School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Term 1, 2020

CVEN4404 Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering

Capacity and Level of Service

7 April 2020 (Week 8)

Dr. Divya Nair

Email: divya.nair@unsw.edu.au
Overview

▪ Capacity and Level of Service

▪ Uninterrupted Flow Facilities

▪ Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) Assessment

Reference:

Austroads Guide to Traffic Management, Part 3 Traffic Studies and Analysis; HCM2010

Highway Capacity Manual, 2010 – It should be noted that this contains non-metric units, the equations presented
here are metric conversions based on HCM 2000 which provides similar results)

http://www.gsweventcenter.com/Draft_SEIR_References%5C2000_TRB.pdf
Traffic Analysis: Capacity and Level of Service
Fundamental Planning Tool
• Defines the supply available within a traffic network (capacity) and the performance of the
infrastructure (Level of Service: LOS)
• Resources used for capacity and level of service assessment:
– Austroads Guide to Traffic Management: Part 3 – Traffic Studies Analysis (Austroads, 2013)
– Highway Capacity Manual (HCM, 2010)
Capacity Analysis
• Quantitative evaluation of the capability of a road section to carry traffic
• Uses a set of procedures to determine the maximum flow of traffic a road section can carry
considering prevailing traffic conditions.
Level of Service (LOS)
• Performance evaluation considering the density of the flow present relative to the capacity of
a road section whilst accounting for driving behaviour characteristics and road geometry
• Measures the “quality of flow”: assessment of operational conditions
Types of Traffic Facilities
Uninterrupted Flow Facilities
• Flow conditions are a result of interactions between; vehicles and the road geometry, amongst
vehicles in the traffic stream and environmental characteristics (weather/lighting)
• No fixed infrastructure external to the traffic stream resulting in interruptions
Interrupted Flow Facilities
• Flow conditions influenced by fixed elements:
– Traffic Signals
– Yield signs (Give-way/Stop)
– Roundabouts
– Other traffic controls
• Controls cause traffic to periodically stop, irrespective of traffic levels
Capacity
Definition
• “Maximum sustainable hourly rate at which persons or vehicles can reasonably be expected to
traverse a point or uniform section of a lane or roadway during a given time period under the
prevailing roadway, environmental, traffic and control conditions.” (Austroads 2013, HCM 2010)
– Time period used in capacity analysis should be one hour – however in practice 15 minute
analysis have been completed
– Analysis should be conducted on uniform road sections (geometry/traffic control
Level of Service
Definition
• “Level of service is a qualitative measure describing operational conditions within a traffic
stream, and their perception by motorists and/or passengers. A level of service definition
generally describes these conditions in terms of factors such as speed and travel time, delay,
density, freedom to manoeuvre, traffic interruptions, comfort and convenience, and safety”
(Austroads 2013, HCM 2010)
– Six levels of service (A to F)
» A = Best operating conditions
» F = Worst operating conditions

https://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/metho
ds/levelservice.html
 Level of Service (LOS)
LOS for Uninterrupted Flow Facilities (Austroads 2013, HCM 2010)

LOS Description

A Free-flow conditions, drivers are unaffected by the presence of others in the traffic stream.

Stable flow where drivers still have reasonable freedom to select desired speed and to manoeuvre
B within the traffic stream.
Stable flow, however most drivers are restricted to some extent in their freedom to select their
C desired speed and to manoeuvre within the traffic stream. Comfort and convenience declines
noticeably at this level.
At the limit of stable flow conditions, approaching unstable flow. Drivers severely restricted in their
D freedom. Level of comfort and convenience is poor. Small increases in traffic flow result in operational
problems.
Traffic volumes are at or close to capacity, unstable flow. No freedom to select desired speeds or
E manoeuvre within the traffic stream. Minor disturbances causes failure
Zone of forced flow. Amount of the traffic approaching the road section exceeds what can pass
F through it. Flow breakdown occurs, traffic jam conditions.
Level of Service (LOS)

A B C D E F

LOS is Qualitative in Nature

• Here is a video of an interpretation of LOS: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8AnljDYpfGU
• Here is another video of an interpretation of LOS:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uig8yNzxhYE
– The qualitative nature of the assessment limits the effectiveness of LOS in it’s current state.
However, it is still useful and has been the main approach to evaluating road infrastructure.
Level of Service (LOS)

1 2

What is the LOS of each of

these scenarios????

3
Level of Service (LOS)
LOS in Practice
• Traffic engineers define categories using specific quantitative performance measures across
different facility types.
Service Flow Rate
Definition
• “Service flow rates indicate the maximum hourly rate at which persons or vehicles can
reasonably be expected to traverse a point under the prevailing roadway, traffic and control
conditions while maintaining a designated level of service. They indicate the vehicle or person
capacity for each level of service and are used to determine the level of service corresponding to
actual traffic volumes.” (Austroads 2013)

The different levels of

service are described
by the density
(pcu/km/lane)

*pcu = passenger car

units
Degree of Saturation (DOS)
Definition
• “The ratio of arrival flow (demand) to the capacity of the road segment or intersection
approach” (Austroads 2013)
• Sometimes referred to as the “Volume-to-Capacity ratio” (VCR)
• Used heavily in the operational analysis of intersections
• Range of values:
– DOS = 0 (Unsaturated: free flow conditions)
– DOS = 1 (Saturated: at capacity)
– DOS > 1 (Oversaturated: exceeding capacity resulting in
queues and delays)
• In general lower degrees of saturation are preferred, practicing engineers consider the
following target values:
– Highway segments: DOS = 0.90
– Signalised intersections: DOS = 0.90
– Roundabouts: DOS = 0.85
– Unsignalised intersections: DOS = 0.80
Factors affecting Capacity, LOS, DOS
Roadway Conditions
• Type of facility (highway/arterial road/local road)
• Geometry (lane widths/shoulder widths/lateral clearances)
• Design Speed
• Alignment
Terrain Conditions
• Level Terrain – Faster speeds
• Rolling terrain
• Mountainous Terrain – Slower speeds
Traffic Composition
• Passenger cars
• Trucks
• Buses
Factors affecting Capacity, LOS, DOS
Pedestrians and Cyclists
• Pedestrians form the largest single road user-group
• Important to consider pedestrian accessibility and safety of infrastructure
– Affects capacity and LOS of the road network as crossings are necessary
– Limits the utilisation of road reserves (foot path construction)
• Cyclists: vulnerable road user group
– Affects speed, road design and limits capacity
• Both user groups act as traffic calming measures.
Driver Population
• Commuter drivers
• Regular users
• Visitors
Control Conditions
• Traffic signals, Yield signs other intersection controls
• Turn restrictions, parking restrictions
• Land use controls
Uninterrupted Flow Facilities
Types of Uninterrupted Flow
a) Single lane flow
b) Two-lane Two-way Roads
c) Multi lane Roads
d) Freeways

a) b) c) d)
Single Lane Flow
Definition
• Single traffic lane without overtaking
– Single lane provided in one direction on an undivided urban road (tunnel/construction site)
• Speed of all vehicles will be restricted by the speed of slowest leading vehicle.
Greenshields capacity (Week 1)
• Deriving the maximum flow rate from the general Greenshields formula (Austroads, 2013):
𝒗𝒇 𝒌𝒋
𝑪=
𝟒
Where; 𝐶 = capacity (pcu/hr)
𝑣𝑓 = free flow speed (km/hr)
𝑘𝑗 = jam density (pcu/km)
– This formulation generally results in capacity values ranging between 1500 pcu/hr to 2400
pcu/hr
Single Lane Flow
Adjusted Capacity
• To account for the slowest vehicle dictating the flow rate and other factors affecting flow on a
single lane use the following formula (Austroads, 2013):
𝑪 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎𝒇𝒘 𝒇𝑯𝑽
Where 𝐶= capacity in pcu/hr under prevailing roadway and traffic conditions

𝑓𝑤 = adjustment factor for narrow lanes and lateral clearances (Table 4.1,
Austroads, 2013)

𝑓𝐻𝑉 = adjustment factor for heavy vehicles

1
𝑓𝐻𝑉 =
1+𝑃𝐻𝑉 𝐸𝐻𝑉 −1

𝑃𝐻𝑉 = the proportion of heavy vehicles in the traffic stream (decimal)

𝐸𝐻𝑉 = the average passenger car equivalents for heavy vehicles (Table 4.2,
Austraods, 2013)
Single Lane Flow
Single Lane Flow
Example (C1.1.1)
• In order to carry out major maintenance works on one carriageway of a four-lane divided
arterial road in rolling terrain, it has been decided to temporarily restrict traffic to a single
lane with a pavement width of 3.2m, with minimum lateral clearances of 1m on each side of
it. Calculate the capacity of a single lane under these conditions, assuming uninterrupted flow,
and 10% trucks.
• Consider the general equation:
𝐶 = 1800𝑓𝑤 𝑓𝐻𝑉
𝑓𝑤 = 0.8 (Table 4.1)
𝐸𝐻𝑉 = 4.0 (Table 4.2)
1
𝑓𝐻𝑉 = = 0.769
1+0.1 4−1
𝐶 = 1800 × 0.8 × 0.769

𝐩𝐜𝐮
𝑪 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟖
𝐡𝐫
Two-Lane Two-way Roads
Definition
• Two-lane rural roads have one lane for use by traffic travelling in each direction
– Overtaking possible (difference with single lane capacity assessment)
Categories (Austroads 2013, HCM 2010)
• Class 1
– High-speed primary arterials connecting major traffic generators
– Daily commuter/ Major intercity routes
• Class 2
– Scenic or recreational routes that are not primary arterials
– Can serve as commuter routes, but slower speeds due to rugged terrain
• Class 3
– Roads which serve moderately developed areas
– Local traffic mixes with through traffic and density of unsignalised roadside access points is
noticeably higher than a purely rural area.
– Slowest speeds
Two-Lane Two-way Roads
Performance Assessment
• Calculate from the predicted performance of base or ideal conditions:
– Lane widths ≥ 3.6m
– Clear shoulder widths ≥ 1.8m
– All passenger cars, overtaking allowed at any time
– Level terrain
• Estimate free flow speed (FFS) based on the base free-flow speed (BFFS)
• Actual travel speed is a function of the free-flow speed and the passenger car equivalent flow
rate (pcu rate) which is based on the proportion of heavy vehicles, grade and overall flow rates.
This is estimated using the “Average Travel Speed” (ATS) which is the space mean speed of the
segment of road.
• The per cent time-spent-following another vehicle (PTSF) is a measure of the level of
opportunities to overtake.
– When the time taken between consecutive vehicles (headway) is less than 3 seconds, the
trailing vehicle is “following” the lead vehicle.
– PTSF is the average percentage of time that the trailing vehicle is “following” the lead vehicle
Two-Lane Two-way Roads
Performance Assessment
Two-Lane Two-way Roads
Performance Assessment (LOS)
• Class 1 LOS criteria: PTSF and ATS
• Class 2 LOS criteria: PTSF (mobility less critical)
• Class 3 LOS criteria: Per-cent free-flow speed (PFFS)
Class 1 LOS
Two-Lane Two-way Roads
LOS Table
Two-Lane Two-way Roads
LOS Table

“The HCM 2010 indicates that the capacity of a two-lane highway is 1700 pc/h for each
direction of travel and is nearly independent of the directional distribution of traffic. For
extended lengths of two-lane highway, the capacity will not exceed 3200 pcu/hr for both
directions of travel combined.”
Multi-Lane Roads
Definition
• Two or more lanes for use by traffic in each direction
– Divided: Opposing directions of traffic are physically separated by a median
– Undivided: Opposing directions of traffic are not physically separated
• Contain at-grade intersections including signalised intersections (different from freeways)
Performance Assessment
• As with two-lane two-way roads, the performance is compared with base conditions:
– 3.6m minimum lane widths
– 3.6m minimum total lateral clearance in the direction of travel (from the edge of the travel
lanes to obstructions along the edge of the road and in the median)
– Only passenger cars in the traffic stream
– No direct access points along the roadway
– Divided highway
– Free-flow speed = 100km/hr
Multi-Lane Roads
Performance Assessment
Multi-Lane Roads
Performance Assessment
Freeways
Definition
• Divided road with two or more lanes for traffic travelling in each direction, with no at-grade
intersections and with full control of access from abutting property
– Basic Freeway Segments – no ramps/weaving area
– Ramp and Ramp Terminals – access to and from the freeway
– Weaving Areas – vehicles must traverse across the lanes of the freeway from entry to exit in
a short distance
• HCM 2010 provides a method to evaluate the performance of a freeway that has congested
elements for more than one 15 minute time period
• Speed flow relationships for freeways in USA, Canada, Germany, UK and Australia have similar
values for comparable freeway geometries and free speeds.
Freeways
Performance of Basic Freeway Segments
• The free flow speed is a function of the base free-flow speed and a number of adjustment
parameters. Base conditions:
– Minimum lane widths of 3.6m
– Minimum left-shoulder lateral clearance between the edge of the travel lane and the nearest
obstacle or object that influences traffic behaviour of 1.8 m
– Minimum median lateral clearance of 0.6 m
– Traffic stream composed entirely of passenger cars
– Five or more lanes for one direction (in urban areas only)
– Interchange spacing at 3 km or greater
– Level terrain, with grades no greater than 2%
– A driver population composed principally of regular users of the facility
– Under these base conditions the free speed is 120 km/h in rural areas and 110 km/h in urban
areas.
Freeways
Performance of Basic Freeway Segments
Freeways
Performance of Basic Freeway Segments
Freeways
Performance of Ramps and Ramp Junctions
• Evaluation of ramps considers vehicle interactions that occur within 450m of the ramp.
𝑽𝑭 = Total flow across all
lanes of the carriageway
entering the ramp area
(pcu/hr)

𝑽𝑹 = Ramp Flow (pcu/hr)

𝑽𝟏𝟐 = Flow in the two kerb-

side lanes of the
carriageway entering the
ramp area (pcu/hr)

𝑽𝑹𝟏𝟐 = Flow in the two kerb

lanes and on the ramp
(pcu/hr)

𝑽𝑭𝑶 = Total flow across all

lanes of the carriageway
exiting the ramp area
Freeways
Performance of Ramps and Ramp Junctions
• Predict the traffic in the two kerb-side lanes (if there are only two lanes on the carriageway,
then this flow is equal to the total flow)
– Proportion of traffic in the two kerb-side lanes depends on the proximity and type of the
previous upstream ramp and the proximity and type of the next downstream ramp
• Determine density of the merge area:
– Linear relationship with peak 15 minute ramp flow (𝑉𝑅 ), the flow in the two kerb-side lanes
(𝑉12 ), and the acceleration lane length (𝐿𝐴 ) (distance to the end of the tapered section)
• LOS for ramps are documented in terms of densities
Freeways
Performance of Ramps and Ramp Junctions

Plot of Density versus flow for 100m acceleration lane.

If the lane is increased by 100m, the density decreases by 1.3 pcu/km/lane
Freeways
Performance of Ramps and Ramp Junctions

Plot of Density versus flow for 100m deceleration lane of an off-ramp.

If the lane is increased by 100m, the density decreases by 1.8 pcu/km/lane
Freeways
Performance of Ramps and Ramp Junctions

Ramp Capacities
Freeways
Performance of Ramps and Ramp Junctions

Merge Capacities
Freeways
Performance of Ramps and Ramp Junctions

LOS of Merge/Diverge segments

Freeways
Performance of Weaving Sections
• Analysis of weaving sections is less developed than other freeway analysis procedures
– Requires weaving and non-weaving traffic to be estimated

𝑽𝒐𝟏 and 𝑽𝒐𝟐 are the outer non-weaving flow rates

𝑽𝒘𝟏 and 𝑽𝒘𝟐 are the inner weaving flow rates

Freeways
Performance of Weaving Sections
• Classification of weaving sections

Type A: Both vehicles must make a lane change Type B: A single vehicle changing lanes and
to complete manoeuvre successfully weaving through traffic

Type C: One weaving movement requires a minimum of two lane changes for
successful completion of a weaving manoeuvre while the other movement can be
made without a lane change
Freeways
Performance of Weaving Sections
• Length and width of the weaving segment: geometric parameters that describe the area used by
weaving vehicles
– “measured from a point at the merge gore where the left edge of the freeway shoulder lane
and the right edge of the merging lane(s) are 0.6m apart to a point at the diverge gore
whether the two edges are 3.7m apart”
– All weaving vehicles must make their lane changing within the length of the weaving
segment .
• Given average speeds and flows, the traffic density is calculated and compared with values in
Table 4.9 of Austroads 2013.
Freeways
Performance of Weaving Sections
• Given average speeds and flows, the traffic density is calculated and compared with values in
Table 4.9 of Austroads 2013.
Freeways
Performance of Weaving Sections
• LOS charts for weaving section (Type A)
Freeways
Performance of Weaving Sections
• LOS charts for weaving section (Type A)
Freeway Segments
HCM Key Points
• Conditions assumed to be uninterrupted one-way flow
• Capacity varies with free-flow speed of the freeway;
– Free flow speed = 90km/hr → 2,250 pcu/hr/ln
– Free flow speed = 120km/hr → 2,400 pcu/hr/ln Single traffic lane without overtaking
• The above values are based on the “ideal conditions” presented last lecture:
– Minimum lane widths of 3.6m
– Minimum left-shoulder lateral clearance between the edge of the travel lane and the nearest
obstacle or object that influences traffic behaviour of 1.8 m
– Minimum median lateral clearance of 0.6 m
– Interchange spacing at 3 km or greater
– Level terrain, with grades no greater than 2%
– A driver population composed principally of regular users of the facility
• If these conditions aren’t met then the capacity is decreased using a calculation process
Freeway Segments: HCM LOS

Determine Free
Determine Flow
Flow Speed
Rate
Measurement

Determine Density
Freeway Segments: HCM LOS
LOS Determination Procedure
• Determine free-flow speed, the 15 minute flow rate and the consequent LOS
Free Flow Speed Calculation:

𝑭𝑭𝑺 = 𝑩𝑭𝑭𝑺 − 𝒇𝑳𝑾 − 𝒇𝑳𝑪 − 𝒇𝑵 − 𝒇𝑰𝑫

Where;
𝐹𝐹𝑆 = estimated free-flow speed, (km/hr)
𝐵𝐹𝐹𝑆 = base free-flow speed, 110 km/hr (urban) or 120 km/hr (rural)
𝑓𝐿𝑊 = adjustment for lane width from Exhibit 23-4 (HCM, 2000), (km/hr)
𝑓𝐿𝐶 = adjustment for right-shoulder lateral clearance from Exhibit 23-5 (HCM, 2000),
(km/hr)
𝑓𝑁 = adjustment for number of lanes from Exhibit 23-6 (HCM, 2000), (km/hr)
𝑓𝐼𝐷 = adjustment for interchange density from Exhibit 23-7 (HCM, 2000), (km/hr)
Freeway Segments: HCM LOS

HCM 2000 – Relevant Tables for FFS calculation

Freeway Segments: HCM LOS

Impact of interchange spacing on free flow speed

(for Interchange spacing < 3km
Freeway Segments: HCM LOS
LOS Determination Procedure
• Determine free-flow speed, the 15 minute flow rate and the consequent LOS
Flow Rate:
𝑽
𝒗𝒑 =
𝑷𝑯𝑭 × 𝑵 × 𝒇𝑯𝑽 × 𝒇𝒑
Where;
𝑣𝑝 = 15 minute passenger car unit flow rate (pcu/hr/ln)
𝑉 = hourly volume (veh/hr)
𝑃𝐻𝐹 = peak-hour factor
𝑁 = number of lanes,
𝑓𝐻𝑉 = heavy-vehicle adjustment factor, and
𝑓𝑝 = driver population factor
Freeway Segments: HCM LOS
LOS Determination Procedure
• Determine free-flow speed, the 15 minute flow rate and the consequent LOS
𝑽
Flow Rate: 𝒗𝒑 =
𝑷𝑯𝑭×𝑵×𝒇𝑯𝑽 ×𝒇𝒑

• Peak Hour Factor (𝑷𝑯𝑭)

– Ratio of the hourly volume to the peak 15 minute flow rate (typically range from 0.8
to 0.95).
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒅𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓
𝑷𝑯𝑭 =
𝟒 × 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒅𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝟏𝟓 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓

• Heavy Vehicle adjustment (𝒇𝑯𝑽 )

– Adjusts for heavy vehicles present within the traffic stream
𝟏
𝒇𝑯𝑽 =
𝟏 + 𝑷𝑻 𝑬𝑻 − 𝟏 + 𝑷𝑹 𝑬𝑹 − 𝟏
Where; 𝐸𝑇 , 𝐸𝑅 = passenger-car equivalents for trucks/buses and recreational vehicles (RVs) in the
traffic stream, respectively (Exhibit 23-8, 23-9, 23-10, 23-11, HCM, 2000)
𝑃𝑇 , 𝑃𝑅 = proportion of trucks/buses and RVs in the traffic stream, respectively
𝑓𝐻𝑉 = heavy-vehicle adjustment factor
Freeway Segments: HCM LOS
• Heavy Vehicle adjustment (𝒇𝑯𝑽 )
– Adjusts for heavy vehicles present within the traffic stream
𝟏
𝒇𝑯𝑽 =
𝟏 + 𝑷𝑻 𝑬𝑻 − 𝟏 + 𝑷𝑹 𝑬𝑹 − 𝟏
Where;
𝐸𝑇 , 𝐸𝑅 = passenger-car equivalents for trucks/buses and recreational vehicles (RVs) in the
traffic stream, respectively (Exhibit 23-8, HCM, 2000)
𝑃𝑇 , 𝑃𝑅 = proportion of trucks/buses and RVs in the traffic stream, respectively
𝑓𝐻𝑉 = heavy-vehicle adjustment factor
Freeway Segments: HCM LOS
Freeway Segments: HCM LOS
LOS Determination Procedure
• Determine free-flow speed, the 15 minute flow rate and the consequent LOS
Flow Rate:
𝑽
𝒗𝒑 =
𝑷𝑯𝑭 × 𝑵 × 𝒇𝑯𝑽 × 𝒇𝒑
• Driver population factor (𝒇𝑷 )
– A factor applied to account for the variability in driver familiarity of the road/traffic
conditions. (recreational drivers use freeways less efficiently, reducing capacity)
– Adjustment factor varies from 0.85 to 1.
» Assessment of commuter traffic only, set 𝑓𝑝 = 1.
» The greater the uncertainty the lower the 𝑓𝑃 value
Freeway Segments: HCM LOS
LOS Determination Procedure
• Determine free-flow speed, the 15 minute flow rate and the consequent LOS
Free Flow Speed (FFS) Calculation:
𝐹𝐹𝑆 = 𝐵𝐹𝐹𝑆 − 𝑓𝐿𝑊 − 𝑓𝐿𝐶 − 𝑓𝑁 − 𝑓𝐼𝐷

Flow Rate:
𝑉
𝑣𝑝 =
𝑃𝐻𝐹 × 𝑁 × 𝑓𝐻𝑉 × 𝑓𝑝

LOS
– Use the “performance graph” (Slide 30, Lecture 4)
𝑣𝑝
– Calculate density: 𝐷 = (compare with LOS table, Slide 31, Lecture 4)
𝑆
Where 𝑆 = Average Passenger-Car Speed (either determined graphically or calculated)
» For 90 ≤ 𝐹𝐹𝑆 ≤ 120 and 3100 − 15𝐹𝐹𝑆 < 𝑣𝑝 ≤ (1800 + 5𝐹𝐹𝑆)
𝟐.𝟔
𝟏 𝒗𝒑 + 𝟏𝟓𝑭𝑭𝑺 − 𝟑𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑺 = 𝑭𝑭𝑺 − 𝟐𝟑𝑭𝑭𝑺 − 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝟖 𝟐𝟎𝑭𝑭𝑺 − 𝟏𝟑𝟎𝟎
» For 90 ≤ 𝐹𝐹𝑆 ≤ 120 and 𝑣𝑝 ≤ 3100 − 15𝐹𝐹𝑆
𝑺 = 𝑭𝑭𝑺
 Freeway Segments: HCM LOS
LOS = D

S = FFS = 96km/hr

vp= 1600pcu/hr/ln

D = 1600/96 = 16.6 > 16

Freeway Segments: HCM LOS - Example
Description
• In a rural area, there exists a four-lane freeway. The freeway consists of very restricted
geometry, a rolling terrain and a 110km/hr speed limit. What is the level of service (LOS) during
peak conditions given the following highway parameters
– 2-lanes in each direction
– 3.3m lane width
– 0.6m lateral clearance
– Commuter traffic, 5% trucks (no buses and RV’s)
– 2,000 veh/hr peak hour volume (single direction), PHF = 0.92
– 0.6 interchanges per kilometre
– BFFS = 120km/hr (rural areas), 𝑓𝑝 = 1.00 for commuter traffic
Freeway Segments: HCM LOS - Example
Description
• In a rural area, there exists a four-lane freeway. The freeway consists of very restricted
geometry, a rolling terrain and a 110km/hr speed limit. What is the level of service (LOS) during
peak conditions given the following highway parameters
Determine free flow speed, FFS:
𝐤𝐦
𝐹𝐹𝑆 = 𝐵𝐹𝐹𝑆 − 𝑓𝐿𝑊 − 𝑓𝐿𝐶 − 𝑓𝑁 − 𝑓𝐼𝐷 = 120 − 3.1 − 3.9 − 0 − 3.9 = 𝟏𝟎𝟗. 𝟏
𝐡𝐫
(𝑓𝐿𝑊 = 3.1 (3.3m lane width, Exhibit 23-4), 𝑓𝐿𝐶 = 3.9 (0.6m lateral clearance, Exhibit 23-5), 𝑓𝑁 =
0 (rural freeway segment, Exhibit 23-6), 𝑓𝐼𝐷 = 3.9 ( 0.6 interchanges/km, Exhibit 23-7))
Determine flow rate, 𝒗𝒑 :
𝑉 2000
𝑣𝑝 = =
𝑃𝐻𝐹 × 𝑁 × 𝑓𝐻𝑉 × 𝑓𝑝 0.92 × 2 × 𝑓𝐻𝑉 × 1
1 1
𝑓𝐻𝑉 = = = 0.930
1 + 𝑃𝑇 𝐸𝑇 − 1 + 𝑃𝑅 𝐸𝑅 − 1 1 + 0.05 2.5 − 1 + 0
(𝑃𝑇 = 5% trucks, 𝑃𝑅 = 0% RV’s, 𝐸𝑇 = 2.5 (Exhibit 23-8, rolling terrain)
𝐩𝐜𝐮
2000
∴ 𝑣𝑝 = = 𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟖. 𝟕𝟕 𝐡𝐫
0.92 × 2 × 0.930 × 1 𝐥𝐧
 Freeway Segments: HCM LOS - Example
LOS = B

S = 109.1 km/hr

vp= 1169 pcu/hr/ln

D = 1169/109.1 = 10.7 > 7 but < 11

Ramps and Ramp Junctions
HCM Key Points
• Critical elements for ramp capacity are the freeway and the ramp roadways upstream and
downstream of the ramp junction.
• LOS depends on
– Density of the lanes adjacent to the entry or exit ramp in the area of influence:
» 450m downstream of an on ramp (Slide 32, L4)or
» 450m upstream of an off ramp (Slide 32, L4) 𝑽𝑭 = Total flow across all lanes of the carriageway
entering the ramp area (pcu/hr)

𝑽𝑹 = Ramp Flow (pcu/hr)

𝑽𝟏𝟐 = Flow in the two kerb-side lanes of the

carriageway entering the ramp area (pcu/hr)

𝑽𝑹𝟏𝟐 = Flow in the two kerb lanes and on the

ramp (pcu/hr)

𝑽𝑭𝑶 = Total flow across all lanes of the

carriageway exiting the ramp area
Ramp and Ramp Junctions: HCM LOS

Adjust the demand

Determine Flow Rate for on

ramps/ off ramps

Determine Capacity of on Generally, if

ramps/ off ramps adjusted demand
is greater than
capacity – the
ramps are failing
to cater for the
Calculate critical
demand – LOS F
Density values
Ramps and Ramp Junctions: HCM LOS
LOS Determination Procedure
• Adjust demand, determine flow rate, determine the capacity, calculate density and the
consequent LOS
Demand adjustment and flow rate determination
• Convert all flows to peak 15 minute flow rates in passenger car equivalents and adjust them for
lane width and driver population constraints

𝑽𝒊
𝒗𝒊 =
𝑷𝑯𝑭 × 𝒇𝑯𝑽 × 𝒇𝒑
Where;
𝑣𝑖 = peak 15 minute passenger car unit flow rate (pcu/hr/ln)
𝑉𝑖 = hourly volume in mixed vehicles (veh/hr)
𝑃𝐻𝐹 = peak-hour factor
𝑓𝐻𝑉 = heavy-vehicle adjustment factor (same as for basic freeway segments)
𝑓𝑝 = driver population factor (same as for basic freeway segments)
Ramps and Ramp Junctions: HCM LOS
LOS Determination Procedure
• Adjust demand, determine flow rate, determine the capacity, calculate density and the
consequent LOS
Demand adjustment and flow rate determination
• Convert all flows to peak 15 minute flow rates in passenger car equivalents and adjust them for
lane width and driver population constraints
𝑽𝒊
𝒗𝒊 =
𝑷𝑯𝑭 × 𝒇𝑯𝑽 × 𝒇𝒑
• Calculate the fraction of the total freeway flow in lanes 1 and 2 (adjacent lanes to ramps) (𝑣12 ):
different for on ramps and off ramps
Ramps and Ramp Junctions: HCM LOS
Calculate the fraction of the total freeway flow in lanes 1 and 2 (𝒗𝟏𝟐 )
• A series of equations are used which require having values for the following parameters;
𝑃𝐹𝑀 = fraction of freeway flow in lanes 1 and 2 immediately upstream of a merge
𝑃𝐹𝐷 = fraction of freeway flow in lanes 1 and 2 immediately upstream of a diverge
𝐿𝐴 = length of acceleration lane, m
𝐿𝐷 = length of deceleration lane, m
𝑣𝐹 = total freeway demand flow upstream of ramp
𝑣𝑅 = ramp demand flow rate
𝑣𝑈 = flow on upstream ramp
𝑣𝐷 = flow on downstream ramp
𝐿𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 = distance to downstream ramp (ramp nose to ramp nose)
𝐿𝑢𝑝 = distance to upstream ramp (ramp nose to ramp nose)
𝑆𝐹𝑅 = free-flow speed on on-ramp as it approaches freeway
 Ramps and Ramp Junctions: HCM LOS
On ramps: Calculate the fraction of the total freeway flow in lanes 1 and 2 (𝒗𝟏𝟐 )

𝒗𝟏𝟐 = 𝒗𝑭 × 𝑷𝑭𝑴 (on ramps)

This table suggests

that for freeways
with 6 lanes or
more, an equation
must be
selected….

𝑃𝐹𝑀 = fraction of freeway flow in lanes 1 and 2
immediately upstream of a merge
𝐿𝐴 = length of acceleration lane, m
𝑣𝐹 = total freeway demand flow upstream of ramp
𝑣𝑅 = ramp demand flow rate
𝑣𝑈 = flow on upstream ramp
𝑣𝐷 = flow on downstream ramp
𝐿𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 = distance to downstream ramp (ramp nose to
ramp nose)
𝐿𝑢𝑝 = distance to upstream ramp (ramp nose to ramp
nose)
𝑆𝐹𝑅 = free-flow speed on on-ramp as it approaches
freeway
Ramps and Ramp Junctions: HCM LOS
On ramps: Calculate the fraction of the total freeway flow in lanes 1 and 2 (𝒗𝟏𝟐 )

• Equation 1: Adjacent on-ramps do

not affect subject ramp behaviour
• Equation 2 and Equation 3: Adjacent
upstream and/or downstream off-
ramp exists
➢ Used by comparing “equilibrium
separation distance 𝑳𝑬𝑸
between ramps
Ramps and Ramp Junctions: HCM LOS
On ramps: Calculate the fraction of the total freeway flow in lanes 1 and 2 (𝒗𝟏𝟐 )
• Equilibrium separation distance 𝐿𝐸𝑄 :
– If the distance between ramps ≥ 𝐿𝐸𝑄 : Equation 1 is used
– If the distance between ramps ≤ 𝐿𝐸𝑄 : Equation 2 or Equation 3 used
» Choosing between Equation 1 and Equation 2
𝑳𝑬𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟕𝟓 𝒗𝑭 + 𝒗𝑹 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟔𝑳𝑨 + 𝟏𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝑺𝑭𝑹 − 𝟕𝟓𝟕
▪ If 𝐿𝑢𝑝 ≥ 𝐿𝐸𝑄 : Equation 1 is used, otherwise use Equation 2
» Choosing between Equation 1 and Equation 3
𝒗𝑫
𝑳𝑬𝑸 =
𝟎. 𝟑𝟓𝟗𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟗𝑳𝑨
▪ If 𝐿𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 ≥ 𝐿𝑄 : Equation 1 is used, otherwise use Equation 3
 Ramps and Ramp Junctions: HCM LOS
Off ramps: Calculate the fraction of the total freeway flow in lanes 1 and 2 (𝒗𝟏𝟐 )

𝒗𝟏𝟐 = 𝒗𝑹 + (𝒗𝑭 − 𝒗𝑹 )𝑷𝑭𝑫 (off ramps)

This table suggests

that for freeways
with 6 lanes or
more, an equation
must be
selected….

𝑃𝐹𝐷 = fraction of freeway flow in lanes 1 and 2 𝑣𝐷 = flow on downstream ramp

immediately upstream of a diverge
𝐿𝐷 = length of deceleration lane, m
𝑣𝐹 = total freeway demand flow upstream of ramp
𝑣𝑅 = ramp demand flow rate
𝑣𝑈 = flow on upstream ramp
𝐿𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 = distance to downstream ramp (ramp nose to
ramp nose)
𝐿𝑢𝑝 = distance to upstream ramp (ramp nose to ramp
nose)
Ramps and Ramp Junctions: HCM LOS
Off ramps: Calculate the fraction of the total freeway flow in lanes 1 and 2 (𝒗𝟏𝟐 )

• Equation 5: Adjacent on-ramps do

not affect subject ramp behaviour
• Equation 6 and Equation 7: Adjacent
upstream on ramp or downstream
off-ramp exists
➢ Used by comparing “equilibrium
separation distance 𝑳𝑬𝑸
between ramps
Ramps and Ramp Junctions: HCM LOS
Off ramps: Calculate the fraction of the total freeway flow in lanes 1 and 2 (𝒗𝟏𝟐 )
• Equilibrium separation distance 𝐿𝐸𝑄 :
– If the distance between ramps ≥ 𝐿𝐸𝑄 : Equation 5 is used
– If the distance between ramps ≤ 𝐿𝐸𝑄 : Equation 6 or Equation 7 used
» Choosing between Equation 5 and Equation 6
𝒗𝒖
𝑳𝑬𝑸 =
𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟑𝟕 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟔𝒗𝑭 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟓𝒗𝑹
▪ If 𝐿𝑢𝑝 ≥ 𝐿𝐸𝑄 : Equation 5 is used, otherwise use Equation 6
» Choosing between Equation 5 and Equation 7
𝒗𝑫
𝑳𝑬𝑸 =
𝟑. 𝟕𝟗 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟏𝒗𝑭 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐𝒗𝑹
▪ If 𝐿𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 ≥ 𝐿𝑄 : Equation 5 is used, otherwise use Equation 7
• A special case arises when BOTH a downstream adjacent off-ramp and an upstream adjacent
on-ramp exists.
– Two 𝑃𝐷𝐹 solutions are obtained – conservatively choose the greater 𝑃𝐹𝐷 value.
Ramps and Ramp Junctions: HCM LOS
LOS Determination Procedure
• Adjust demand, determine flow rate, determine the capacity, calculate density and the
consequent LOS
Demand adjustment and flow rate determination
𝑽𝒊
𝒗𝒊 =
𝑷𝑯𝑭 × 𝒇𝑯𝑽 × 𝒇𝒑
• Calculate the fraction of the total freeway flow in lanes 1 and 2 (adjacent lanes to ramps) (𝑣12 )
𝒗𝟏𝟐 = 𝒗𝑭 × 𝑷𝑭𝑴 (on ramps)
𝒗𝟏𝟐 = 𝒗𝑹 + (𝒗𝑭 − 𝒗𝑹 )𝑷𝑭𝑫 (off ramps)
Determine capacity
• On ramps: Capacity of the merge area is determined by the capacity of the downstream freeway
segment, (𝑣𝐹𝑂 < 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)
• Off ramps: Total flow that can depart from the freeway is limited by the capacity of the freeway
lanes approaching the diverge.
Ramps and Ramp Junctions: HCM LOS
On Ramps: Determine capacity
• Capacity of the merge area is determined by the capacity of the downstream freeway segment
𝒗𝑭𝑶 = 𝒗𝑭 + 𝒗𝑹
𝒗𝑹𝟏𝟐 = 𝒗𝟏𝟐 + 𝒗𝑹
• If 𝑣𝐹𝑂 > 𝑣: LOS = F (where 𝑣 is obtained from Exhibit 25-7, HCM2000)
• If 𝑣𝑅12,𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 > 𝑣𝑅12,𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 : Locally high densities are likely but no queueing is expected
on the freeway (refer to Exhibit 25-7, HCM2000)
• If 𝑣𝐹𝑂 < 𝑣: LOS depends on the density in lanes 1 and 2 in the influence area, regardless
whether 𝑣𝑅12,𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 > 𝑣𝑅12,𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
• Density of influence area: 𝑫𝑹 = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟎𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟓𝟔𝒗𝑹 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟖𝒗𝟏𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟕𝟖𝑳𝑨 ,
compare with Exhibit 25-4, HCM2000) to determine LOS
Ramps and Ramp Junctions: HCM LOS
Off Ramps: Determine capacity
• Total flow that can depart from the freeway is limited by the capacity of the freeway lanes
approaching the diverge.
– If 𝒗𝑭 > 𝒗𝑭𝑰 : LOS = F (where 𝑣𝐹𝐼 is obtained from Exhibit 25-14, HCM2000)
» Capacity of upstream freeway segment is exceeded by total arriving demand flow
– If 𝒗𝑭𝑶 > 𝒗: LOS = F (where 𝑣 is obtained from Exhibit 25-14, HCM2000)
» Capacity of the downstream freeway segment is exceeded by the demand flow
proceeding on the downstream freeway
– If 𝒗𝑹 > 𝒗𝑹,𝒄𝒂𝒑 : LOS = F (where 𝑣 is obtained from Exhibit 25-3, HCM2000)
» Capacity of the off-ramp is exceeded by the off-ramp demand flow
• Otherwise compare influence area demands: If 𝒗𝟏𝟐,𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 > 𝒗𝟏𝟐,𝒕𝒂𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 (refer to Exhibit
25-14, HCM2000), indicates high density flow but not failure.
• Density of influence area: 𝑫𝑹 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟒𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟑𝒗𝟏𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟖𝟑𝑳𝑫 , compare with Exhibit 25-
4, HCM2000) to determine LOS
Ramps and Ramp Junctions: HCM LOS
Off Ramps: Determine capacity
Ramps and Ramp Junctions: HCM LOS
Example
What is the level of service for the ramp combination and traffic conditions shown below?
Assume a PHF = 0.87. The terrain is level. Free-flow speed on the freeway is 100km/hr and
free-flow speed on the ramps is 70km/hr.

Flow = 450 veh/hr (4% trucks) Flow = 600 veh/hr (6% trucks)
500m

250m 50m

Flow = 2,800 veh/hr (4% trucks)

Ramps and Ramp Junctions: HCM LOS
Example
What is the level of service for the ramp combination and traffic conditions shown below?
Assume a PHF = 0.87. The terrain is level. Free-flow speed on the freeway is 100km/hr and
free-flow speed on the ramps is 70km/hr.
Process
• Convert flows to peak 15-minute flow (pcu/hr/ln)
• Assess on-ramp conditions (merge LOS)
• Assess off-ramp conditions (diverge LOS)
• Determine governing LOS
Ramps and Ramp Junctions: HCM LOS
Example
What is the level of service for the ramp combination and traffic conditions shown below? Assume a PHF =
0.87. The terrain is level. Free-flow speed on the freeway is 100km/hr and free-flow speed on the ramps is
70km/hr.
• Convert flows to peak 15-minute flow (pcu/hr/ln):
𝐸𝑇 = 1.5, 𝑓𝑝 = 1.00
• Freeway Flow (2800 veh/hr, 4% trucks):
1 1 This is the flow rate
𝑓𝐻𝑉 = = = 0.980
1 + 𝑝𝑇 𝐸𝑇 − 1 1 + 0.04 1.5 − 1 just upstream of
𝑉𝑖 2800 𝑝𝑐𝑢 the merge.
𝑣𝑖 = = = 3284 = 𝑣𝐹
𝑃𝐻𝐹 × 𝑓𝐻𝑉 × 𝑓𝑝 0.87 × 0.980 × 1.00 ℎ𝑟
• On-ramp Flow (450 veh/hr, 4% trucks):
𝑉𝑖 450
𝑣𝑖 = = = 528 𝑝𝑐𝑢/ℎ𝑟
𝑃𝐻𝐹 × 𝑓𝐻𝑉 × 𝑓𝑝 0.87 × 0.980 × 1.00
• Off-ramp Flow (600 veh/hr, 6% trucks):
1 1
𝑓𝐻𝑉 = = = 0.971
1 + 𝑝𝑇 𝐸𝑇 − 1 1 + 0.06 1.5 − 1
𝑉𝑖 600
𝑣𝑖 = = = 710 𝑝𝑐𝑢/ℎ𝑟
𝑃𝐻𝐹 × 𝑓𝐻𝑉 × 𝑓𝑝 0.87 × 0.971 × 1.00
Ramps and Ramp Junctions: HCM LOS
Example
What is the level of service for the ramp combination and traffic conditions shown below? Assume a PHF = 0.87.
The terrain is level. Free-flow speed on the freeway is 100km/hr and free-flow speed on the ramps is 70km/hr.
Merge Conditions:
• Determine 𝑷𝑭𝑴 (Equation 3 or Equation 1):
𝑣𝐷 710
𝐿𝐸𝑄 = = = 1098 𝑚 > 500 𝑚 ∴ 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟑 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒅𝒔
0.3596 + 0.001148𝐿𝐴 0.3596 + 0.001148(250)
0.0801𝑣𝑑 0.0801 × 710
𝑃𝐹𝑀 = 0.5487 + = 0.5487 + = 0.662
𝐿𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 500
• Determine 𝒗𝟏𝟐 : 𝑣12 = 𝑣𝐹 × 𝑃𝐹𝑀 = 3284 × 0.662 = 2174
• Determine 𝒗𝑭𝑶 and 𝒗𝑹𝟏𝟐 : 𝑣𝐹𝑂 = 𝑣𝐹 + 𝑣𝑅 = 3284 + 528 = 3812
𝑣𝑅12 = 𝑣𝑅 + 𝑣12 = 528 + 2174 = 2702
• Check capacity (Exhibit 25-7): 𝑣𝐹𝑂 = 3812 < 6,900: Under capacity
• Check maximum flow in influence area: 𝑣𝑅12 = 2702 < 4600: OK, not greater than max flow
• Estimate density: 𝐷𝑅 = 3.402 + 0.00456𝑣𝑅 + 0.0048𝑣12 − 0.01278𝐿𝐴 = 3.402 + 0.00456 528 +
0.0048 2174 − 0.01278 250 = 13.05
• Determine LOS (Exhibit 25-4): 12 < 13.05 < 17 = LOS C
Ramps and Ramp Junctions: HCM LOS
Example
What is the level of service for the ramp combination and traffic conditions shown below? Assume a PHF = 0.87.
The terrain is level. Free-flow speed on the freeway is 100km/hr and free-flow speed on the ramps is 70km/hr.
This VF is different to the one used in the previous slide.
• Diverge Conditions:
VF is the demand upstream of the diverge.
• Determine 𝑷𝑭𝑴 (Equation 6 or Equation 5): In this case, it is the sum of freeway and merge flow rates.
𝑣𝑈 528
𝐿𝐸𝑄 = = = 1526 𝑚
0.2337 + 0.000076𝑣𝐹 − 0.00025𝑣𝑅 0.2337 + 0.000076(3812) − 0.00025(710)
1526 > 500 𝑚 ∴ 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟔 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒅𝒔
0.184𝑣𝑢 0.184(528)
𝑃𝐹𝐷 = 0.717 − 0.000039𝑣𝐹 + = 0.717 − 0.000039(3812) + = 0.763
𝐿𝑢𝑝 500
• Determine 𝒗𝟏𝟐 :
𝑣12 = 𝑣𝑅 + 𝑣𝐹 − 𝑣𝑅 𝑃𝐹𝐷 = 710 + 3812 − 710 0.763 = 3077
• Check capacity (Exhibit 25-14, 25-3): 𝑣𝐹𝑂 = 3812 < 6,900; 𝑣𝑅 = 710 < 2100: Under capacity
• Check maximum flow in influence area: 𝑣𝑅12 = 3077 < 4400: OK, not greater than max flow
• Estimate density:
𝐷𝑅 = 2.642 + 0.0053𝑣12 − 0.0183𝐿𝐷 = 2.642 + 0.0053 3077 − 0.0183 50 = 18.04
• Determine LOS (Exhibit 25-4): 17 < 18.04 < 22 = LOS D
Diverge governs: Overall LOS = D.
Two-Lane Highways: HCM LOS
HCM Key Points
• Operational analysis for two-way and directional segments of two-lane
highways
• Two-way segments may include longer sections of two-lane highway with
homogenous cross sections and relatively constant demand volumes and
vehicle mixed over the length of the segment.
• Procedures similar to those used for basic freeway sections except when
considering overtaking
– “Capacity of a two-lane highway is 1700 pcu/hr/ln for each direction of
travel. The capacity is nearly independent of the directional
distribution of traffic on the facility, except that for extended lengths of
two-lane highway, the capacity will not exceed 3200 pcu/hr/ln for both
directions of travel combined”
Two-Lane Two-way Roads
Categories (Austroads 2013, HCM 2010)
• Class 1
– High-speed primary arterials connecting major traffic generators
– Daily commuter/ Major intercity routes
• Class 2
– Scenic or recreational routes that are not primary arterials
– Can serve as commuter routes, but slower speeds due to rugged terrain
• Class 3
– Roads which serve moderately developed areas
– Local traffic mixes with through traffic and density of unsignalised roadside access points is
noticeably higher than a purely rural area.
– Slowest speeds
Two-Lane Highways: HCM LOS

Determine Free
Flow Speed
Measurement Determine percent
time spent
following

Determine flow rates

Determine average travel speed

Two-Lane Highways: HCM LOS
LOS Determination Procedure
• Determine average travel speed (ATS) and percent time spent flowing (PTSF), and determine the
governing LOS by comparing with Exhibit 20-2, HCM2000
Free Flow Speed Calculation:
• Field Measurement
𝑽𝒇
𝑭𝑭𝑺 = 𝑺𝑭𝑴 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟓
𝒇𝑯𝑽
Where;
𝐹𝐹𝑆 = estimated free-flow speed, (km/hr)
𝑆𝐹𝑀 = mean speed of traffic measured in the field, (km/hr)
𝑉𝑓 = observed flow rate for the period when field data were obtained (veh/hr)
𝑓𝐻𝑉 = heavy-vehicle adjustment factor
• Estimating FFS
𝑭𝑭𝑺 = 𝑩𝑭𝑭𝑺 − 𝒇𝑳𝒔 − 𝒇𝑨
Where;
𝐵𝐹𝐹𝑆 = base free-flow speed,
𝑓𝐿𝑆 = adjustment for lane and shoulder width Exhibit 20-5 (HCM, 2000), (km/hr)
𝑓𝐴 = adjustment for access points from Exhibit 20-6 (HCM, 2000), (km/hr)
Two-Lane Highways: HCM LOS
Two-Lane Highways: HCM LOS
LOS Determination Procedure
• Determine average travel speed (ATS) and percent time spent flowing (PTSF), and determine the
governing LOS by comparing with Exhibit 20-2, HCM2000
Flow Rate:
𝑽
𝒗𝒑 =
𝑷𝑯𝑭 × 𝒇𝑮 × 𝒇𝑯𝑽
Where;
𝑣𝑝 = 15 minute passenger car unit flow rate (pcu/hr)
𝑉 = hourly volume (veh/hr)
𝑃𝐻𝐹 = peak-hour factor
𝑓𝐺 = grade adjustment factor
𝑓𝐻𝑉 = heavy-vehicle adjustment factor

• It should be noted that the 𝒗𝒑 value for ATS and PTSF methods may differ and thus has to be
calculated independently for each assessment
Two-Lane Highways: HCM LOS
LOS Determination Procedure
• Determine average travel speed (ATS) and percent time spent flowing (PTSF), and determine the
governing LOS by comparing with Exhibit 20-2, HCM2000
Flow Rate:
𝑽
𝒗𝒑 =
𝑷𝑯𝑭 × 𝒇𝑮 × 𝒇𝑯𝑽
• Peak Hour Factor (𝑷𝑯𝑭)
– Ratio of the hourly volume to the peak 15 minute flow rate
– Typically range from 0.8 to 0.95
• Grade Adjustment factor
– Accounts for the effect of the terrain on travel speeds and percent time spent
following. Factors are obtained from Exhibit 20-7 and 20-8, HCM2000
Two-Lane Highways: HCM LOS
Two-Lane Highways: HCM LOS
LOS Determination Procedure
• Determine average travel speed (ATS) and percent time spent flowing (PTSF), and determine the
governing LOS by comparing with Exhibit 20-2, HCM2000
Flow Rate:
𝑽
𝒗𝒑 =
𝑷𝑯𝑭 × 𝒇𝑮 × 𝒇𝑯𝑽
• Heavy Vehicle adjustment (𝒇𝑯𝑽 )
– Adjusts for heavy vehicles present within the traffic stream
𝟏
𝒇𝑯𝑽 =
𝟏 + 𝑷𝑻 𝑬𝑻 − 𝟏 + 𝑷𝑹 𝑬𝑹 − 𝟏
Where;
𝐸𝑇 , 𝐸𝑅 = passenger-car equivalents for trucks/buses and recreational vehicles (RVs) in the
traffic stream, respectively (Exhibit 20-9, 20-10, HCM2000)
𝑃𝑇 , 𝑃𝑅 = proportion of trucks/buses and RVs in the traffic stream, respectively
𝑓𝐻𝑉 = heavy-vehicle adjustment factor
Two-Lane Highways: HCM LOS
Two-Lane Highways: HCM LOS
LOS Determination Procedure
Determine average travel speed (ATS) and percent time spent flowing (PTSF), and determine the
governing LOS by comparing with Exhibit 20-2, HCM2000
Flow Rate:
𝑽
𝒗𝒑 =
𝑷𝑯𝑭 × 𝒇𝑮 × 𝒇𝑯𝑽
• Iterative procedure
– Both 𝑓𝐺 and 𝑓𝐻𝑉 require knowledge of the flow rate (pc/hr)
– As the purpose of the equation is to determine the 15 minute passenger car flow, iteration is
necessary
𝑽
» Determine the flow rate in veh/hr (𝑷𝑯𝑭)
» Select values for 𝒇𝑮 , 𝑬𝑻 and 𝑬𝑹 which satisfy this flow rate
» Determine 𝒇𝑯𝑽 and subsequently 𝒗𝒑
» If computed value of 𝒗𝒑 is less than the upper limit of the selected flow-rate range for which 𝑓𝐺 , 𝐸𝑇 and 𝐸𝑅
were determined, then the computed 𝒗𝒑 should be used.
» If 𝒗𝒑 > upper limit selected, repeat process for a successively higher range of 𝒇𝑮 , 𝑬𝑻 and 𝑬𝑹 values until
convergence
Two-Lane Highways: HCM LOS
LOS Determination Procedure
Determine average travel speed (ATS) and percent time spent flowing (PTSF), and determine the
governing LOS by comparing with Exhibit 20-2, HCM2000
Free Flow Speed Calculation:
𝑽𝒇
• Field Measurement: 𝑭𝑭𝑺 = 𝑺𝑭𝑴 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟓
𝒇𝑯𝑽

• Estimating FFS: 𝑭𝑭𝑺 = 𝑩𝑭𝑭𝑺 − 𝒇𝑳𝒔 − 𝒇𝑨

Flow Rate:
𝑽
𝒗𝒑 =
𝑷𝑯𝑭 × 𝒇𝑮 × 𝒇𝑯𝑽

Average Travel Speed:

𝑨𝑻𝑺 = 𝑭𝑭𝑺 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟓𝒗𝒑 − 𝒇𝒏𝒑
Where;
𝐴𝑇𝑆 = average travel speed for both directions of travel combined (km/hr)
𝑓𝑛𝑝 = adjustment for percentage of no-passing zones (Exhibit 20-11, HCM2000)
𝑣𝑝 = passenger car unit flow rate for peak 15 minute period (pcu/hr)
Two-Lane Highways: HCM LOS
Two-Lane Highways: HCM LOS
LOS Determination Procedure
• Determine average travel speed (ATS) and percent time spent flowing (PTSF), and determine the
governing LOS by comparing with Exhibit 20-2, HCM2000
Free Flow Speed Calculation:
𝑉𝑓
• Field Measurement: 𝐹𝐹𝑆 = 𝑆𝐹𝑀 + 0.0125 Where;
𝑓𝐻𝑉
𝑃𝑇𝑆𝐹 = percent time-spent-following
• Estimating FFS: 𝐹𝐹𝑆 = 𝐵𝐹𝐹𝑆 − 𝑓𝐿𝑠 − 𝑓𝐴
𝐵𝑃𝑇𝑆𝐹 = base percent time-spent-
Flow Rate: following for both directions of travel
𝑉 combined
𝑣𝑝 =
𝑃𝐻𝐹 × 𝑓𝐺 × 𝑓𝐻𝑉
𝑓𝑑/𝑛𝑝 = adjustment for the combined
Average Travel Speed: effect of the directional distribution of
𝐴𝑇𝑆 = 𝐹𝐹𝑆 − 0.0125𝑣𝑝 − 𝑓𝑛𝑝 traffic and of the percentage of no-
passing zones on percent time-spent-
Percent Time-Spent-Following: following. (Exhibit 20-12, HCM2000)
𝑃𝑇𝑆𝐹 = 𝐵𝑃𝑇𝑆𝐹 + 𝑓𝑑/𝑛𝑝
Two-Lane Highways: HCM LOS
Percent Time-Spent-Following:
𝑷𝑻𝑺𝑭 = 𝑩𝑷𝑻𝑺𝑭 + 𝒇𝒅/𝒏𝒑
• Base percent time-spent-following
𝑩𝑷𝑻𝑺𝑭 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎(𝟏 − 𝒆−𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟕𝟗𝒗𝒑 )
• No passing zone factor (𝑓𝑑/𝑛𝑝 )
Two-Lane Highways: HCM LOS
LOS Determination Procedure
• Determine average travel speed (ATS) and percent time spent flowing (PTSF), and determine the
governing LOS by comparing with Exhibit 20-2, HCM2000
Flow Rate:
𝑉
𝑣𝑝 =
𝑃𝐻𝐹 × 𝑓𝐺 × 𝑓𝐻𝑉

Average Travel Speed:

𝐴𝑇𝑆 = 𝐹𝐹𝑆 − 0.0125𝑣𝑝 − 𝑓𝑛𝑝

Percent Time-Spent-Following:
𝑃𝑇𝑆𝐹 = 𝐵𝑃𝑇𝑆𝐹 + 𝑓𝑑/𝑛𝑝

Determining LOS:
• Compare 𝑣𝑝 with two-way capacity of 3,200 pc/hr
– If 𝑣𝑝 >3,200 pc/hr: LOS F
– If for either direction (applying directional split), flow >1,700 pc/hr: LOS F
• Otherwise use Exhibit 20-3/ Exhibit 20-4 (HCM2000) for Class 1 or Class 2 highways
Two-Lane Highways: HCM LOS
Two-Lane Highways: HCM LOS - Example
Description
A Class I two-lane highway has a base free-flow speed of 100km/hr. Lane width is 3.6m and
shoulder width is 1.2m. There are six access points per kilometre. The roadway is located in rolling
terrain with 40 percent no-passing zones. The two-way traffic volume is 800 veh/hr, with a PHF of
0.90. The directional split is 60/40. Traffic includes 5% trucks and 10% recreational vehicles.
Determine the level of service.
Process
• Determine free-flow speed
• Assume trial value of 𝑣𝑝 (to determine 𝑓𝐺 , 𝐸𝑇 and 𝐸𝑅 )
• Calculate 𝑣𝑝 for both the ATS and PTSF approaches
• Determine LOS for ATS approach
• Determine LOS for PTSF approach
• Select worst-case scenario.
Two-Lane Highways: HCM LOS - Example
Description
A Class I two-lane highway has a base free-flow speed of 100km/hr. Lane width is 3.6m and shoulder width is
1.2m. There are six access points per kilometre. The roadway is located in rolling terrain with 40 percent no-
passing zones. The two-way traffic volume is 800 veh/hr, with a PHF of 0.90. The directional split is 60/40. Traffic
includes 5% trucks and 10% recreational vehicles. Determine the level of service.

Determine free-flow speed

𝑘𝑚
𝐹𝐹𝑆 = 𝐵𝐹𝐹𝑆 − 𝑓𝐿𝑆 − 𝑓𝐴 = 100 − 2.1 − 4.0 = 93.9
ℎ𝑟
𝑓𝐿𝑆 = 2.1 (Exhibit 20-5)
𝑓𝐴 = 4.0 (Exhibit 20-6)

Assume trial value of 𝑣𝑝 (to determine 𝑓𝐺 , 𝐸𝑇 and 𝐸𝑅 )

𝑉 800 𝑝𝑐𝑢 This value is consistent
𝑣𝑝 = = = 889
𝑃𝐻𝐹 0.9 ℎ𝑟 with the initial trial 𝑣𝑝
value as it lies between
Determine 𝒗𝒑 for speed calculation 600 and 1200 pcu/hr
𝑉 800
𝑣𝑝 = = = 1008
𝑃𝐻𝐹 × 𝑓𝐺 × 𝑓𝐻𝑉 0.90 × 0.93 × 0.948 1
𝑓𝐻𝑉 =
1 + 𝑃𝑇 𝐸𝑇 − 1 + 𝑃𝑅 𝐸𝑅 − 1
𝑓𝑔 = 0.93 (Exhibit 20-7); 𝐸𝑇 = 1.9 (Exhibit 20-9); 𝐸𝑅 = 1.1 (Exhibit 20-9). 1
= = 0.948
1 + 0.05 1.9 − 1 + 0.10 1.1 − 1
Two-Lane Highways: HCM LOS - Example
Description
A Class I two-lane highway has a base free-flow speed of 100km/hr. Lane width is 3.6m and shoulder width is
1.2m. There are six access points per kilometre. The roadway is located in rolling terrain with 40 percent no-
passing zones. The two-way traffic volume is 800 veh/hr, with a PHF of 0.90. The directional split is 60/40. Traffic
includes 5% trucks and 10% recreational vehicles. Determine the level of service.

Determine 𝒗𝒑 for speed calculation This value is consistent

with the initial trial 𝑣𝑝
𝑉 800
𝑣𝑝 = = = 1008 value as it lies between
𝑃𝐻𝐹 × 𝑓𝐺 × 𝑓𝐻𝑉 0.90 × 0.93 ×10.948 600 and 1200 pcu/hr
𝑓𝐻𝑉 =
1 + 𝑃𝑇 𝐸𝑇 − 1 + 𝑃𝑅 𝐸𝑅 − 1
𝑓𝑔 = 0.93 (Exhibit 20-7) 1
= = 0.948
𝐸𝑇 = 1.9 (Exhibit 20-9) 1 + 0.05 1.9 − 1 + 0.10 1.1 − 1

𝐸𝑅 = 1.1 (Exhibit 20-9).

• Check 2- way Capacity: 𝑣𝑝 = 1008 < 3200: Under capacity (OK)

• Check 1-way Capacity: 𝑣𝑝,1−𝑤𝑎𝑦 = 0.6 × 1008 = 605 < 1700: Under capacity (OK)
Two-Lane Highways: HCM LOS - Example
Description
A Class I two-lane highway has a base free-flow speed of 100km/hr. Lane width is 3.6m and shoulder width is
1.2m. There are six access points per kilometre. The roadway is located in rolling terrain with 40 percent no-
passing zones. The two-way traffic volume is 800 veh/hr, with a PHF of 0.90. The directional split is 60/40. Traffic
includes 5% trucks and 10% recreational vehicles. Determine the level of service.
This value is consistent
Determine 𝒗𝒑 for percent time spent following: with the initial trial 𝑣𝑝
𝑉 800 value as it lies between
𝑣𝑝 = = = 969 600 and 1200 pcu/hr
𝑃𝐻𝐹 × 𝑓𝐺 × 𝑓𝐻𝑉 0.90 × 0.94 1× 0.976
𝑓𝐻𝑉 =
1 + 𝑃𝑇 𝐸𝑇 − 1 + 𝑃𝑅 𝐸𝑅 − 1
𝑓𝑔 = 0.94 (Exhibit 20-8) 1
= = 0.976
𝐸𝑇 = 1.5 (Exhibit 20-10) 1 + 0.05 1.5 − 1 + 0.10 1 − 1

𝐸𝑅 = 1.0 (Exhibit 20-10).

Determine average travel speed:

𝑘𝑚
𝐴𝑇𝑆 = 𝐹𝐹𝑆 − 0.0125𝑣𝑝 − 𝑓𝑛𝑝 = 93.9 − 0.0125 1008 − 2.5 = 78.8
ℎ𝑟
1008−1000
𝑓𝑛𝑝 = 2.5 − 2.5 − 2.0 = 2.48 ≈ 2.5 (Exhibit 20-11, interpolated)
1200−1000