Which devices use CMOS?

 Digital logic circuits

 SRAM (Static RAM)
 Microprocessors
 Microcontrollers
1) Logic circuit
 A logic circuit is a circuit that performs a processing or controlling function
in a computer. This circuit carries out logical operations on information to
process it.
2) SRAM
 Short for static random access memory, SRAM is computer memory that
requires a constant power flow to hold information. Power consumption
varies widely based on how frequently the memory is accessed. Although
quicker than DRAM, SRAM is more expensive and holds less data per unit
volume. Therefore, it is more commonly used in cache and video card
memory only.
3) CPU
 Alternately referred to as aprocessor, central processor, or micro processor,
the CPU (pronounced sea-pea-you) is thecentral processing unit of the
computer. A computer's CPU handles all instructions it receives from
hardware and software running on the computer.
Tip: The CPU is often referred to as the brain of the computer.
However, it is more appropriate to refer to software as the brain
and the CPU as a very efficient calculator. A CPU is really good with
numbers, but if it wasn't for the software it wouldn't know how to
do anything else.
Note: Many new computer users may improperly call
their computerand sometimes their monitor the CPU. When
referring to your computer or monitor, it is proper to refer to them
as either the "computer" or "monitor" and not a CPU. The CPU is a
chip inside the computer.
southbridge
 The Southbridge is an IC on the motherboard responsible for the
hard controller, I/O controller and integrated hardware. Integrated
hardware can include the sound card and video card if on the
motherboard, USB, PCI, ISA, IDE, BIOS, and Ethernet.
 The Southbridge gets its name for commonly being south of the PCI bus.
Below is a graphic illustration of the ASUS P5AD2-E motherboard and some
basic explanations of each of the major portions of the motherboard
including the Southbridge. As shown in the picture below, it is common for
the Northbridge and Southbridge to have a heat sink; in addition, the
Northbridge is usually slightly larger than the Southbridge.
 Although the Southbridge handles most of the I/O devices, less
prominent input/output devices, such as a serial port, keyboard,
and non-USB mouse are handled by the SIO (super input/output).
Note: Some newer chipsets are combining the Southbridge and
Super I/O chips into a single chip and referring to this chip as
the Super Southbridge chip. Some manufacturers such
as NVIDIA and SiS have even combined the Northbridge,
Southbridge, and Super I/O into a single chip.
Note: New motherboards are replacing the Northbridge and the
Southbridge with IHA.

BIOS (basic input/output system)

 BIOS (basic input/output system) are the program a personal

computer's microprocessor uses to get the computer system started after
you turn it on. It also manages data flow between the computer's operating
 system and attached devices such as the hard disk, video
adapter,keyboard, mouse and printer.
 BIOS is an integral part of your computer and comes with it when you bring
it home. (In contrast, the operating system can either be pre-installed by the
manufacturer or vendor or installed by the user.) BIOS is a program that is
made accessible to the microprocessor on an erasable programmable read-
only memory (EPROM) chip. When you turn on your computer, the
microprocessor passes control to the BIOS program, which is always located
at the same place on EPROM.
 When BIOS boots up (starts up) your computer, it first determines whether
all of the attachments are in place and operational and then it loads the
operating system (or key parts of it) into your computer's random access
memory (RAM) from your hard disk or diskette drive.
 With BIOS, your operating system and its applications are freed from having
to understand exact details (such as hardware addresses) about the
attached input/output devices. When device details change, only the BIOS
program needs to be changed. Sometimes this change can be made during
your system setup. In any case, neither your operating system or any
applications you use need to be changed.
 Although BIOS is theoretically always the intermediary between the
microprocessor and I/O device control information and data flow, in some
cases, BIOS can arrange for data to flow directly to memory from devices
(such as video cards) that require faster data flow to be effective.
BIOS
 Stands for "Basic Input/Output System." Most people don't need to ever
mess with the BIOS on a computer, but it can be helpful to know what it is.
The BIOS is a program pre-installed on Windows-based computers (not on
Macs) that the computer uses to start up. The CPU accesses the BIOS even
before the operating system is loaded. The BIOS then checks all your
hardware connections and locates all your devices. If everything is OK, the
BIOS loads the operating system into the computer's memory and finishes
the boot-up process.
 Since the BIOS manages the hard drives, it can't reside on one, and since it is
available before the computer boots up, it can't live in the RAM. So where
can this amazing, yet elusive BIOS be found? It is actually located in the ROM
(Read-Only Memory) of the computer. More specifically, it resides in an
eraseable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) chip. So, as soon as
you turn your computer on, the CPU accesses the EPROM and gives control
to the BIOS.
 The BIOS also is used after the computer has booted up. It acts as an
intermediary between the CPU and the I/O (input/output) devices. Because
of the BIOS, your programs and your operating system don't have to know
 exact details (like hardware addresses) about the I/O devices attached to
your PC. When device details change, only the BIOS needs to be updated.
You can make these changes by entering the BIOS when your system starts
up. To access the BIOS, hold down the DELETE or F2 key as soon as your
computer begins to start up.

BIOS
 BIOS, which stands for Basic Input Output System, is software stored on a
small memory chip on the motherboard. You might need to access BIOS to
change how the device works or to assist in troubleshooting a problem.
 It's BIOS that's responsible for the POST and therefore makes it the very
first software to run when a computer is started.
 The BIOS firmware is non-volatile, meaning that its settings are saved and
recoverable even after power has been removed from the device.
 BIOS is pronounced as by-oss and is sometimes referred to as the System
BIOS, ROM BIOS, or PC BIOS. However, it's also incorrectly referred to as the
Basic Integrated Operating System or Built-In Operating System.
 A BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) Short for ROM is boot firmware
program that a computer uses to successfully start operating. The BIOS is
located on a chip inside of the computer and is designed in a way that
protects it from disk failure.
What Is the BIOS Used For?
 BIOS instructs the computer on how to perform a number of basic functions
such asbooting and keyboard control.
 BIOS is also used to identify and configure the hardware in a computer such
as thehard drive, floppy drive, optical drive, CPU, memory, etc.
How to Access BIOS
 The BIOS is accessed and configured through the BIOS Setup Utility. The
BIOS Setup Utility is, for all reasonable purposes, the BIOS itself. All
available options in BIOS are configurable via the BIOS Setup Utility.
 Unlike an operating system like Windows, which is often downloaded or
obtained on a disc, and needs to be installed by the user or manufacturer,
BIOS is pre-installed when the computer is purchased.
 The BIOS Setup Utility is accessed in various ways depending on your
computer or motherboard make and model.
BIOS Availability
 All modern computer motherboards contain BIOS software.
 BIOS access and configuration on PC systems is independent of any
operating system because the BIOS is part of the motherboard hardware. It
 doesn't matter if a computer is running Windows 10, Windows 8, Windows
7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, Linux, Unix, or no operating system at all—
BIOS functions outside of the operating system environment and is no way
dependent upon it.
Popular BIOS Manufacturers
 The following are some of the more popular BIOS vendors:
Phoenix Technologies
IBM
Dell
Gateway
BYOSOFT
American Megatrends (AMI)
Insyde Software
 Award Software, General Software, and Microid Research were BIOS
vendors that were acquired by Phoenix Technologies.
How to Use BIOS
 BIOS contain a number of hardware configuration options that can be
changed through the setup utility. Saving these changes and restarting the
computer applies the changes to the BIOS and alters the way BIOS instructs
the hardware to function.
 Here are some common things you can do in most BIOS systems:
Change the Boot Order
Load BIOS Setup Defaults
Remove a BIOS Password
Create a BIOS Password
Change the Date and Time
Change Floppy Drive Settings
Change Hard Drive Settings
Change CD/DVD/BD Drive Settings
View Amount of Memory Installed
Change the Boot Up Num Lock Status
Enable or Disable the Computer Logo
Enable or Disable the Quick Power On Self Test (POST)
Enable or Disable the CPU Internal Cache
Enable or Disable the Caching of BIOS
Change CPU Settings
Change Memory Settings
Change System Voltages
Enable or Disable RAID
Enable or Disable Onboard USB
Enable or Disable Onboard IEEE1394
Enable or Disable Onboard Audio
 Enable or Disable Onboard Floppy Controller
Enable or Disable Onboard Serial/Parallel Ports
Enable or Disable ACPI
Change the ACPI Suspend Type
Change the Power Button Function
Change Power-on Settings
Change Which Display is Initialized First on Multi-Display Setups
Reset Extended System Configuration Data (ESCD)
Enable or Disable BIOS Control of System Resources
Change Fan Speed Settings
View CPU and System Temperatures
View Fan Speeds
View System Voltages

More Information on BIOS

 Before updating BIOS, it's important to know what version is currently
running on your computer. There are multiple ways to do this, from
checking in the Windows Registry to installing a third-party program that
will display the BIOS version.
 When configuring updates, it's extremely important that the computer not
be shut down partway through or the update canceled abruptly. This could
brick the motherboard and render the computer unusable, making it
difficult to regain functionality.
 One way this is avoided is for BIOS to use what's called a "boot lock" section
of its software that gets updated on its own apart from the rest so that if
corruption is found, a recovery process can be undergone to prevent
damage.
 BIOS might check if the full update has been applied by verifying that
the check sum matches up with the intended value. If it doesn't, and the
motherboard supports Dual BIOS, that BIOS backup can be restored to
overwrite the corrupted version.
 The BIOS in some of the first IBM computers were not interactive like
modern-day BIOSes but instead only served to display error messages
or beeps codes. Any custom options were instead made by modifying
physical switches and jumpers.
 It wasn't until the 1990s that the BIOS Setup Utility (also known as the BIOS
Configuration Utility, or BCU) became common practice.
 However, nowadays, BIOS has slowly been being replaced by UEFI (Unified
Extensible Firmware Interface) in newer computers, which offers benefits
like a better user interface and a built-in, pre-OS platform for accessing the
web.
 BIOS
 A BIOS (Basic Input/output System) Short for ROM is boot firmware
program that a computer uses to successfully start operating. The BIOS is
located on a chip inside of the computer and is designed in a way that
protects it from disk failure.
 When you turn on a PC, the BIOS first conduct a basic hardware check,
called a Power-On Self Test (POST), to determine whether all of the
attachments are present and working. Then it loads the operating
system into your computer's random access memory, or RAM. The BIOS also
manages data flow between the computer's operating system and attached
devices such as the hard disk, video card, keyboard, mouse, and printer. The
BIOS stores the date, the time, and your system configuration information in
a battery-powered, non-volatile memory chip, called a CMOS
(Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) after its manufacturing
process. The main functions of the BIOS are:

Functions of BIOS
i. BIOS Power on Self Test (POST): It is a built-in diagnostic program. This self
test ensures that the computer has all of the necessary parts and functionality
needed to successfully start itself, such as use of memory, a keyboard and other
parts. Then additional tests are done during booting. If errors are detected
during the test, the BIOS instruct the computer to give a code that reveals the
problem. Error codes are typically a series of beeps heard shortly after startup.
 The BIOS also works to give the computer basic information about how to
interact with some critical components, such as drives and memory that it
will need to load the operating system. Once the basic instructions have
 been loaded and the self-test has been passed, the computer can proceed
with loading the operating system from one of the attached drives.
Computer users can often make certain adjustments to the BIOS through a
configuration screen on the computer. The setup screen is typically
accessed with a special key sequence during the first moments of startup.
This setup screen often allows users to change the order in which drives are
accessed during startup and control the functionality of a number of critical
devices. Features vary among individual BIOS versions.
 We can also use flash-memory cards to hold BIOS information. This allows
users to update the BIOS version on computers after a vendor releases an
update. This system was designed to solve problems with the original BIOS
or to add new functionality. Users can periodically check for updated BIOS
versions, as some vendors release a dozen or more updates over the course
of a product's lifetime. Mother board (System) BIOS, Video adapter
firmware (BIOS), Drive controller firmware (BIOS), Modem Card firmware
(BIOS), Network adapter board BIOS, SCSI adapter BIOS. The mother board
BIOS provides routines to support motherboard features. BIOS ROM chips
for major sub systems of computer such as video and drive control must
also be included.
 Actually BIOS can be placed in between the computer and external devices
as its name tells it is used for reading the keystroke, displaying values on
screen, Reading and writing to and from floppy and hard disks etc. 
 The keyboard is assigned the port number 60, which is known to BIOS. BIOS
read this port and data from keyboard goes to computer.

ii. Bootstrap Loader: To boot the operating system. The BIOS contains a program
known as bootstrap loader whose responsibility is to search and start the
operating system boot program. Then the boot program of operating system
controls the computer system and boots the operating system. 
iii. BIOS Setup Utility Program: A non volatile memory (NVRAM) is used to store
information about the computer system. During installation of a system, the
user run BIOS setup program and enter the correct parameters. The settings of
memory, disk types and other settings are stored in NVRAM and not in BIOS
chip itself. To construct NVRAM, the material required is CMOS
(Complementary metal oxide semiconductor). These CMOS chips are very
efficient storage devices as they store and maintain data on very low values of
current. The system's configurations therefore are also termed as CMOS
settings, which we can set using BIOS set up program. The BIOS reads the
parameters from CMOS RAM as and when required.
  CMOS settings can be maintained by battery backup either by using
capacitor or by a battery built into NVRAM chip. This chip also has system
clock. If there is no battery, the setting remains for short period of time and
we need to reset the system. With it there is loss of BIOS password which
protects BIOS set up program.
 To clear the CMOS RAM contents, two methods used are
1. By using clear CMOS jumper.
2. By holding down enter key during booting of the system.
 For Pentium III motherboards, different set ups are there in AMI BIOS.
These are:

 Standard CMOS Setup: It is used to set time date, hard disk type, type of
floppy drive, type of monitor and keyboard.
 Advanced CMOS Setup: It is used to set typematic rate and delay, above 1
MB memory test, memory test tick sound, Hil < Del> message display, system
boot up sequence etc.
 Advanced Chipset Setup: It is used to set features of chipset.
 Power Management Setup: It is used to control power conservation options.
 PCI/Plug and Play Setup: It is used to set options of PCI bus and that of plug
and play devices.
 Peripherals Setup: It is used to control options related to I/O controllers.
 CPU Configuration Setup: This setup is used to select the types of CPU
installed in the motherboard. In AMI BIOS, the settings are auto as it
automatically finds out the type of CPU in the computer system. 
3. System Service Routines: The BIOS provides various software routines
(subprograms) that can be called by higher-level software such, as DOS,
Windows, or their applications, to perform different tasks. Virtually
every task that involves accessing the system hardware has traditionally
been controlled using one or more of the BIOS programs (although many
newer operating systems now bypass the BIOS for improved
performance). This includes actions like reading and writing from the
hard disk, processing information received from devices, etc.
 BIOS services are accessed using software interrupts, which are similar to
the hardware interrupts except that they are generated inside the processor
by programs instead of being generated outside the processor by hardware
devices. One thing that this use of interrupts does is to allow access to the
BIOS without knowing where in memory each routine is located.
 Normally, to call a software routine you need to know its address. With
interrupts, a table called an interrupt vector table is used that bypasses this
problem. When the system is started up, the BIOS puts addresses into this
table that represent where its routines are located for each interrupt it
responds to. Then, when DOS or an application wants to use a BIOS routine,
it generates a software interrupt. The system processes the interrupt, looks
up the value in the table, and jumps to the BIOS routine automatically. DOS
itself and application programs can also use this interrupt vector table.
What is BUS? | Types of Computer Bus
 What is Computer Bus: The electrically conducting path along which data
is transmitted inside any digital electronic device. A Computer bus consists
of a set of parallel conductors, which may be conventional wires, copper
tracks on a PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD, or microscopic aluminum trails on
the surface of a silicon chip. Each wire carries just one bit, so the number of
wires determines the largest data WORD the bus can transmit: a bus with
eight wires can carry only 8-bit data words, and hence defines the device as
an 8-bit device.
 A computer bus normally has a single word memory circuit called a
LATCH attached to either end, which briefly stores the word being
transmitted and ensures that each bit has settled to its intended state before
its value is transmitted.
 The Computer bus helps the various parts of the PC communicate. If there was
no bus, you would have an unwieldy number of wires connecting every part
to every other part. It would be like having separate wiring for every light
bulb and socket in your house. 
Types of Computer Bus
 There are a variety of buses found inside the computer.
Data Bus: The data bus allows data to travel back and forth between
the microprocessor (CPU) and memory (RAM).
Address Bus: The address bus carries information about the location
of data in memory.
Control Bus : The control bus carries the control signals that make
sure everything is flowing smoothly from place to place.
Expansion Bus: If your computer has expansion slots, there's
an expansion bus. Messages and information pass between your
computer and the add-in boards you plug in over the expansion bus. 
 Although this is a bit confusing, these different buses are sometimes
together called simply "the bus." A user can think of the computer's "bus" as
one unit made up of three parts: data, address, and control, even though the
three electrical pathways do not run along each other (and therefore don't
really form a single "unit") within the computer. 
 There are different sizes, or widths of data buses found in computers today.
A data bus' width is measured by the number of bits that can travel on it at
once. The speed at which its bus can transmit words, that is, its bus
BANDWIDTH, crucially determines the speed of any digital device. One way
to make a bus faster is to increase its width;
 for example a 16-bit bus can transmit two 8-bit words at once, 'side-by-
side', and so carries 8-bit data twice as fast as an 8-bit bus can. A computer's
CPU will typically contain several buses, often of differing widths, that
connect its various subunits. It is common for modern CPUs to use on-chip
buses that are wider than the bus they use to communicate with external
devices such as memory, and the speed difference between on- and off-chip
operations must then be bridged by keeping a reservoir of temporary data
in a CACHE. For example many of the Pentium class of processors use 256
bits for their fastest on-chip buses, but only 64 bits for external links.
 An 8-bit bus carries data along 8 parallel lines. A 16-bit bus, also called ISA
(Industry Standard Architecture), carries data along 16 lines. A 32-bit bus,
classified as EISA (Enhanced Industry Standard Architecture) or MCA
(Micro Channel Architecture), can carry data along 32 lines.
 The speed at which buses conduct signals is measured in megahertz (Mhz).
Typical PCs today run at speeds between 20 and 65Mhz. Also see CPU,
Expansion Card, Memory, Motherboard, RAM, ROM, and System Unit.
How Does Computer Bus Work?
 A bus transfers electrical signals from one place to another. An actual bus
appears as an endless amount of etched copper circuits on the
motherboard's surface. The bus is connected to the CPU through the Bus
Interface Unit.
 Data travels between the CPU and memory along the data bus. The location
(address) of that data is carried along the address bus. A clock signal which
keeps everything in synch travels along the control bus.
 The clock acts like a traffic light for all the PC's components; the "green
light" goes on with each clock tick. A PC's clock can "tick" anywhere from 20
to 65 million times per second, which makes it seem like a computer is
really fast. But since each task (such as saving a file) is made up of several
programmed instructions, and each of those instructions takes several clock
cycles to carry out, a person sometimes has to sit and wait for the computer
to catch up.
What is Semiconductor Memory?
 A device for storing digital information that is fabricated by using integrated
circuit technology. Also known as integrated- circuit memory; large-scale
integrated memory; memory chip; semiconductor storage; transistor
memory.
 Semiconductor memory technology is an essential element of today's
electronics. Normally based around semiconductor technology, memory is
used in any equipment that uses a processor of one form or another. 
 With the rapid growth in the requirement for semiconductor memories
there have been a number of technologies and types of memory that have
emerged. Names such as ROM, RAM, EPROM, EEPROM, Flash memory,
DRAM, SRAM, SDRAM, and the very new MRAM can now be seen in the
electronics literature. Each one has its own advantages and area in which it
may be used. 
Types of semiconductor memory
 Electronic semiconductor memory technology can be split into two main
types or categories, according to the way in which the memory operates:
RAM - Random Access Memory
 Random Access Memory (RAM)is the best known form
of computer memory. The Read and write (R/W) memory of a computer is
called RAM. The User can write information to it and read information from
it.
 The RAM is a volatile memory, it means information written to it can be
accessed as long as power is on. As soon as the power is off, it can not be
accessed. so this mean RAM computer memory essentially empty.RAM
holds data and processing instructions temporarily until the CPU needs
it. Scratchpad storage in memory space is used for the temporary
storage of data.
ROM - Read Only Memory
 Read only memory (ROM) is an example of nonvolatile memory.  ROM is a
class of storage medium used in computers and other electronic devices.
Read Only Memory (ROM), also known as firmware, is an integrated
circuit programmedwith specific data when it is manufactured. The
instructions for starting the computer are housed on Read only memory
chips.
Semiconductor Memory Technologies
 There is a large variety of types of ROM and RAM that are available. These
arise from the variety of applications and also the number of technologies
available. This means that there is a large number of abbreviations or
acronyms and categories for memories ranging from Flash to MRAM, PROM
to EEPROM, and many more:  
 PROM:     This stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. It is
a semiconductor memory which can only have data written to it once -
the data written to it is permanent. These memories are bought in a blank
format and they are programmed using a special PROM programmer.
Typically a PROM will consist of an array of fuseable links some of which
 are "blown" during the programming process to provide the required data
pattern.
 The PROM stores its data as a charge on a capacitor. There is a charge
storage capacitor for each cell and this can be read repeatedly as required.
However it is found that after many years the charge may leak away and
the data may be lost. Nevertheless, this type of semiconductor memory used
to be widely used in applications where a form of ROM was required, but
where the data needed to be changed periodically, as in a development
environment, or where quantities were low.
 EPROM: This is an Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. This
form of semiconductor memory can be programmed and then erased at a
later time. This is normally achieved by exposing the silicon to ultraviolet
light. To enable this to happen there is a circular window in the package of
the EPROM to enable the light to reach the silicon of the chip. When the
PROM is in use, this window is normally covered by a label, especially when
the data may need to be preserved for an extended period.
 EEPROM: This is an Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory. Data can be written to it and it can beerased using an electrical
voltage. This is typically applied to an erase pin on the chip. Like other
types of PROM, EEPROM retains the contents of the memory even when the
power is turned off. Also like other types of ROM, EEPROM is not as fast as
RAM. 
EEPROM memory cells are made from floating-gate  MOSFETS (known
as FGMOS)
 Flash memory: Flash memory may be considered as a development
of EEPROM technology. Data can be written to it and it can be erased,
although only in blocks, but data can be read on an individual cell basis. To
erase and re-programme areas of the chip, programming voltages at levels
that are available within electronic equipment are used. It is also non-
volatile, and this makes it particularly useful. As a result Flash memory is
widely used in many applications including memory cards for digital
cameras, mobile phones, computer memory sticks and many other
applications.
 Flash memory stores data in an array of memory cells. The memory cells
are made from floating-gate MOSFETS (known as FGMOS). These FG
MOSFETs (or FGMOS in short) have the ability to store an electrical charge
for extended periods of time (2 to 10 years) even without a connecting to a
power supply.
 DRAM: Dynamic RAM is a form of random access memory. DRAM uses
a capacitor to store each bit of data, and the level of charge on each
capacitor determines whether that bit is a logical 1 or 0. However these
capacitors do not hold their charge indefinitely, and therefore the
 data needs to be refreshed periodically. As a result of this dynamic
refreshing it gains its name of being a dynamic RAM. DRAM is the form
of semiconductor memory that is often used in equipment
including personal computers and workstations where it forms the main
RAM for the computer.  
Disadvantage: Need to refresh the capacitor charge every once in two
milliseconds
 SRAM: Static Random Access Memory. This form of semiconductor
memory gains its name from the fact that, unlike DRAM, the data does not
need to be refreshed dynamically. It is able to support faster read and
write times than DRAM (typically 10 ns against 60 ns for DRAM), and in
addition its cycle time is much shorter because it does not need to pause
between accesses. However it consumes more power, is less dense and
more expensive than DRAM. As a result of this it is normally used for caches,
while DRAM is used as the main semiconductor memory technology. 
 SDRAM: Synchronous DRAM. This form of semiconductor memory can run
at faster speeds than conventional DRAM. It is synchronised to the clock of
the processor and is capable of keeping two sets of memory
addresses open simultaneously. By transferring data alternately from
one set of addresses, and then the other, SDRAM cuts down on the delays
associated with non-synchronous RAM, which must close one address bank
before opening the next. 
 MRAM: This is Magneto-resistive RAM, or Magnetic RAM. It is a non-
volatile RAM memory technology that usesmagnetic charges to store
data instead of electric charges. Unlike technologies including DRAM, which
require a constant flow of electricity to maintain the integrity of the data,
MRAM retains data even when the power is removed. An additional
advantage is that it only requires low power for active operation. As a result
this technology could become a major player in the electronics industry now
that production processes have been developed to enable it to be produced.
What is Primary Memory?
 Primary memory is also known as main memory or may also refer to
"Internal memory." and primary storage. All those types
of computer memories that are directly accessed by the processor using
data bus are called primary memory. That allows a processor to access
stores running programs and currently processed data that stored in a
memory location.
 The use of memories is therefore mandatory in all systems using
a microprocessor, including computers.  An example of Primary memory is
RAM and ROM that store programs. These memories are limited in capacity
and manufactured by using integrated circuits (IC) or semiconductor device.
 Its speed of Data accessing is faster than secondary memory. It is more 
expensive than secondary memory.
 When you turn on the computer, Generally CPU searches for essential codes
in RAM to get it. Otherwise, it goes to ROM. Yes, they both chips collectively
called primary memory in a computer system.

Types of Primary Memory

RAM (Random Access Memory)
 The Word “RAM” stands for “random access memory” or may also refer to
short-term memory. It’s called “random” because you can read store data
randomly at any time and from any physical location. It is a temporal
storage memory. RAM is volatile that only retains all the data as long as the
computer powered. It is the fastest type of memory. RAM stores the
currently processed data from the CPU and sends them to the graphics unit.
There are generally two broad subcategories of RAM :
 Static RAM: Static RAM is the form of RAM and made with flipflops and
used for primary storage are volatile. It retains data in latch as long as the
computer powered. SRAM is more expensive and consumes more power
than DRAM. It used as Cache Memory in a computer system. As technically,
SRAM uses more transistors as compared to DRAM. It is faster compared to
DRAM due to the latching arrangement, and they use 6 transistors per data
bit as compared to DRAM, which uses one transistor per bit.
 Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM): It is another form of RAM
used as Main Memory, its retains information in Capacitors for a short
period (a few milliseconds) even though the computer powered. The Data is
Refreshed Periodically to maintain in it. The DRAM is cheaper, but it can
 store much more information. Moreover, it is also slower and consumes less
power than SRAM.
ROM  (Read Only Memory)
 ROM is the long-term internal memory. ROM is “Non-Volatile Memory” that
retains data without the flow of electricity. ROM is an essential chip with
permanently written data or programs. It is similar to the RAM that is
accessed by the CPU. ROM comes with pre-written by the computer
manufacturer to hold the instructions for booting-up the computer.
There is generally three broad type of ROM:
 PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): PROM stands for
programmable ROM. It can be programmed only be done once and read
many. Unlike ROM, PROMs retain their contents without the flow of
electricity. PROM is also nonvolatile memory. The significant difference
between a ROM and a PROM is that a ROM comes with pre-written by the
computer manufacturer whereas PROM manufactured as blank memory.
PROM can be programmed by PROM burner and by blowing internal fuses
permanently.
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): EPROM is
pronounced ee-prom. This memory type retains its contents until it exposed
to intense ultraviolet light that clears its contents, making it possible to
reprogram the memory.
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory):
EEPROM can be burned (programmed) and erased by first electrical waves
in a millisecond. A single byte of a data or the entire contents of device can
be erased. To write or erase this memory type, you need a device called a
PROM burner.
What is Non-Volatile Random Access Memory (NVRAM)?
 NVRAM stands for Non-Volatile Random Access Memory. It is a kind of
RAM that can store the data even when there is no power. Ex:- Flash
memory is a kind of NVRAM.
 NVRAM is opposite to DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory) and SRAM
(Static Random Access Memory) as they both can maintain data only when
there is the continuous power supply. NVRAM is present in our
monitors, printers, cars etc.
Types of NVRAM
 A lot of NVRAMs are available. Some of these explained below:
Flash memory
 It is a form of non-volatile RAM. It replaces the battery-powered static RAM.
Flash memory provides CMOS storage. It is more reliable.
Magneto resistive RAM (MRAM)
 It replaces flash memory. It can perform an infinite number of reading and
write cycles. It makes use of magnetic elements.
 Ferroelectric RAM (FeRAM)
 It is a type of NVRAM that can store information in the capacitor in the form
of voltage. It is similar in construction to the DRAM (Dynamic Random
Access Memory).
SRAM
 It also retains data after the power is switched off, but it requires an
alternative source of power like a battery. SRAM is used to
store computer hardware settings, which we are required for maintenance
when the computer is shut down. Ex:- BIOS settings, PRAM settings
EEPROM
 EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory.
It also maintains data even when the power is switched off, but it stores
data using electrical charges. EEPROM makes use of floating-gate transistors
for storage of data.
Advantages of NVRAM
1. NVRAM has no moving parts, i.e., why it is always faster than the volatile
memory.
2. Also, there is less requirement of power in NVRAM as it has no moving
parts.
3. The performance of NVRAM is excellent.
4. NVRAM support applications which require quick need or write
operations by using non-volatile memories.
Disadvantages of NVRAM
1. As the information is re-written, so it gets deteriorate and subsequently
no longer work.
2. NVRAM which requires a battery to work, they will need to change the
battery.

What is Boot? How does it Work?

 To boot or boot up means to start your computer system, usually
by turning on the power and/or pushing the "on" button. It's called
"booting" because the computer is going inside itself and turning itself on
(doing a lot of preliminary checking and adjusting before it's ready to run
your programs). Hence the machine is considered to be "pulling itself up
by its own bootstraps."
 When the computer is first turned on or restarted, it reads the startup
instructions found in the ROM BIOS chips. These instructions tell the
computer to check the system over (a series of tests called the POST).
Certain information (such as the amount of memory and the number and
type of disk drives) about the PC is stored in a special chip called CMOS, and
that information is also verified during boot. The last thing that happens
during boot is the loading of the operating system, which is found on the
 hard disk drive or on a floppy disk in drive A. The computer cannot do
anything without first loading an operating system into memory, because
it's the operating system that manages all of the computer's basic functions. 
 Information in the operating system files continues the booting process.
During a PC boot, the CONFIG.SYS file is located, and its instructions are
executed. The CONFIG.SYS is a special file that fine-tunes the PC,
customizing it so it can access optional peripherals (such as the mouse or
the modem) and unused areas in memory. Next, the AUTO EXECBAT file is
located, and its instructions are executed. The AUTOEXEC BAT file contains
commands (such as those to start a particular program or change the
prompt) that the user wants run at boot. Once the startup files have been
found and executed, the computer is fully booted and ready to go.
How Does it Work
 DOS is made up of three parts: IO.SYS, MSDOS.SYS, and COMMAND.COM.
IO.SYS works with ROM BIOS to control the computer's input/output
functions; MSDOS.SYS(sometimes called the kernel) manages files, runs
programs, and performs basic system functions; COMMAND. COM performs
all the DOS commands. In addition,
 COMMAND.COM functions as the overall "manager" for the computer.
During the boot process, the three parts of the operating system are loaded
into memory one at a time. After IO.SYS is loaded, it checks to see if all the
system components are responding properly. MSDOS.SYS is loaded next so
it can perform the commands in the CONFIG.SYS (a special configuration
file). COMMAND.COM is loaded last and is kept in memory so that DOS
commands (such as COPY) can be executed when needed. COMMAND.COM
then executes the commands in AUTOEXEC.BAT, which completes the boot
process.