts them.

Further, Aquino and Seveza (1962) state that one of the major concern of

students in any speech class is stage fright. It is claimed there that nervousness is

normal. If one feels nervous about giving speeches, he/she is in the right track

because some of the greatest public speakers in history revealed that they also

suffered from it.

These factors enumerated are the most frequent reasons why speakers

produced verbal fillers. These are also significant to understand because without

knowing the reason behind this phenomenon, it is going to be hard to recommend the

proper tips and techniques in lessening them.

Techniques in overcoming verbal fillers

Speaking has various signals from writing. When a person writes, he/she has

the pleasure of the time to read, edit and revise your work. While in speaking, it is

totally different. The speaker thinks and speaks on his/her feet, and he/she needs to

let the words out of his/her mouth spontaneously. If a student is not a careful speaker,

he/she is in danger of delivering a litany of "I'm sorry" and "I mean”. The speaker has
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to be corrected because all the preparation of the student will go to naught if stage

fright gets the better of him/her (Cabrera and De Asis, 2008).

Although the speaker cannot completely refrain himself/herself against stage

fright, it still can be overcome. Cabrera and De Asis (2008) suggest the speakers

experiencing stage fright to try the following tips: (1) Breathe deeply before starting to

speak, (2) Move around, (3) Keep their minds off the forthcoming ordeal, and (4) Be

thoroughly prepared. These pointers can be a routine of the students every time they

will have a speaking presentation in the class because these can ease their fear of

being on stage and speaking in front of other people. The following pointers may be

able to help the students relax just before the start of the activity.

Thus, they suggest the speaker to remember the 3Ps which means prepare,

practice, and persevere. Also, they advise the students to always remember the

phrase “You are what you think – not what you think you are”.

In addition, Adler & Roman (cited in Padilla, 2003) include four techniques or

ways to overcome stage fright. It can be shorten into, “Be prepared, get involved.” If a

speaker is prepared, he/she will feel secured. And as he/she feels secure, he/she will

be rational and positive as he/she delivers his/her speech. Getting involved in the

audience is a must. In this way, the speaker can eliminate his/her stage fright in

his/her fullest confidence.

Likewise, to overcome stage fright, there are 5 techniques proposed by Aquino

and Seveza (2010) and these are:

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(1) acquire speaking experience

(2) prepare/practice
(3) think positively
(4) use the power of visualization, and
(5) know that most nervousness is not visible.

Additionally, visualization and relaxation are techniques that can prepare a

speaker psychologically. Visualization is a behavioral process used to treat phobias.

It is also suggested in an article included in the book “The Art of Speaking” that the

second best step is practice, which is a must throughout public speaking. Moreover,

practice is accompanied by proper breathing, which is also the key to effective

speaking (Cruz-Tapalla and Tapalla, 2010).

These tips and techniques given are significant since these will help each

speaker in his/her way to the improvement of his/her speech. These are proposed by

some of the well-known speech developers and professionals in the field of

language, speech, and communication.

Foreign Studies

The included foreign studies below are relative to the study and its themes:

advantages of using verbal fillers, and causes of committing verbal fillers.

 POLYT ECHN IC U N IVERS IT Y OF T HE PHILIPPIN ES 34

Advantages of using verbal fillers

Fillers like any other things have two sides. Commonly, hesitations are viewed

as a negative speaking habit but some researchers are able to find some significance

of using these markers.

Simpson (1994), in her research, discovers that some scholars have

discussed that a native speaker of a language is able to use these fillers in his own

benefit. They note that the use of fillers are natural for native speaker and so they can

easily use them as a planning time without the listeners judging them as an

inadequate speaker.

From the study of Griffiths (1990, as cited in Blau 1991), it is concluded that

the listeners did better in their listening comprehension text when the speech speed

is only from low to normal. It further shows that speech slows down by means of the

pauses and hesitation markers used by the speaker.

Correspondingly, the speaker who uses hesitation markers sounds more

natural thus signalling the listeners that the utterance is semantically empty and they

take advantage of the time provided by the pauses in comprehending what they have

heard (Blau, 1991).

Therefore, using fillers can also be advantageous to the speaker, because it

can help him compose himself and remember the following words he needs to say.

For the listeners, fillers can help them retain what is being said by the speaker.
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In this scenario, the fillers cause the speaker to slow down and thus making it

easy for the listeners to comprehend the preceding topics the speaker was on,

contemplate on the succeeding topics and finally have a better understanding on

everything that the speaker said.

Causes of committing verbal fillers

According to Elizabeth Shriberg (2001), unlike read or laboratory speech,

spontaneous speech contains high rates of (dis)fluencies (e.g. repetitions, repairs,

filled pause, false starts). The speaker is provided with a manuscript to be read in

front of his audience that is why he/she rarely commits (dis)fluencies. However,

spontaneous speeches wherein the speaker is not entirely ready to speak to an

audience have higher tendencies of using (dis)fluencies. Aside from the fact that he

does not have a script to read, everything he/she will say will just be on the spot.

A research in 2003 by Arnold (as cited in Pytko and Reese), reveals that the

speakers who used um and uh were rated as more unprepared to talk about their

topic. Also, Unpreparedness may suggest a lack of forethought that is unnecessary to

intelligently depict a message. In addition to that:

Verbal fillers or hesitations are observed in non-English native

speaker and one factor that may cause this, as stated in
Vazquez’s (2014) thesis paper, is that “NonEnglish speaking
students lack the confidence and preparation to be verbally
actively engaged in the classroom.
 POLYT ECHN IC U N IVERS IT Y OF T HE PHILIPPIN ES 36

Aside from unpreparedness, unfamiliarity is also considered as one factor that

causes a person to commit more verbal fillers. If the material of a speech is familiar to

the speaker then there should be fewer pauses (Schacter et al., 1991). This claim is

supported by the findings of Reynolds and Pavio (1968) that pauses are more

frequent when the subject is defined abstract rather than if it is concrete.

In addition, Schacter (1991) supposes that the number of options or choice

point also affects the use of fillers. He mentions that pauses in speech indicate time

in making choices; so the more options a speaker has, the greater the likelihood that

he will say “uh”. The speaker basically will take time to choose from the set of terms

to be used.

Another factor could be fear. Fear falls into two predominant categories; fear of

certain audiences and of speaking on certain types of topics. Fear of audiences

pertains to those who are older than the speaker, in positions of higher authority (as a

nursing practitioner lecturing to doctors), or total strangers. On the other hand, fear

related to subject matter through talking about a material quite new to the speaker or

on material that would be controversial to the audience. In class discussion, it is said

that most students feel competent to do their jobs, but not to communicate their

knowledge to any more than a few people at one time (Cohen, 1983).

The stimulus for anxiety during this time is novelty or newness of perspective

for the speaker. Beginning speakers need frequent opportunities to speak so that

they may begin to feel comfortable in the role of speaker and non-evaluative
 POLYT ECHN IC U N IVERS IT Y OF T HE PHILIPPIN ES 37

(ungraded) and progressively challenging speaking experiences are useful for

beginning the acclimation process. The overriding goal of such experiences is for the

student to get used to speaking before a group. Frequent is the case wherein

students are given a graded speech assignment and are given few (if any) structured

speaking experiences before the assignment is due.

Unpreparedness, unfamiliarity, multiple options or choice points, fear, anxiety

and self-consciousness-these are the common reasons why one commits fillers.

These affect the speaker immensely and hinder him/her from delivering his/her

speech smoothly and accordingly. Therefore, it can be seen as ineffectiveness and

less credibility, that is why the speaker needs to be aware of all these.

Local Studies

The following local studies below are relative to the study and its themes:

causes of committing verbal fillers, and techniques in overcoming verbal fillers.

Causes of committing Verbal Fillers

There are numerous reasons why students hesitate when they are asked to

speak up in different places and situations. These causes are identified by the local

studies below:

Communication apprehension is one of the probable causes of having speech

disruptions. It is a clinical fear of communicating with or in the presence of others

 POLYT ECHN IC U N IVERS IT Y OF T HE PHILIPPIN ES 38

(Lozano, 2009). In other words, students may feel nervous at the thought of speaking

out loud while in the presence of a large group (Turk, 1985 as cited in Lozano). In

support with this statement, a study included in the work of Aquino and Seveza

(1962) was conducted in social situations of more than 9,000 people who made

speaking up in a meeting class topped two in their greatest fears. It reveals fear of

speaking may prevent some students from speaking effectively. She also mentions

that students experience fear at the possibility of embarrassing themselves,

appearing foolish, or saying the wrong idea.

On the other hand, the result of the study conducted by Atillo (1997) reveals

that there was a significant relationship between the speech difficulties of the

maritime students and the paralinguistic factors. The lower the education, language

exposure, and socio-economic status of the students, the greater is the degree of

speech difficulty. Thus, their level of education, language exposure, and socio-

economic status apparently affected their speech facility.

Another factor of the students’ poor performance in the production of English

sounds orally is due to the poor language background as a result of poor language

training (Guasa, 1969 as cited in Atillo). Students who do not have enough

knowledge about the language will almost always hesitate on the words they would

utter because they are still thinking for the appropriate words to be used.

Moreover, students also experience difficulty in participating and are confused

on the premise of their oral competence because of the factors such as subjectivity
 POLYT ECHN IC U N IVERS IT Y OF T HE PHILIPPIN ES 39

and cultural criteria (Gonzales, 2005). Students’ behavior towards their performance

or participation in class usually leans on their personal experiences. Negative attitude

in speaking in front of others may be influenced by the students’ bad experience while

positive attitudes may result from good ones.

In addition, Wood (1979, as cited in Atillo) articulates a concept that

environmental influences or communication environment drastically shapes the

nature of the language. Bulay, Burta, and Frasten (cited in Atillo) also elaborate these

environmental factors into four parts. These are: (1) naturalness of the language

heard, (2) the learner’s role in communication, (3) the availability of concrete

references to clarify meaning, and (4) the target language models.

These factors greatly influence the learner’s acquisition of a second language,

provided that there is insufficient knowledge about the second language, or any other

factors that intervene in second language acquisition cause an individual to use

verbal fillers.

Techniques in Overcoming Verbal Fillers

There are several techniques to overcome the use of verbal fillers that have

been proven and used by speech researchers, instructors, and professionals.

For instance, Del Villar (2006) introduces the Mind Body Communication

Technique. This technique aims to develop the individual through the use of

meditation, imagery, and analysis. Using this technique will help the students gain
 POLYT ECHN IC U N IVERS IT Y OF T HE PHILIPPIN ES 40

interest in communication and improvement of his/her behavior as a speaker. The

goal of this technique is for the students to relearn confidence in speaking which is a

great factor that causes verbal fillers.

Three principles under this technique are given by Del Villar (2006). These are

imagination, mental practice, and the alpha level. The first principle assists the

speaker because learning confidence through behavior is significantly similar to the

experience when conditioning through imagination. Klinger (1980, cited in Del Villar,

2006) asserts that imagery represents the “central core of perception and response

mechanism” which also means that imagination guides the students to regain

confidence, because what is experienced in the mind converges in the body.

Following imagination is mental practice. According to Del Villar (2006) this

principle is simply the practice of activity in the mind which allows the body to follow

it. This will improve the level of confidence of the students yet a person must still

accompany the mental practice not only to visual images but with other senses as

well.

Finally, the alpha level comes from Silva’s (1988, as cited in Del Villar, 2006)

Mind Control Method. The Alpha level is classified as a relaxed state that permeates

all parts of the being, therefore, the first two principles will yield more positive result in

the behavior changes of the student if they were done in this principle.
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As stated previously, the main cause why students commit verbal fillers is the

lack of confidence thus, Dennick (2005, as cited in Lozano 2009) suggests using ice

breakers and warm-ups before the speaking activity to ease the students’

nervousness and to lead them to active participation. This is a simple activity that any

speech instructor should use to help their students with speech difficulties.

Further, Gonzales (2005) implies that in the discussion prior to an oral

presentation, the teachers must directly emphasize to the students an awareness of

using filler words in order for them to avoid imprecision. Different techniques may not

work if the students are not aware of what is being improved in their skills.

Synthesis of the Reviewed Related Literature and Studies

People communicate every day and these are inevitably filled with speech

(dis)fluencies. To Williams (2013), such speech (dis)fluencies are interruptions or

breaks in a normal speech and repetitions, interjections and revisions (Gillam, 2000

and Guitar, 2013). Williams (2013), Clark and Waslow (1990), and Petrie (1998)

classify varied (dis)fluencies and one of it is verbal fillers.

Verbal fillers are divided into three according to Dlugan (2011): filler sounds,

filler words, and filler phrases. On the other hand, The Information Value of Hesitation

Phenomena classified fillers into open and close filled pauses. To Yaruss and

Reardon (2010), there are two speech (dis)fluencies known as stuttered and non-

stuttered. There are also four classifications of verbal fillers to Cappelli (2009),
 POLYT ECHN IC U N IVERS IT Y OF T HE PHILIPPIN ES 42

namely: (1) filled pauses, (2) discourse markers, (3) explicit editing terms, and (4)

asides or parentheticals.

On the usage of fillers, Celce-Murcia (1995), Clark and Waslow (1990) and

Chomsky (as cited in Onion, 2015) consider fillers as communication strategies. Hoff

and Kurtus (2015), claim that committing verbal fillers provide the interlocutor time to

think more of what to say next. Yang (2013) explains that the use of verbal fillers

enables the speaker to avoid conflicts when hesitation occurs. Gupit (2011)

enumerates three legitimate purposes of filled pauses that can heighten the interest

level of a speaker. To Perez (1997), such pauses function as suspense factor.

Overall, Avalos and Avalos (2007) said that pauses are used as a linguistic strategy

in filling up the spaces in a communication breakdown.

According to Elizabeth Shriberg (2001), spontaneous speeches contain high

rates of (dis)fluencies. There are several factors in committing verbal fillers which can

be divided into two: psychological and environmental. Psychological factors include

not enough self-confidence leading to unpreparedness by Padilla (2003). The last

and the most important psychological factor is obviously one’s behavior (Klinger

(1980).

Environmental factors consist of the audience itself (Lozano, 2009) and

cultural criteria or choice point of Schacter, (1991) and Gonzales (2015).

Even though verbal fillers affect one’s speaking ability, it still has pluses and

minuses. Simpson (1994) states that verbal fillers are the “alas” of the interlocutor. It
 POLYT ECHN IC U N IVERS IT Y OF T HE PHILIPPIN ES 43

allows the speakers to collect their thoughts before continuing their speeches (Gillam,

2000).

While the excessive use of verbal fillers is considered alarming, the use of

verbal fillers disrupts the quality of what is being said and it could be annoying

(Kurtus, 2015). Meanwhile, Hamilton (2015) voices out that the listeners focus on the

negative vocal and visual cues. The speaker maybe misunderstood by the listeners

on what he or she intends to say. Clark (1990) claims that using verbal fillers makes

the speaker indecisive as well as lacking knowledge and confidence. This can be

perceived negatively and judged as the speaker being ineffective, which is also

supported by Dlugan (2011) and it affects the speaker’s credibility. In addition, Bell

(2014) points out that too much use of filled pauses can jeopardize personal appeal,

misdirection of message and etc.

There are some techniques suggested in reducing the use of verbal fillers.

Possessing good communication skill is what Pearson Education implies. Adler and

Roman (cited in Padilla, 2003) and Cabrera and De Asis (2008) give tips on

rehearsing and delivering speeches. Bear in mind our voices, changes of tone,

choices of words, and body language in enhancing our good communication with

others (Emden & Becker (1963). In addition, Gillam (2000) proposed a technique

called “Fluency Shaping Therapy”. Visualization technique is proposed by Aquino and

Seveza (2010) and is supported by Dr. Walter B. Swift (as cited in Bender and

Kleinfield, 1938) and Cruz-Tapalla& Cruz-Tapalla (2010). One technique developed

by Del Villar (2006) is to enhance an individual's communication interest. Palma

 POLYT ECHN IC U N IVERS IT Y OF T HE PHILIPPIN ES 44

(2013) and Jazul (2015) demand that teachers should create a warm embracing

atmosphere or environment when it comes to speaking activities. Lastly, Gonzales

(2005) directs the teachers to emphasize the students’ awareness of verbal fillers.

These information are significant to this study because it is all for further

understanding of speech (dis)fluencies; the classifications, usage, causes and even

the techniques for the improvement of the speaking abilities of the students. As it is

mentioned earlier, verbal fillers have pluses and minuses. This study is believed to

help the students use fillers for their own advantage and how they can avoid having

fillers as an incommodity.