Periods of Human Development

Think about the lifespan and make a list of what you would consider the basic periods of
development. How many periods or stages are on your list? Perhaps you have three:
childhood, adulthood, and old age. Or maybe four: infancy, childhood, adolescence, and
adulthood. Developmentalists often break the lifespan into eight stages:
1. Prenatal Development
2. Infancy and Toddlerhood
3. Early Childhood
4. Middle Childhood
5. Adolescence
6. Early Adulthood
7. Middle Adulthood
8. Late Adulthood
In addition, the topic of “Death and Dying” is usually addressed after late adulthood since
overall, the likelihood of dying increases in later life (though individual and group variations
exist). Death and dying will be the topic of our last module, though it is not necessarily a
stage of development that occurs at a particular age.

The list of the periods of development reflects unique aspects of the various stages of
childhood and adulthood that will be explored in this book, including physical, cognitive, and
psychosocial changes. So while both an 8-month-old and an 8-year-old are considered
children, they have very different motor abilities, cognitive skills, and social
relationships. Their nutritional needs are different, and their primary psychological concerns
are also distinctive. The same is true of an 18-year-old and an 80-year-old, both considered
adults. We will discover the distinctions between being 28 or 48 as well. But first, here is a
brief overview of the stages.
Prenatal Development
Conception occurs and development begins. There are three stages of prenatal development:
germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods. All of the major structures of the body are forming
and the health of the mother is of primary concern. There are various approaches to labor,
delivery, and childbirth, with potential complications of pregnancy and delivery, as well as
risks and complications with newborns, but also advances in tests, technology, and medicine.
The influences of nature (e.g., genetics) and nurture (e.g., nutrition and teratogens, which are
environmental factors during pregnancy that can lead to birth defects) are evident.
Evolutionary psychology, along with studies of twins and adoptions, help us understand the
interplay of factors and the relative influences of nature and nurture on human development.

Infancy and Toddlerhood

The first year and a half to two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and change. A
newborn, with many involuntary reflexes and a keen sense of hearing but poor vision, is
transformed into a walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of
time. Caregivers similarly transform their roles from those who manage feeding and sleep
schedules to constantly moving guides and safety inspectors for mobile, energetic children.
Brain development happens at a remarkable rate, as does physical growth and language
development. Infants have their own temperaments and approaches to play. Interactions with
primary caregivers (and others) undergo changes influenced by possible separation anxiety
and the development of attachment styles. Social and cultural issues center around
breastfeeding or formula-feeding, sleeping in cribs or in the bed with parents, toilet training,
and whether or not to get vaccinations.
Early Childhood
Early childhood is also referred to as the preschool years, consisting of the years that follow
toddlerhood and precede formal schooling, roughly from around ages 2 to 5 or 6. As a
preschooler, the child is busy learning language (with amazing growth in vocabulary), is
gaining a sense of self and greater independence, and is beginning to learn the workings of
the physical world. This knowledge does not come quickly, however, and preschoolers
may initially have interesting conceptions of size, time, space and distance, such as
demonstrating how long something will take by holding out their two index fingers several
inches apart. A toddler’s fierce determination to do something may give way to a four-year-
old’s sense of guilt for doing something that brings the disapproval of others.
Middle Childhood
The ages of 6-11 comprise middle childhood and much of what children experience at this
age is connected to their involvement in the early grades of school. Now the world becomes
one of learning and testing new academic skills and assessing one’s abilities and
accomplishments by making comparisons between self and others. Schools participate in this
process by comparing students and making these comparisons public through team sports,
test scores, and other forms of recognition. The brain reaches its adult size around age seven,
but it continues to develop. Growth rates slow down and children are able to refine their
motor skills at this point in life. Children also begin to learn about social relationships beyond
the family through interaction with friends and fellow students; same-sex friendships are
particularly salient during this period.
Adolescence

Figure 8. Adolescence, or the age roughly between 12-18, is marked by puberty and sexual
maturation, accompanied by major socioemotional changes.
Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall physical growth
spurt and sexual maturation, known as puberty; timing may vary by gender, cohort, and
culture. It is also a time of cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think of new
possibilities and to consider abstract concepts such as love, fear, and freedom. Ironically,
adolescents have a sense of invincibility that puts them at greater risk of dying from accidents
or contracting sexually transmitted infections that can have lifelong consequences. Research
on brain development helps us understand teen risk-taking and impulsive behavior. A major
developmental task during adolescence involves establishing one’s own identity. Teens
typically struggle to become more independent from their parents. Peers become more
important, as teens strive for a sense of belonging and acceptance; mixed-sex peer groups
become more common. New roles and responsibilities are explored, which may involve
dating, driving, taking on a part-time job, and planning for future academics.

Early Adulthood
Late teens, twenties, and thirties are often thought of as early adulthood (students who are in
their mid to late 30s may love to hear that they are young adults!). It is a time when we are at
our physiological peak but are most at risk for involvement in violent crimes and substance
abuse. It is a time of focusing on the future and putting a lot of energy into making choices
that will help one earn the status of a full adult in the eyes of others. Love and work are the
primary concerns at this stage of life. In recent decades, it has been noted (in the U.S. and
other developed countries) that young adults are taking longer to “grow up.” They are waiting
longer to move out of their parents’ homes, finish their formal education, take on
work/careers, get married, and have children. One psychologist, Jeffrey Arnett, has proposed
that there is a new stage of development after adolescence and before early adulthood, called
“emerging adulthood,” from 18 to 25 (or even 29) when individuals are still exploring their
identities and don’t quite feel like adults yet. Cohort, culture, time in history, the economy,
and socioeconomic status may be key factors in when youth take on adult roles.
Middle Adulthood
The late thirties (or age 40) through the mid-60s are referred to as middle adulthood. This is a
period in which physiological aging that began earlier becomes more noticeable and a period
at which many people are at their peak of productivity in love and work. It may be a period of
gaining expertise in certain fields and being able to understand problems and find solutions
with greater efficiency than before. It can also be a time of becoming more realistic about
possibilities in life; of recognizing the difference between what is possible and what is likely.
Referred to as the sandwich generation, middle-aged adults may be in the middle of taking
care of their children and also taking care of their aging parents. While caring about others
and the future, middle-aged adults may also be questioning their own mortality, goals, and
commitments, though not necessarily experiencing a “mid-life crisis.”
In 1964, researchers and filmmakers began a fascinating and landmark documentary series
known as the UP Series. The UK-based Granada’s World in Action team, inspired by the
Jesuit maxim, “Give me the child until he is seven and I will give you the man,” interviewed
a diverse group of seven-year-old children from all over England. In the first film, called
“Seven Up!,” they asked seven-year-old children about their lives, dreams, and fears for the
future. Michael Apted, a researcher for the original film, has returned to interview these
individuals every seven years since then, at ages 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49, 56 and now at age 63. 
This video gives a nice overview of the series (through the lens of a film analysis of what
makes it so successful and engaging). You can watch the Up Series on YouTube.
Late Adulthood
This period of the lifespan, late adulthood, has increased in the last 100 years, particularly in
industrialized countries, as average life expectancy has increased. Late adulthood covers a
wide age range with a lot of variation, so it is helpful to divide it into categories such as the
“young old” (65-74 years old), “old old” (75-84 years old), and “oldest old” (85+ years
old). The young old are similar to middle-aged adults; possibly still working, married,
relatively healthy, and active. The old old have some health problems and challenges with
daily living activities; the oldest old are often frail and in need of long term care. However,
many factors are involved and a better way to appreciate the diversity of older adults is to go
beyond chronological age and examine whether a person is experiencing optimal aging (like
the gentleman pictured in Figure 8 who is in very good health for his age and continues to
have an active, stimulating life), normal aging (in which the changes are similar to most of
those of the same age), or impaired aging (referring to someone who has more physical
challenge and disease than others of the same age).

Death and Dying

The study of death and dying is seldom given the amount of coverage it deserves. Of course,
there is a certain discomfort in thinking about death, but there is also a certain confidence and
acceptance that can come from studying death and dying. Factors such as age, religion, and
culture play important roles in attitudes and approaches to death and dying. There are
different types of death: physiological, psychological, and social. The most common causes
of death vary with age, gender, race, culture, and time in history. Dying and grieving are
processes and may share certain stages of reactions to loss. There are interesting examples of
cultural variations in death rituals, mourning, and grief. The concept of a “good death” is
described as including personal choices and the involvement of loved ones throughout the
process. Palliative care is an approach to maintain dying individuals’ comfort level, and
hospice is a movement and practice that involves professional and volunteer care and loved
ones. Controversy surrounds euthanasia (helping a person fulfill their wish to die)—active
and passive types, as well as physician-assisted suicide, and legality varies within the United
States. 
What are Learning Theories?
So what are educational learning theories and how can we use them in our teaching practice?
There are so many out there, how do we know which are still relevant and which will work
for our classes?
There are 3 main schema’s of learning theories; Behaviourism, Cognitivism and
Constructivism. In this article you will find a breakdown of each one and an
explanation of the 15 most influential learning theories;
from Vygotsky to Piaget and Bloom to Maslow and Bruner.
By Paul Stevens-Fulbrook.
Swimming through treacle!
That’s what it feels like when you are trying to sort through and make sense of the vast
amount of learning theories we have at our disposal.
Way back in ancient Greece, the philosopher, Plato, first pondered the question “How does
an individual learn something new if the subject itself is new to them” (ok, so I’m
paraphrasing, my ancient Greek isn’t very good!).
Since Plato, many theorists have emerged, all with their different take on how students
learn. Learning theories are a set of principles that explain how best a student can
acquire, retain and recall new information.
The Definitive Guide to Bloom's Taxonomy.
In this complete summary, we will look at the work of the following learning theorists.
Despite the fact there are so many educational theorists, there are three labels that they all fall
under. Behaviourism, Cognitivism and Constructivism.
Behaviourism.
Behaviourism is based on the idea that knowledge is independent and on the exterior of the
learner. In a behaviourist’s mind, the learner is a blank slate that should be provided with the
information to be learnt.
Through this interaction, new associations are made and thus learning occurs. Learning is
achieved when the provided stimulus changes behaviour. A non-educational example of this
is the work done by Pavlov.
Through his famous “salivating dog” experiment, Pavlov showed that a stimulus (in this case
ringing a bell every time he fed the dog) caused the dog to eventually start salivating when he
heard a bell ring.
The dog associated the bell ring with being provided with food so any time a bell was rung
the dog started salivating, it had learnt that the noise was a precursor to being fed.
I use a similar approach to classroom management.
I have taught my students that if I stand in a specific place in the classroom with my arms
folded, they know that I’m getting frustrated with the level of noise and they start to quieten
down or if I sit cross-legged on my desk, I’m about to say something important, supportive
and they should listen because it affects them directly.
Behaviourism involves repeated actions, verbal reinforcement and incentives to take part. It is
great for establishing rules, especially for behaviour management.
Cognitivism.
In contrast to behaviourism, cognitivism focuses on the idea that students process information
they receive rather than just responding to a stimulus, as with behaviourism.
There is still a behaviour change evident, but this is in response to thinking and processing
information.
Cognitive theories were developed in the early 1900s in Germany from Gestalt
psychology by Wolfgang Kohler. In English, Gestalt roughly translates to the organisation of
something as a whole, that is viewed as more than the sum of its individual parts.
Cognitivism has given rise to many evidence based education theories, including cognitive
load theory, schema theory and dual coding theory as well as being the basis for retrieval
practice.
In cognitivism theory, learning occurs when the student reorganises information, either by
finding new explanations or adapting old ones.
This is viewed as a change in knowledge and is stored in the memory rather than just being
viewed as a change in behaviour. Cognitive learning theories are mainly attributed to Jean
Piaget.
Examples of how teachers can include cognitivism in their classroom include linking
concepts together, linking concepts to real-world examples, discussions and problem-solving.
5 Types of Questions in the Classroom We Should be Asking More.

Constructivism.
Constructivism is based on the premise that we construct learning new ideas based on our
own prior knowledge and experiences. Learning, therefore, is unique to the individual
learner. Students adapt their models of understanding either by reflecting on prior theories or
resolving misconceptions.
Students need to have a prior base of knowledge for constructivist approaches to be
effective. Bruner’s spiral curriculum (see below) is a great example of constructivism in
action.
As students are constructing their own knowledge base, outcomes cannot always be
anticipated, therefore, the teacher should check and challenge misconceptions that may have
arisen. When consistent outcomes are required, a constructivist approach may not be the ideal
theory to use.
Examples of constructivism in the classroom include problem-based learning, research
and creative projects and group collaborations.

1. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development.

Jean Piaget
Piaget is an interesting character in Psychology. His theory of learning differs from many
others in some important ways:
First, he focuses exclusively on children; Second, he talks
about development (not learning per se) and Third, it’s a stage theory, not a linear
progression theory. OK, so what’s he on about?
Well, there are some basic ideas to get your head around and some stages to understand too.
The basic ideas are:
 Schemas: The building blocks of knowledge.
 Adaptation processes: These allow the transition from one stage to another. He
called these: Equilibrium, Assimilation and Accommodation.
 Stages of Cognitive development: Sensorimotor; Preoperational; Concrete
Operational; Formal Operational.
So here’s how it goes. Children develop Schemas of knowledge about the world. These are
clusters of connected ideas about things in the real world that allow the child to respond
accordingly.
When the child has developed a working Schema that can explain what they perceive in the
world, that Schema is in a state of Equilibrium.
When the child uses the schema to deal with a new thing or situation, that Schema is
in Assimilation and Accommodation happens when the existing Schema isn’t up to the job
of explaining what’s going on and needs to be changed.
Once it’s changed, it returns to Equilibrium and life goes on. Learning is, therefore, a
constant cycle of Assimilation; Accommodation; Equilibrium; Assimilation and so on…
All that goes through the 4 Stages of Cognitive Development, which are defined by age:
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development.
The Sensorimotor Stage runs from birth to 2 years and the child spends their time learning
basic Schemas and Object Permanence (the idea that something still exists when you can’t
see it).
The Preoperational Stage runs from 2 years to 7 years and the child develops more Schemas
and the ability to think Symbolically (the idea that one thing can stand for another; words for
example, or objects). At this point, children still struggle with Theory of Mind (Empathy) and
can’t really get their head around the viewpoints of others.
The Concrete Operational Stage runs from 7 years to 11 years and this is the Stage when
children start to work things out in their head rather than physically in the real world. They
also develop the ability to Conserve (understand that something stays the same quantity even
if it looks different).  
The Formal Operational Stage runs from 11 years into adulthood and this is where abstract
thought develops, as does logic and cool stuff like hypothesis testing.
According to Piaget, the whole process is active and requires the rediscovery and
reconstructing of knowledge across the entire process of Stages.
Understanding the Stage a child is in informs what they should be presented with based on
what they can and cannot do at the Stage they’re in.
Piaget’s work on cognitivism has given rise to some brilliant work from people like John
Sweller who developed the fantastic Cognitive Load Theory and John Flavell’s work
on metacognition
2. Vygotsky’s Theory of Learning.

Lev Vygotsky
Vygotsky takes a different approach to Piaget’s idea that development precedes learning.
Instead, he reckons that social learning is an integral part of cognitive development and it is
culture, not developmental Stage that underlies cognitive development. Because of that, he
argues that learning varies across cultures rather than being a universal process driven by the
kind of structures and processes put forward by Piaget.
Zone of Proximal Development.
He makes a big deal of the idea of the Zone of Proximal Development in which children
and those they are learning from co-construct knowledge. Therefore, the social environment
in which children learn has a massive impact on how they think and what they think about.
They also differ in how they view language. For Piaget, thought drives language but for
Vygotsky, language and thought become intertwined at about 3 years and become a sort of
internal dialogue for understanding the world.
And where do they get that from? Their social environment of course, which contains all the
cognitive/linguistic skills and tools to understand the world.
Vygotsky talks about Elementary Mental Functions, by which he means the basic cognitive
processes of Attention, Sensation, Perception and Memory.
By using those basic tools in interactions with their sociocultural environment, children sort
of improve them using whatever their culture provides to do so. In the case of Memory, for
example, Western cultures tend towards note-taking, mind-maps or mnemonics whereas other
cultures may use different Memory tools like storytelling.
In this way, a cultural variation of learning can be described quite nicely.
What are crucial in this learning theory are the ideas of Scaffolding, the Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD) and the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). Here’s how all that
works:
More Knowledgeable Other.
The MKO can be (but doesn’t have to be) a person who literally knows more than the child.
Working collaboratively, the child and the MKO operate in the ZPD, which is the bit of
learning that the child can’t do on their own.
As the child develops, the ZPD gets bigger because they can do more on their own and the
process of enlarging the ZPD is called Scaffolding.

Vygotsky Scaffolding.
Knowing where that scaffold should be set is massively important and it’s the MKO’s job to
do that so that the child can work independently AND learn collaboratively.
For Vygotsky, language is at the heart of all this because a) it’s the primary means by which
the MKO and the child communicate ideas and b) internalising it is enormously powerful in
cementing understanding about the world.
That internalisation of speech becomes Private Speech (the child’s “inner voice”) and is
distinct from Social Speech, which occurs between people.
Over time, Social Speech becomes Private Speech and Hey Presto! That’s Learning because
the child is now collaborating with themselves!
The bottom line here is that the richer the sociocultural environment, the more tools will be
available to the child in the ZPD and the more Social Speech they will internalise as Private
Speech. It doesn’t take a genius to work out, therefore, that the learning environment and
interactions are everything.
Scaffolding is also an integral part of Rosenshine’s Principles of Instruction.
3. Bloom’s Domains of Learning.
Benjamin Bloom
In 1956, American educational psychologist, Benjamin Bloom, first proposed three domains
of learning; cognitive, affective and psycho-motor. Bloom worked in collaboration with
David Krathwohl and Anne Harrow throughout the 1950s-70s on the three domains.
The Cognitive Domain (Bloom’s Taxonomy).
This was the first domain to be proposed in 1956 and it focuses on the idea that objectives
that are related to cognition could be divided into subdivisions and ranked in order of
cognitive difficulty.
These ranked subdivisions are what we commonly refer to as Bloom’s taxonomy. The
original subdivisions are as follows (knowledge is the lowest with evaluation being the most
cognitively difficult):
1. Knowledge
2. Understanding
3. Application
4. Analysis
5. Synthesis
6. Evaluation
However, there was a major revision of the subdivisions in 2000-01 by Bloom’s original
partner, David Krathwohl and his colleague, Lorin Anderson (Anderson was a former student
of Bloom’s).
The highlights of this revision were switching names of the subdivisions from nouns to verbs,
thus making them easier to use when curriculum and lesson planning.
The other main change was the order of the top two subdivisions was reversed. The updated
taxonomy is as follows:
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The Affective Domain.
The affective domain (sometimes referred to as the feeling domain) is concerned with
feelings and emotions and also divides objectives into hierarchical subcategories. It was
proposed by Krathwohl and Bloom in 1964.
The affective domain is not usually used when planning for maths and sciences as feelings
and emotion are not relevant for those subjects. However, for educators of arts and language,
the inclusion of the affective domain is imperative wherever possible.
The ranked domain subcategories range from “receiving” at the lower end up to
“characterisation” at the top. The full ranked list is as follows:
1. Receiving. Being aware of an external stimulus (feel, sense, experience).
2. Responding. Responding to the external stimulus (satisfaction, enjoyment,
contribute)
3. Valuing. Referring to the student’s belief or appropriation of worth (showing
preference or respect).
4. Organisation. The conceptualising and organising of values (examine, clarify,
integrate.)
5. Characterisation. The ability to practice and act on their values. (Review, conclude,
judge).
SaveI’m Paul Stevens-Fulbrook, I blog about education, teaching, classroom
management, edtech, behaviour management and teacher tips.Published byTeacherOfSci
The Psychomotor Domain.
The psychomotor domain refers to those objectives that are specific to reflex actions
interpretive movements and discreet physical functions.
A common misconception is that physical objectives that support cognitive learning fit the
psycho-motor label, for example; dissecting a heart and then drawing it.
While these are physical (kinesthetic) actions, they are a vector for cognitive learning, not
psycho-motor learning.
Psychomotor learning refers to how we use our bodies and senses to interact with the world
around us, such as learning how to move our bodies in dance or gymnastics.
Anita Harrow classified different types of learning in the psycho-motor domain from those
that are reflex to those that are more complex and require precise control.
1. Reflex movements. These movements are those that we possess from birth or appear
as we go through puberty. They are automatic, that is they do not require us to actively
think about them e.g. breathing, opening and closing our pupils or shivering when cold.
2. Fundamental movements. These are those actions that are the basic movements,
running, jumping, walking etc and commonly form part of more complex actions such as
playing a sport.
3. Perceptual abilities. This set of abilities features those that allow us to sense the
world around us and coordinate our movements in order to interact with our environment.
They include visual, audio and tactile actions.
4. Physical abilities. These abilities refer to those involved with strength, endurance,
dexterity and flexibility etc.
5. Skilled movements. Objectives set in this area are those that include movements
learned for sport (twisting the body in high diving or trampolining), dance or playing a
musical instrument (placing fingers on guitar strings to produce the correct note). It is
these movements that we sometimes use the layman’s term “muscle memory”.
6. Non-discursive communication. Meaning communication without writing, non-
discursive communication refers to physical actions such as facial expressions, posture
and gestures.

4. Gagné’s Conditions of Learning.

Robert Mills Gagné

Robert Mills Gagné was an American educational psychologist who, in 1965 published his
book “The Conditions of Learning”. In it, he discusses the analysis of learning objectives and
how the different classes of objective require specific teaching methods.
He called these his 5 conditions of learning, all of which fall under the cognitive, affective
and psycho-motor domains discussed earlier.
Gagné’s 5 Conditions of Learning.
 Verbal information (Cognitive domain)
 Intellectual skills (Cognitive domain)
 Cognitive strategies (Cognitive domain)
 Motor skills (Psycho-Motor domain)
 Attitudes (Affective domain)
Gagné’s 9 Levels of Learning.
To achieve his five conditions of learning, Gagné believed that learning would take place
when students progress through nine levels of learning and that any teaching session should
include a sequence of events through all nine levels. The idea was that the nine levels of
learning activate the five conditions of learning and thus, learning will be achieved.
1. Gain attention.
2. Inform students of the objective.
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning.
4. Present the content.
5. Provide learning guidance.
6. Elicit performance (practice).
7. Provide feedback.
8. Assess performance.
9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job.
Benefits of Gagné’s Theory.
Used in conjunction with Bloom’s taxonomy, Gagné’s nine levels of learning provide a
framework that teachers can use to plan lessons and topics. Bloom provides the ability to set
objectives that are differentiated and Gagné gives a scaffold to build your lesson on.
“Evidence Based Practice in Education” by Paul Stevens-Fulbrook, expertly and simply
guides you through Rosenshine’s Principles on Instruction, Dual Coding Theory, Cognitive
Load Theory and Metacognition.
Get it FREE with the Kindle unlimited free trial!
Affiliate.
5. Jerome Bruner.
Jerome Bruner
Bruner’s Spiral Curriculum (1960).
Cognitive learning theorist, Jerome Bruner based the spiral curriculum on his idea that “We
begin with the hypothesis that any subject can be taught in some intellectually honest form
to any child at any stage of development”.
In other words, he meant that even very complex topics can be taught to young children if
structured and presented in the right way. The spiral curriculum is based on three key ideas.
1. Students revisit the same topic multiple times throughout their school career. This
reinforces the learning each time they return to the subject.
2. The complexity of the topic increases each time a student revisits it. This allows
progression through the subject matter as the child’s cognitive ability develops with age.
3. When a student returns to a topic, new ideas are linked with ones they have previously
learned. The student’s familiarity with the keywords and ideas enables them to grasp the
more difficult elements of the topic in a stronger way.
Bruner’s 3 Modes of Representation (1966).
Following the idea of the spiral curriculum, Bruner presented the idea of three modes of
representation. These modes of representation refer to the way knowledge is stored in
memory. Unlike Piaget’s age-related stages, Bruner’s modes are loosely sequential.
1. Enactive (age 0-1 years). Representation of knowledge through physical actions.
2. Iconic (age 1-6 years). Visual representation of knowledge stored via visual images.
3. Symbolic (age 7+ years). The use of words and symbols to describe experiences.
Read (and watch the 10 videos) The New Teacher Mega Guide. for brilliant guides for new
and trainee teachers.
6. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
The basic premise for Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is that students progress through a set of
sequential needs from physiological to self-actualisation. As they move up through the levels,
they feel more comfortable in their learning environment and have the confidence to push
further.
It’s important to note that any group of students will have learners at different levels, some
may not have the lower levels met at home so making sure these students feel safe and secure
is of the utmost importance as they will find it very hard to move to the upper levels.
Maslow’s theory lends itself more to building student/teacher relationships rather than lesson
or curriculum structure. You can have the best resources and most tightly planned lessons in
the world but if you don’t show enthusiasm, passion and empathy it will be very difficult for
your students to feel their needs have been met.
Further reading: simplypsychology.org
7. Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences.
Howard Gardner
Howard Gardner is an American developmental psychologist and professor of cognition and
education at the Harvard graduate school at Harvard University. He studied under Erik
Ericson (Below) and Jerome Bruner (above).
He published “Frames of Mind” in 1983, in it, he laid out his theory of “multiple
intelligences”.
Gardner perceived intelligence as the ability to solve problems or make products that are
useful in one or more cultural settings.
He developed a list of criteria he would use to judge possible contenders for the title
“intelligence”. Candidates had to satisfy a range of the conditions on his list and also be able
to solve genuine problems of difficulties. Initially, Gardner named seven intelligences.
Gardner’s 7 Intelligences.
1. Linguistic intelligence. The ability to learn and use language in written and spoken
forms to express oneself.
2. Mathematical intelligence. The ability to solve problems logically, to solve
mathematical problems and to perform scientific investigations.
3. Musical intelligence. Having skill in appreciation, composition and performance of
musical patterns, including the ability to recognise tone, pitch and rhythm.
4. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. Using mental abilities to coordinate body
movements to solve problems.
5. Spatial intelligence. Being able to recognise and use patterns in a wide or confined
space.
6. Interpersonal intelligence. The capacity to understand the desires, motivations and
intentions of other people.
7. Intrapersonal intelligence. The capacity to understand your own fears, feelings and
motivations.
The importance of multiple intelligence in the classroom.
Gardner suggested that the intelligences rarely operate independently and compliment each
other as students learn new skills and solve problems. He also commented that
the intelligences are amoral, meaning they can be used for constructive or destructive
purposes.
Whilst Gardner’s theory hasn’t been hugely accepted in the field of Psychology, it has had
a strong positive response in education, especially in the US.
In the face of criticism that it is hard to teach things in the frame of a certain intelligence,
Gardner replied by stating that the seven intelligences give 7 ways to teach a subject,
allowing multiple strategies to be used, thus allowing all students to make progress.
Gardner believes that all seven intelligences are required to live life well and education
systems should include all seven not just the more academic first two.
Naturalist Intelligence.
Since its original publication, Gardner has since added an eighth intelligence; Naturalist
intelligence. This deals with an individual’s ability to perceive, recognise and order features
from the environment.
8. Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychological Development.
Erik Erikson
Erik Erikson was a stage theorist who developed Freud’s “Psychosexual Theory” and adapted
it into a psychosocial (having both psychological and social aspects) theory encompassing
eight stages.
According to Erikson, we experience eight stages of development during our life span.
Within each stage, there is a dilemma that we must resolve in order to feel a sense of
competence and will allow us to develop as a well-adjusted adult.
Erikson’s 8 Stages.
1. Trust Vs. Mistrust (Age 0 – 1.5). In this first stage, infants must learn that adults can
be trusted. If treated poorly children may grow up feeling mistrust towards people.
2. Autonomy Vs. Shame (Age 1.5 – 3). The “me do it’ stage, children start to make
decisions and show preferences of elements in their environment such as what clothes to
wear or what toy they prefer. If children are not allowed to explore these preferences they
may develop low self-esteem and shame.
3. Initiative Vs. Guilt (Age 3 – 5). This stage involves children learning to plan and
achieve goals involving others. If parents or teachers allow children to explore this and
support their choices they will develop a sense of purpose and strong self-confidence.
4. Industry Vs. Inferiority (Age 5 – 12). In this stage, children start comparing
themselves with their peers. Success at this will result in a sense of accomplishment in
their school work, social and family activities and sports.
5. Identity Vs. Role Confusion (Age 12 – 18). Students in this stage are asking
themselves “Who am I” and “What do I want to do in my life”. They will try out multiple
roles during this time to find what one “fits” best. A strong sense of identity and an ability
to defend their core beliefs in the face of other opinions would be considered success at
this stage.
6. Intimacy Vs. Isolation (Age 18 – 40). As students progress into early adulthood their
focus shifts to making and maintaining strong, intimate relationships with others.
7. Generativity Vs. Stagnation (Age 40 – 65). In middle adulthood, people are
concerned with contributing to society either through their work or parenthood. Continued
self-improvement for the benefit of other people figures strongly here.
8. Ego Integrity Vs. Despair (Age 65+). Those in late adulthood reflect on their lives,
feeling a sense of satisfaction or failure. Those who feel failure will often obsess with
ideas of what they “should have” or “could have” done.
Educational Implications of Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development.
Within an educational frame, Erikson’s work gives us as teachers a framework to base our
teaching on. Knowing what questions our students are asking of themselves and the world
around them allows us to plan effectively.
Problems arise when our class has children at different stages in it, in this case, we must
carefully differentiate our pedagogy to allow supportive learning for all students.
9. Kolb’s Experiential Theory.
Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle.
David Kolb, an American education theorist proposed his four-stage experiential learning
theory in 1984. It is built on the premise that learning is the acquisition of abstract concepts
which can then be applied to a range of scenarios.
“LEARNING IS THE PROCESS WHEREBY KNOWLEDGE IS CREATED THROUGH THE
TRANSFORMATION OF EXPERIENCE”
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and
development (Vol. 1). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Each stage in the cycle both supports and leads into the next stage. Learning is achieved only
if all four stages have been completed, however, a learner may travel around the cycle
multiple times, further refining their understanding of the topic.
No one stage is an effective learning strategy on its own, for example, if the reflective
observation stage is skipped, the learner could continue to make the same mistakes.

Laurence Peter
The Peter Principle was developed by American educational theorist Laurence Peter and was
explained in the book “The Peter Principle” that Peter wrote with his colleague, Raymond
Hull.
Originally the book was supposed to be a satirical view on how people are promoted in
organisations but it became popular as it actually made a valid point.
Whilst not strictly a learning theory, it does have some crossover to the classroom. The Peter
Principal deals with four levels of competence. They could give a teacher planning a long
term teaching strategy a framework to use when thinking about how students progress.
1. Unconscious Incompetence. Not knowing how to do a task without knowing you
don’t know.
2. Conscious Incompetence. You still don’t know how to do the task but now you
know you don’t know. You are aware of a gap in your knowledge.
3. Conscious Competence. You can now do the task but it requires a lot of
concentration.
4. Unconscious Competence. You can perform the task with ease. This is achieved by
repeated practice.
I’m sure you can see how this would translate to a student’s learning journey.
Further Reading: Peter, L. J., & Hull, R. (1969). The peter principle. Amazon.
11. Laird’s Sensory Theory.
In 1985 Dugan Laird stated in his book “Approaches to Training and Development” that
learning occurs when the senses are stimulated.
He quoted research that found that 75% of an adult’s knowledge was obtained by seeing.
13% was through hearing, the remaining 12% was learned through touch, smell and taste
combined.
Based on this research, providing visual prompts for students will enhance their learning.
However, making your lessons a multi-sensual experience will enhance learning even further.
It’s worth considering this when planning your lessons.

12. Skinner’s Behaviourist Theory.

B. F. Skinner
Operant Conditioning.
Operant conditioning is based on Thorndike’s “Law of Effect” (1898), in which it is proposed
that behaviours that are followed by positive responses are likely to be repeated and those
that are followed by negative responses, not repeated.
Skinner refined the Law of Effect by introducing “reinforcement” into the descriptions. Using
Skinner’s new description we end up with; those behaviours that are reinforced are repeated
(strengthened) and those not reinforced tend to dissipate (are weakened).
Positive Reinforcement.
From a classroom management perspective, positive reinforcement is an essential strategy for
teaching students how to act and conduct themselves.
Positive reinforcement (e.g. praise) should be given for behaviours that are desirable, for
example, verbally answering questions in class. Initially, this should be done for all answers
given, regardless of whether they are correct. This will build a culture of answering
questions.
As the behaviour in question becomes commonplace, the teacher should then both reduce the
frequency of the reinforcement and, as in our above example, only give it for correct answers.
Ultimately the teacher will reduce the frequency of the positive reinforcement to only those
responses of the highest calibre. This will create a culture of desired excellence in the
students.
13. Rogers’ Humanist Theory.

Carl Rogers
Developed by the American psychologist Carl Rogers in the 1980s, facilitative learning is a
humanistic approach to learning.
Humanism.
Humanism was developed to contrast cognitivism and behaviourism. Both Rogers and
Maslow (see above) based their work in humanism. The key perspectives of humanism are as
follows:
 People have a natural desire to learn in order to achieve self-actualisation (see
Maslow’s theory above).
 It is not the outcome that is the most important part of education, it is the process of
learning itself.
 The students themselves should be in control of their learning and it should be
achieved through observing and exploring.
 The teacher should be an encouraging role model, motivating, guiding and supporting
students on their own personal journey.
Facilitative Learning.
Rogers’ views the teacher as a facilitator to learning rather than just a conveyor of
knowledge. The success of the teacher is in their ability to build positive relationships with
students.
Roger’s proposed three attitudinal core characteristics that a teacher should possess for
facilitative learning to be successful:
 Realness. The teacher should be themselves and use their own personality when
teaching. Being “real” with students breeds an ethos of trust between students and a
teacher. The teacher should be able to convey their feelings rather than just being a
monotonal, monochromatic robot.
 Prizing, Accepting and Trusting. A teacher should care about their students and
accept their feelings, regardless of whether they assist or detract from learning. Through
these characteristics, deeper trust and respect is built.
 Empathy. Understanding the student’s perception of learning and their feelings.
The effectiveness of facilitative learning also requires certain traits to be present in the
student. They should be motivated, aware of the facilitative conditions they have been
provided with and aware that the task they have been given is useful, realistic and relevant.
If all these characteristics are present then, in the words of Rogers himself:
“LEARNING BECOMES LIFE, AND A VERY VITAL LIFE AT THAT. THE STUDENT IS
ON HIS WAY, SOMETIMES EXCITEDLY, SOMETIMES RELUCTANTLY, TO
BECOMING  A LEARNING, CHANGING BEING”.
Rogers, Carl R. The Interpersonal Relationship in the Facilitation of Learning. In
Humanizing Education: The Person in the Process. Ed. T. Leeper. National Education
Association, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, p1-18. 1967.
14. Canter’s Theory of Assertive Discipline.

Lee Canter
Assertive discipline is a structured system to enable teachers to manage their classrooms. It
focuses on the teacher developing a positive behaviour management strategy rather than
being dictatorial.
Canter’s proposition is that the teacher has the right to decide what is best for their students
and that no student should prevent any other from learning.
The teacher should very clear boundaries as to how they expect their students to behave and
work, the students should know what these boundaries are and any deviation should be met
with an assertive action from the teacher.
This all sounds quite draconian, right?
However, if the teacher gives a firm, clear instruction and those instructions are met, they
should be followed by positive reinforcement (see Skinner above). Any deviation from the
instruction should be met with negative consequences that the students have prior knowledge
of.
The behaviour management guru, Bill Rogers, bases his strategies on the assertive teacher
model, which I know from personal use, works incredibly well.
15. Dreikur’s Classroom Management Theory.

Rudolph Dreikur
Rudolf Dreikur proposed the theory that mutual respect should be the basis for discipline and
that this mutual respect motivates learners to display positive behaviours.
He believed students have an innate desire to feel like an accepted member of a group and to
feel like they have value and confidence to contribute to that group. Dreikur called this desire
to belong, the “genuine goal of social behaviour”.
If students are unable to achieve this goal, they start a series of “goals of misbehaviour”. The
resulting misbehaviour is a misguided attempt at gaining the sense of belonging they are
missing.
Dreikur’s 4 Goals of Misbehaviour.
1. Gain attention.
2. Gain power and control.
3. Gain revenge.
4. Display feelings of inadequacy.
If a student fails to gain social status by gaining attention, they move on to trying to gain
power and control, failure at each successive level ultimately ends with feelings of
inadequacy.
How to Combat the 4 Goals of Misbehaviour.
Gain Attention. Ignore the attention-seeking and use positive reinforcement when positive
behaviour is shown. Distract the student by offering alternate actions or choices e.g. “Please
could you hand out the books”.
Gain Power and Control. Focus on all the good behaviour in the class, while ignoring the
attempt to gain power, on no account should you engage in a battle for power. Bill Rogers,
the behaviour expert, calls this the black dot, white square approach.
Gain Revenge. Remember that the student is trying to gain a sense of belonging and this
revenge-seeking is a masked attempt to gain it. Away from other students, let the student
know that you care about them and their education, that despite their actions you want the
best for them.
Display Feelings of Inadequacy. At this stage, the student has given up on themselves. This
stage will manifest in the form of “not doing” (not doing homework, not participating etc.).
Students at this stage should be shown how to recognise small successes and achievements.
Showing an interest in them and their work will always help slowly bring a student out of this
stage.
“Evidence Based Practice in Education” by Paul Stevens-Fulbrook, expertly and simply
guides you through Rosenshine’s Principles on Instruction, Dual Coding Theory, Cognitive
Load Theory and Metacognition.

Learning Theories Summary.

I know what you’re thinking. “How the hell am I supposed to do all of these” or “which ones
should I use” or “I’m more confused than ever!”.
That’s how I felt when I was doing my teacher training. The truth is, great teaching involves
a cocktail of most of these at some point (and a few actual cocktails at the weekend to
recover!).
If you are just starting out on your journey as a teacher and you are worried that you’ll do it
wrong, just remember these basic principles:
1. Building positive relationships with students is the bedrock of EVERYTHING.
2. Setting clear boundaries that students are aware of.
3. Consequences of breaking those boundaries are also known in advance.
4. Focus on and reward the positive things that happen in your classroom (positive
reinforcement).
5. Treat your students as people with thoughts and feelings of their own that, while may
seem irrelevant to you, they are not to them.
6. It is easier and more effective to change your perspective to theirs than make them
change to yours.
7. Remember, their world is not the one you grew up in.
I hope you found this article useful, I know it reminded me of a good few things that I may
have been slacking with. Feel free to share it with your teacher friends, I’m sure they will
appreciate it.
If you would like this article as a PDF, just click the button below.
Learning Theories FAQ
What are Learning Theories?
Since Plato, many theorists have emerged, all with their different take on how students
learn. Learning theories are a set of principles that explain how best a student can acquire,
retain and recall new information.
What is Behaviourism?
Behaviourism involves repeated actions, verbal reinforcement and incentives to take part. It is
great for establishing rules, especially for behaviour management. Behaviourism is based on
the idea that knowledge is independent and on the exterior of the learner. In a behaviourist’s
mind, the learner is a blank slate that should be provided with the information to be learnt.
Through this interaction, new associations are made and thus leaning occurs. Learning is
achieved when the provided stimulus changes behaviour.
What is Cognitivism?
In contrast to behaviourism, cognitivism focuses on the idea that students process information
they receive rather than just responding to a stimulus, as with behaviourism. There is still a
behaviour change evident, but this is in response to thinking and processing information.
In cognitive load theory, learning occurs when the student reorganises information, either by
finding new explanations or adapting old ones.
What is Constructivism?
Constructivism is based on the premise that we construct learning new ideas based on our
own prior knowledge and experiences. Learning, therefore, is unique to the individual
learner. Students adapt their models of understanding either by reflecting on prior theories or
resolving misconceptions. Students need to have a prior base of knowledge for constructivist
approaches to be effective. Bruner’s spiral curriculum is a great example of constructivism in
action.