Crovend Inet 997), 65-85 Ground improvement by means of jet-grouting P. LUNARDI* University of Parina, Parma, italy After a description of jet-grouting technology some typi. «cal examples are given of its applications toa number of civil engineering problems, The following aspects are examined a) suitability for different types of ground; (). design criteria: (2) monitoring during constriction; (recent technological developments; (e) jetgrouting techniques in civil and environmental engineering works: (some case histories, Keywords: Jet grouting; state-of-the-art reviews plant & equipment; tunnelling; slope stability; foundations Introduction Apres avoir décrit la technologie du jel-grouting, Varticle présente des exemples typiques application pour la solution d'un grand nombre de problemes d'ingénierie civile. II examine lout particuliérement: a) es possibilités Wapplication dans les di do tereainy Ih) les eritdres de conception et de dimen: {©} les coniréles en cours de chantier; les innovations les plus recentes; ) les possibilités application du systtme dans les ‘ouvrages d’ingénierie civile ot envieonnementale: férents types ()) quelques unes des applications réalisées. The jet-grouting technique ‘The transformation of cohesionless sin into s in nature over very long periods time during diageness. It caused by the vory strong prossures of lithostatie leads for tectonic forces. Now, however, duced by a number of artifical means on-site chang the jet-grouting’ technique Jot-grouting awes its arigins lo exporionces acquired some it cats actually: be pro decades ago an the oil drilling industry when sinblocking stings of «ull rods locke at great depths, Applica for the first time in the civil engineering field by Cemenation Co, in Pakistan, in about 1950, and subse- quently used by the Japanose, it was intenduced into italy about ten years ago and systematically vse in various civil engineering, Works with inereasing success, thanks to the development 0! adequate equipment (pumps, automatic drilling rigs, etc) and suitable structural designs: ot-arout ing, therefore, is still a fairly young technology open 10. further development. This article describes the current state of the art andl also examines the following, ind suitability for differont types of (8) design criteria ©) controls during con (2) recent technological developments; w) niques in Gvil and envieonanestal engl neoring works: (f) some ease histories, Address far comzespamdonce: Rocks Sp.A., Plaza San Mao 20121 Milan, aly 1 9) Paps sccepled 3 Operational methods and equipment The jotsronting’ technology primarily consists of fet fig controlled quantities of cement gmt through smell diometer bore holes [7 ta 10cm diameter) to eat conurolled volumes of yrounc. The treatment can be performed The fit lco wore develope using three different tn Rly an the thir spanese origin. They are as follows: 4) injections of grout only (monofluid system); injections of air a ‘out (Liluld system); (©) injections of air, water and yrout (tritluid system), In monofivit etxrouting, ground disruption is achieved by the action af cement groit, which also has the function of In biuid je-grouting the disruptive action is entrusted 1 a high speed jet of gront guided by a ring of compressed air at about 8-12 bar pressure, which limits dispersion and, ansequently, increases the penetrating, power In trfluid jet-grouting disruption is easentially performed by an air-guided jet of water (air pressure about S bar; water pressure of about 409 bar), which breaks down and partially ‘ashes out the soil, which is subsequently replaced by grout Bi bar Operating conditions and requirements on site, in terms of available space, consruction stages andl, must import anily, the type of sod to be (reated, determine the choice of the most appropriate jet-grouting method to be used re | shows the epeipment rxlred fo porionn jet injected at a pressure of about Comgan biis (1) Batch ng plant (2) Xf 1997 Thomas Toler Series LedPe Lavan ® conen ne @'wsiciagna © Wor possum ros @ Paral toa ant curl soa © omnis BEES SRE BRT Fig. Equpmere required io petorm jergrosting tremmant 400 to 50) Ap high pressure pump @), with compressors, for Bifluid and tefluid treatments Panel board and control board (4) Drilling rig (9 (Fig. 2) The string of drill rods (1 in Fig. 2) on the rig has joints that will withstand high pressure; at the botiom end it is connected to the injection charaber and to the bit, ssually 9. tricone. In the monefluid system, the upper rod is connected to the high pressure grout pump by a swivel-oint and a flexible pipe (2), Standard rod strings of 60, 76 and 90 mn) al-are used, Equipment used to perform billed and tele jet grouting are provided with a awivel for separate grout/air and grout air/water supply, respectively, fed by appropriate pumps and compressors, ‘The rods Used fer bifluid jet routing, (76 to Mmm od) have two coaxial ducts to allow separate flow of air and grout. The trifluid system mqires tmplo-dust rods (76 10 90 mm od.) in order to allow ait, water and geout to flow separavely. The injection chamber Is located just above the bit, For the monofluid system, its a hellow steel cylinder, about 40cm long, usually of the samy outer diameter as the drilling rods (616 9m od.) The walls have fone oF more radial holes fitted with nozzles and there is 9 central neck on the inside at the bottom af the chamber, 2 cn in diameter, to allow the drilling fluid to reach the bit when dillmg. This neck can be blocked by dropping a 25 em dinmetorstocl ball inside the rods thus forcing the grout to be injected through the side nozzles Grout nozzles cant be ene to four in number, with saner diameters: generally ranging from 1-5 to +0mmy they are usually staggered T to 2m, from each other. Recently much larger diameter nozzles have boon used. They obviously roguire high capacity pumps. Drilling operations are ustelly pexformed by tition oF rorary-perenssive action, with or without the use of drlling uid, Rotary drilling, requiring light drill rigs i preferred in 66 nem £ medium to finesgrained soils while in cohesionless coarse: grained soils andlor when large boulders are found. retary percussion drilling can be better in terms of performance, alihough heavier equipment is required. ‘The same rig, i generally used for drilling and high pressure grouting, Once drilling has. finished and the required depth reached, the neck at the botiom of the injection chamber is blocked so that grouting ean commence. The pump starts operating at very high pressure (0-6) MPa} pushing. the grout through the flexible pipe 2 into the rods (1), down to the injection chamber and finally, through the: nozzles radially ints the ground ‘The dill rod is extracted at ¢ carefully controlled rate and rotated 10 provide the correct angular velocity: t produce the eylinurical columns required, The fluid can be pumped into the ground at very high energy levels (in fact the jet penetrates the ground at a speed of 800 km/h or more) Over the years some contractors have developed drilling rigs featuring increased power, flexibility. and rebability, with the aim of obtaining more versatile equipment, rec cing. operating times and improving size, shape and final festores of the trented ground Rolary and rolary-percussive drilling rigs eve bee developed to work in restricted spaces and also to perform horizontal jet-grouting, required for many ground improve- iment eperstions especially in underground constrictions Figure 3 shows ane of the frst rigs, manuietured in Italy by Rodio Sp.a. specifically designed! for near horizonsa rotary-pereussive driling and jet-grouting. Hydraulic jacks allow the mast to rotate [80 degrees with adjustable snctina- tion, up to 14 degrees (25%) with respect ta the horizontal ‘The first horizontal jot grouting work was carried out using, the design of the euther in the ‘Campiolo’ tunnel on the Udine-Tarvisio railway line of the Italian State Railways, using ang of this typeosieg Frente pe evar nae ©©90 Fig 2, Daitvigfer let grouths Working principles The operations fo be carried out for monofluid and billuid tgrouting, the mest widely used systems, are performed in two stages (Fig. 4: Grove inuprocerent by ays of jetsgrouting First stage, insertion of the duit-reds, equipped with the nozzle tearing chamber, down to the design treatment depth by drilling, To achieve good results this slage requites skill, ‘as the treatment could be compromised by unwanted rod deviations, Seon stages retarn or extraction stage, The drill-10d is extracted with rate of ascent and angular yeloclty carefully controlled while injecting grout through the nozzles; as mentioned above, with a biflaid system the grout jt is aur guided to goin more penetrating power The following paiameters are controlled to obtain ve umes ot improved soil of the desired shape and size: grout pressure, rate of ascent, angular yeloaty, aumbers of noz- ales, nozzle id. Treatment improves the mechanical pro- erties of the soils to the point where permeability and strengtl is compatable to that of « concrete. Operating parameters The principal operating parameters are a () number and diameter of nozzles: ©) watet/cement ratie.of the grout; 1) injection time: Injection pressure The syection pressure is controlled by pressure gauges; the jet energy and consequently the radius of action depend on presare. The upper pressure limit is essentially determined by the capacity of the pump used, Operational pressures of 40 10 60 MPa are generally employes. The nuntier aad dinmetcr of uczzles determine the tnjection capacity, the volume of grout injected into the ground per tunit of time and, consequently, the raie of treatment. Of course, high flow rates requite high-power pumps to main tain high pressure. Larger nozzle diameters make more eflicient use of the power employed while a larger number fof nozzles, with the total delivery rate held constant, de- creases performance, due ta greater loss of heacl It follows that if high-power injection pamps are not available it is preferable to limit the number uf nozzles The mvter/enent rat of the grout is the most tmportant parameter with regard t the mechanical properties of the treated soil and tho initial behaviour of the soil-proat mixture. A low water/cement ratio where there 5 groundwater flow, a this coukd wash away ‘extremely important mnzea | f = i eo ) 30——>} 60. Fg 3. Oni ng for near-norzona jecgroutg (measurements meres |_1—Pe Lienartt Jot grout cous EES SO 000 Fig 4. Jovarouen in operation the cement shortly after injection. Laboratory and field tests have shown a relationship between compressive sirength of tueated soil and the water/cement ratio, Tine jection time depends on the ascest rate and. the ‘angular celocty of the drill rod "The ascent p ite is controlled by a timer placed on the dell rig. Roising is usually performed in 4 cm) steps, thus allow ing the jet to act on the surrounding ground, for set time intervals. The diameter and the mechanical properties of the gtound treated as well as of course the time reqtirod treatment are all affected by the ascent rate: For any given soil types delivery rate and pressure there isa minimum ascent rate below which operation is not feasible. It has in fact been discovered that, if the extraction speed is toa slow, the jet, not having sufficient energy to enlarge the radius of action, starts to flow along the outer surface of the deill rod, The angular evlocity of the rods will depend on the ascer rate and the hwo must be regulated tagether to optimize the disrupting action of the jet. There isa lower limit for angular velocity, halow which jet reaction occurs This reduces efficiency unless special precautions are taken as shun By seceat research (See section entitled “lanovations Table 1 gives typical values Jor the principal operating parameters, The columns produced Using the monoflaid system, columns of diameter varying from (140 to 1-40 my are currently obtained depending on the features of the ground and on the operating parameters used (Gee Figs and 6) Table, Operaung parents or jergroutng The bifluid system increases the jet power and conse: quently {ts peneitating capacity, The diameter of the co: lumns obtained using a billuid system is 3i-70% greater than that obtained swith a monofluid system, while mochanical sirength is reduced by the effect of air entrained within the treated males The trifluid system, which for technical reasons cannot be Used for horizontal work, produces columns with diameters larger than 2m, but the higher cos), the lower operating Hecibility and, above all, the risk of loosening the surround ing ground when soil iy disrupted and washed out has limited tis use Colunins having a farge diameter van also be oblaihed using the ‘two-stage’ system. Grout injection ¥s preceded by water injection (list stage, designet to breakdown of the ground. The sub sequent grout imection (second stage) replaces water arte the washed-out finer soil fractions, As it encounters less resistance from the alevady. remoulde very high pressu produce. peelimita round, the grow! penetrates deeper. Moreover, the removal of the finest fractions gives better mechanical properties 10 the treated material Suitability of ss treatment s for jet-grouting From the experience we have acquired, we can conti denily say thet jet-grouting ean be successiully performed i ‘nny hype of sod, mdependently of grain size and pormeatility, Sawn Fis] Preset | Nowe | Annie | Awivqec | wiense ] Sommael Netidemm | emmin ra Hoetad | Gon] wos] 13:10 ss | 15 To aaa Gs Vbxacs 10-30 2 rO-15 70-400 Ar | toe z 000-1608 Tama [Grow Taxed es 7 ar ar 300 ra ots 4200-0200 ir lasts sis 2 49-100, 68Ground inprovement by menns of jer-grouting Fig. Soi cclurns obtained ty jeegrousng trssement with the exception of very hard cohesive soils: whese strength canno! be overcome by the jet, This technology has the considerable advantage of being able to treat slratifed sails (alternating sands, sills. clays, ete.) providing a uniform degree of cementation and waterproofing, independently of the nature of the original ground (see Fig. 7). In fine-granied soi's the outer surtace of the colunins obtained iS normally well defined and fairly reguler. In curse grained and heterogeneous grounds, hhand, this suriace appearance of ‘oot effect, Le. grouting dhrough elaquage ‘ol the ground outside the radius. of action of the jet, occurTing as a result of the escape of a small amount of grout along preferential paths into the surrounding ground (ee Pg. 6). The occurrence of still groundwater does not in any way compromise the results of the treatment, When seepage occurs special precautions. such as the addition of accel erator to the afoul, give good rosulle even at groundwater fn the: other irregular ond there 3s the systematic discharge velocities of the orser of 0:1 ex The compressice shear stroxgth of jet-grauted volumes is normally 3 function of the water/cement ratio of the injected grout ard of the grade of the ground. It generally increases from cloys to gravels (see Fig. 8). Maxim strengths in excess of 30 MPa have beer reached in sands and gravels, while in fine-grainest peaty soils its hard to attain values 10) limes lower. Generally speaking, with menofluid systems and grout camposed af coment and water only, longterm Shear strength in sandy and gravelly soils usally produces average valies of 12 1 19 MPa In fine-grained soils, satistactory strength values are coblained only by resorting to high cement) water ratios (ai least 12-13) in such cases values of 2 to 14 MPa have been obtained. Using the trifluid system it is possible to atiain even greater strengths, de to the purity of the column obtained, ‘while the blduid system i slightly penalized in this respect by the passible occurrence of entrained air bubbles, The suffuess of grounds treated with different jet techniques presents an even greater variation. [yg rotio £/R, Between the secant modulus: Eand the compres: sive suength R_ tends to Increase with R,, from a minimum ‘of 200-300 in fine soils to about 1000 in gravels and sands (see Fig. 91.” With bifluid systems strengths are lower than with monofhtid because of the effect of entrained air, In addition, for cohesive soils a larger volume of soil is affected by the same quantity of water/cement mix, using the same specitic energy, due to the higher penetration of the air guided jet. The trifluid system shows an even greater variation in results: in grounds which interfere with the setting of the concrete, the qualitative mechanical outcome is positive only if the operation of cutting and removing the original ground is complete and the two principal operations of the system, namely cutting with air and water and replacement with ‘grout, are kept seperate. To favour the replacement of lisraptest and washed-out material, it iS vital that the grout always has a low water/cement ratio. © Es the secant modulus, at a sess equal to Df “P. Lunardi outing must involve the following siages: oil investigations ard preliminary field tests (2) choice of grout type and operating parameters G) decicing the pattern, shape and size of the growled volumes deniification of the model to study the 5) choice of the monitoring: st appropriate mathematical train behaviour Investigation and field testing Preliminary investigations play a fundameniat mle be- fig. 7. Resse obesined trom jgroutng treamentin strafed sol cause they determine whether jet-grouting is feasible and nSandy gravel of 0% % @ 0 3% LUnaialcompressve stength i MPs Fg 9, asic proper of rated grounds also the main parameters of the work. Preliminary investiga tions include: )_ exploratory boreholes to determine grotand cancltions; (Q). static and/or dynamic penetration tests to" evaluate th ‘mechanical properties of the ground (©) laboratory permeability tesis, particularly for cohesive sails: (2) Hold injactions tests on 9 site similar to actual working eonditions “The field injections test ip certainly the main source of information for deciding on the grout composition and the ‘operating parameters, This is also because current theory does not yet provide reliable support in this are. {A number of fest column: or treated volumes of the same Size and pattern as the actual desigh are drilled and injected con a suitable ste, generally adjacent to that of tw acttal ‘operation, The working parameters are varied for each test ‘colimn, oe each group of columns, iy order to subsequently choose the most appropriate combinations based om the test results, Upon completion of the field injection tests, the following lests are performed. 8). Sonie tests (downhole and crosshole|. Vertical pipes are inserted into the ground and/or into jet-grouted vol- umes, at preset distances, In dewwalole fsIs a probe equipped with a sound transmitter and a sound receiver device which are set at an appropriate vertical distance from each other is lowered into the borehole, The sound waves emitted 6 through the treated ground surrounding the hole fefore reaching the receiver. Amplitude, frequency and shape of the signal are profoundly modified by the characteristics of the material, which: also aflecs the speed of the sound (Fig. 10). Diagrams like those shower in Fig, 11 are obtained. The crosshole technology measures the horizontal wave velocities between iso points located in adjacent boreholes by inserting a sound transmitter and soured recoivents) into thems. (0) Dirwet site ingpection of treated volumes, by excavation, tw visually check diameter, structural continuity and possible overlapping (see Fig. 12). Grove improvement by oneans of etgrauting Fig 10, Fale jocion tate che eolumar downhole sted (ees fg) vents Nate CE) Hones Fig: 11. Example of eats acquired Hom downhole tests (ee Fe. 10) ° 20 ©) Destructive tests on cores of te ted ground, both vertically and transversely cored, so as to evaluate mechanical strength by laboratory tests (see big. 13)Pe banana Fig, 1, Fed njecuon es: rect ate pectic of rested volumes Jet-grouting design When it comes to designing the pattenn and dimensions of je-arouting treatment tis essential that designers have 3008 understanding of varions fundamental concept (a) volumes of ground treated by jét-grouting are comsnted ‘ground and not a structure, even if they have a shape Which is reminiscent of that of pil (®) when giving a static function to treated ground, it must be remembered thal the existence of volumes in the ground that are more rigid than thase in the watreated adjacent ground may possibly be used to produce a system which channels stresses in a desired direction, (&) the treated ground can take compression and steir, and consequently the application of other types af stresses {e tension) should be avoided In this connection it must be mentioned that itis possible to reinforce the jet-grouting, if necoscary, but itis importont to keep in mind that o real structure, Tike reinforced concrete, will never be obtained. The insertion of bars and. steel sections inte improved ground can be achieved, before setting takes place. by igrivity or using high frequency vibrators, Calculation models The types of problems connected with jot-grosted ground are clearly nonlinear as the materials involved have typi cally 2 non-linear stress-strain’ behaviour, In addition 10) this, tt 1s often necessary to antalyse structures whese shape n changes over time due to excavation or consteuction oper tions. Consequently it ts easy to undesstand that, apart from the simplest cases, the analysis of such problems implies the use of the finite element method. This starts with analysis of ws natural untreated conditions and develops through an appropriate sequence o! stages realistically approximating, the actual development of the work. Monitoring Itis important to organize an elficient system for monitor: ing jetyrouting operations, namely. monitoring durig tre r Jreaiment, During treatment, special care should be laken to ascertain the reliability of the prncipal mechanical anc elecincal characteristics, which requires the continuous monitoring and recording of such operational parameters as water/cement ratis, prossure ant delivery of grout, as lel rods Otter monitoring is needed to: Imorh and monatoring and angular velociyy of ie 2) check thet drilling isin the correct direction; ) detest possible surface Lfting and/or settlement of adjacent ground \especially when the wark is carried Dut near buildings oF other strtctures) ( (©) analyse the offlucnt material flossing to the suctace during injection, The dnal features of the improvement can be estimated from qualitarive and quantitative examination of this material Monitoring alter treatment includes:ud iprncyment by meas of jebgoutingg Fg. 12, Desructive ests on cares on erated ground 2) oad tests (in the cise of foundation coluinns), extended to several columns; 0) sonic tests to check the improvement of mechanical properties a6 wvell as the continuity and possible over Inpping of contiguows columns, Over the yours remarkable piogress hes been siade in the Use of ser-grouting technology. These advances have oecur red both in the equipment, in operational techniques, in studies an grout, and i construction designs developed 10 the maximum: advantage from the particular features extra of Technological progress Research has mainly been directed to the mechanics of pumps, as well as 10 © non high prossure Circuits andl on more eificient nozzle shapes. The frst aim is, to increase the disruptive power of the jel to give it a wider dius of action and to add sand to the gromt to give stronger treated materials, Experimental field tests were pesformed on both soft dayey/silty soils and on gravel, adding well-graded limestone and/or silica sand aggregate up te and above 1 mm in particle diameter, in amounts up te 1006 of the weight of the coment to the mis Pumps of 2700 n.p. with a capacity of 1500 lites/min at 300 bar pressure and operating with monofluid jets were usec! to create columns of more than 2m in diameter, composed of homogenous, compact moriar, even in layers of lay, These iesulis were achieved with fast perforinance umes and also a remarkable reduction in the quantity of effluents. The second aim is to perform injection while drilling. In the first experiments carriee ott, the injection chambers were eqttipped with one to five nozzles fitted so a8 &© direct the jets al an angle that would favour penetiation of the drill. The aster performance times, as compared to existing techniques. The third and final aim t= to reduce of eliminate the 10 low rod interesting obtained which allowed diaphragms of im- proved ground to be formed in place, rom a single drill hole (see Figs 1 and 15) which normally secur due ascent rates and Tow angular velocities. Ver resilis were One of the most exciting sesults was the wide radius of action of a single jet. This was 3 10 4m whieh, wth low angular velocities, produced columns: of about 8 min Recently jet-gronting technology has ameter, applied to the waterproofing of rocks where traditional low injoctions are inefficient as the injected grout tends rough fractures and /or joints without filling them An interesting example (see next section) of the tise of thie technology is cm the firombach dam (Germany) Jet-grouting in civil and environmental engineering works. A design outline The jet-grouting ground imp widely used in soveral field ovement technique has been covil engineering, thanks 10P. Lunardi Fg: 14. Diaphragm of improved ground by jetgrouing from a single dil hele specific structural designs which can be applied to various ‘operational sittations, Early uses concerned cirth retaining and foundation work, perliaps because of the columnar shape oF the treated volumes, which is reminiscent of piles, This was quickly followed by more sophisticated and ingenious uses for slope stabilization, hydraulic works and excavation of tunnels in loose ground. A few examples of actual applications helps te trace the development of design models Retaining structures Thore have boon considemble advances in the design of confinement for open pit and. trench excavations (see Fig 10). Early designs consisted of one row of columns of treated ground spaced at varying distances, located along the edge Of the future excavation, Such a design was first used in ltaly by tho author in 1980 lor the construction of the Sesto San Giovanni pit for the Milan underground rallway (Fig, 6) A simular design ivas used in Lyens to protect cut and cover excavations of the ‘Sans Souci’ station on line D of the rctiopolitan railway. In this case the soil cohesion made il possible to increase the distance between the 7) ent diameter jel-groutedl columns to appresimately 2 mettes (see Fig, 17), Such designs, although ellective tor temporary confine iment of excavations in coarse-grained or cohesive soils with moderately good geomechanical properties, are nol suf ficiently reliable for long-term protection, Consequently, in order to achieve this, more: complex designs were de- veloped, which consisted of several staggered rows of jev-grouted e9 togethor with ease and speed of construction snd as a tesul, mins. This technique gave excellent results rapidly gained acceptance, often replacing, traditional tech nologies. I is sufficient to recall the success it has enjoyed, together with horizontal jet-grouting, technology, in’ the construction of tunnel portale in cohesianless of slightly cohesive soils (Fig. 18). The jet-grouted ground means thatSedtions A Sectors 2-8 vatepire columns ‘apr Fig 16 Types designs for retaining structres Ground improcement by meas of jt-grouting tunnelling can be performed with 2 very low overburden, which in tum reduces the amount of surface excavation, works thus minimizing the risk of slope instability. AS: show in Figs 19) and 20 this methed provides outstending results trom an enwizoamental and landscape point of view ‘5s compared to traditional methods. Finally Fig, 16 shows the ‘truss! design weed at Sermo (eee Tig, 21) near Naples to support trench excavation along the 5 railway line (198p). It has the advantage of making the ground confined between the ros of jetarnuted columns, ontrbute to the Stability of the entine systor, This grond, in addition to being improved by clagua teiexial stess, fs aloo unter Stabilization of slopes Figure 22 shows some typical designs, font shaped, “bit tresses’ Get-growtesl columas radially placed, in the plan wiew, around a crrenlar arc) and ast, but net least, large eter caissans, which are often very efficke The first type of design was used for the first time at Gela fn 1982, combined with acar horizontal drains, to stop lndslide caused by the eresion produced at the we by groundwater seeping along the surface of an underlying impermeable layer. The combined action of drainage and jel= growling provided an adequato safely fhelar 16 provent ig 17. Inproved ground by jer arouing forex and cover excavations of the'Sans SoueF sation on ine D af the metrapeltan alway in Lyons [France) 6Laman FA Section Fg 18, Tunnel poral shot structure using eegrauing failure of the slope, which has several buildings located on the top. The ‘butiress’ pattem was used in 1934 in Val Topina to stop the slide ofa silty dotritus layer, which ocenered during, the construction of « parking area beside the “Fleminia’ No. 3 state oad. Jet-grouting technology provided the following advan- tages la) ground removal was not requited, thus further decom pression of the slope was prevented; 76 |) it did not cause vibrations which might have triggered other landslides (0) it did not everload the slope thaaks to the lightweight equipment needed to peroren the jobs ld) iechievest complete claquage oF the ground resulting in satisfactory stabilization, Caissons have boon recently used to stabilize the ente to the Southern pertal of the Moat Blane motorway ‘unnelGravion amprovioment by ntcons of fet-greuting (done Fg. 22, Typial dager for subilaaion of slopes Sectors Aa Pian views Spread ttigs on imoroved wound Fg 21, Improved ground by jecgrouang for trerch excavation near Naples cr) Foundations and underpinning Jetgrouting hos found wide use in foundation and under pinning works. As far as foundations are concerned, two dlsign methods are mainly used (lig, 29, Fig, 23, Typical design for foundation workP Lunert (1) Spread footings on improved ground: this design technigue with its gradually increasing rigidity is particu: larly suitable in sei been used extensively for viaducts at Barclonecclia. (sce ong the Frejus highway, and in Yat Topina. nic areas, Foundations of this type have Fig 24 Works tor spretd (octing on improved ground at Bordoneecia (Proj gry) ASCOT Fig. 28. Cassens under grounewater be wang legac (bay biege over the Fell River Italy 78 (2) Lange diameter caissons: these are suitable for founda tions oan slopes needing stabilization or in river channels, Large diameter caisson contruction is a vety rapid) and vcoromical operation using jetgsouting and truly ireplace: able when working below groundwater level, It involves the construction of a continuous diaphragm of overlapping jet-grouted columns and a jet-grouited bottom plug. Inside, geound excavation is performed under dry conditions, down to the top of the bottom plug. The well is then usually flled ‘wit lean concrete up to the footing level Caissons under groundwater level were built using this system for the First fime in Carnia (1083) for the foundations of a railway bridge over the Fella river along the italian State Railway Udine-Tarvisto line (sre Figs 25 and 29) As far as underpinning is concerned, jel-geouiting is rich in interesting case-histories, Figures 27 and 28 show the design used for the Banca del Monte in Parma (1682) In situations, such as these in which it Is necessary to. work close 10 ancient stone buildings, dangerous uplift pheno- mena may occur # traditional injection technigues are tsed, With jet-grouting, however, the raclites of action of the jet is properly controlled and the operating parameters appro: priately set, there is no problem even al a short distance from footings, despite the high grout pressures used, Another “use for foundations is shown in Fig, 29, particular application which has found » powerful ion methed in jot grouting: the repair of foundations in river channel, The repair operation on the foundations of the State Railway bridge over the Taro river, damaged in November Fig. 26 Caisonz under groundwater bule sng jet-groxtng (rilaay bridge over the Fela River. iy excavation etd the eassonof lal po Seen oot - eee ey a Bee 855 30.30, OE (SSIS Se CEES | Grown improvement by mens of jet-grouing ) ea ° 10 2 DW Fg.27, Devan used for underpinning work fer the Bones del ante in Parma (se Fig. 28) 1982 by exceptional flooding which caused the partial collapse of the bridge itself, is of importance here because of the time in which the rapair had to ho completed (Fig. 30) ‘The designed ground improvement work was owo-fold and consisted of (see Fig, 29: (1) Creation of « continuous protective belt of jet-grouted columns around the foundations of each pies, of sutfi- cient thickness and depth to guarantee its primary function of combating the undermining action of the ‘water running in the river channel and sub channel, and to strongly limit lateral decompression of the foundation, aground so as to help conserve its load-bearing capacity (2) Ground improvement using tracitioral: Inve pressure grouting, inside the protective belt, to reduce permeabil- etrongth ity and incr Tunnels Jet grouting has played a fundamental role in the progress that has been achieved over the last ten years in tunnel construction. Horizontal jet-grouting in particular made it possible to overcome all the difficulties comected with, excavation in cohestonless soils. In this case also a statics design that is congrient with the features of the teated ground was fundamental, nomely, a desig in which the matertal is mainly subected to compressive and. shear stresses. This is the: amcus ‘umbrella’ treatment which, by penetrating beyend the face of a tunnel, develops arching in the ground ahead of the exeavation, The frst full-scale applicaticn of this leshnigue, whieh as developed by the author in 1983, was during the construction of the ‘Campiolo’ railway tunnel, Figure 31 shows the method employed. The continuity of the treated ground sound the funnel is very For this purpose, the excavation és performed ia hyo stages. It is necessary to Rt gyOut a sertes of near vertical columns 10 transfer the stresses channelled by the arch of the treated= ground down into the ground before the excavation is lowered down to the invert, Experience has shown that making sure tha: there is good stress transfer from the arch of treated-ground to the untreated ground has an outstand- ing effect an convergence control. As a result the method. important »PeLanaet Fig 28. Underpinning works forthe Banca dil Mente Par sy) adopted for the ‘Campiolo’ tunnel was subsequently. mod: ified to intensify improvement of tho lower hall of the cross section, under the ribs The use of horizontal coupled with vertical jeegrouting, technology to create shell structures at portals has resulted im work being carried out with stiecess under extremely difficult conditions, without causing appreciable defiema tion in the surrounding ground, An example Is shown 40 Fig. 32 The underpass was built without interrupting, rat traffic in Campinas (Brazil), although there was only a 2 metre overburden above the crown, Figure 33 chews an application of jot grouting carried out in Rome for the consiruction of a highway underpass. fet grouting was used to stabilize the face by horizontal treatment of the core of ground ahead of it Hydraulic work As far as hydraulie work is concerned, jetgronting, has been mainly used in waterproofing dan foundations and in protecting levees (see Fig. M). At Ravadis, for escamplo, waterproofing of coarse alluvial deposits below the coffer dam was performed by building a diaphragm consisting of ‘ovo rows of overlapping et-grouted columns extending down to the impervious becirock. The ground between the two rows of columns was then treated by: low prescure sprouting Another interesting example of waterproofing dam found ations using jet- grouting was performed in Brombach (Ger- 80 Fig.29. Design used for repairing he foundations of te Taro Rwerrallay beige many). The interesting thing here is that, for the first Hime, it was dono in mck, sandstone in thie case, A bifluid jet grouting system was used to make a series of angled intersecting cuts, more than a-metre long, in the rock, They wete filled with cement grout containing, admixtures. to roduce permeability (soe Figs 95 and 35). ‘As far as dikes are concerned, it is interesting to look al a particular piece of work executed in 1887 to plag a 300m sttetch of dike destroyed by flooding on the Adda river, near Talamona. Makeshift repair under emergency condi-Grown inp) 1 of jersgrouting Fig. 30, aay brigge aver the Tare River (tal) that collapsed due to tne exceptional lacing tn November 1982 nem | 12400 ‘cesta ona’ 1989) ‘cisotre Clemo 1990, / Td | P Fi A [Aimer ed sap UU Fig 31. Developmen af desig for ‘umbrell’ teatvert in tunnelingP. Lunar Fig 33. Jocgrouing used co sublize ce nce ofa tuond in Rome 2‘Cao wa uncer eam Seton AS L secton ie an es aes Fg.34. Type designs for hue work Grou improwemtent by means of je-grousone tious had beet done with large stone blocks which did nat provide sufficient impermeability. IC was quickly reconsti- fated a ng explosives and jotgronting (see Figs 37 and 38): bility of the by ciushing the Boulders in it to reduce the voids ratio. This was done by blasting calibrated explosive changes placed inside the dike body: the second involved cresting a diaphragm of jetygrovted volumes, the & stage involved reducing the perms embaatkmen inne Gales ashe ore Ter peaneee wan neg of thea Conclusions Following a description of jet-grouting technology some gical examples have been given of iis application to a number of civil engineering problems. Ui i certainly still a relatively young tchnigue and consequently hag not yet been fully developed Results obtained in this first decade of application have, however. been very encouraging and constitute the best incontive for continuing roseateh and exporimentation, Acknowledgements Tho author would like to express his thanks to Rockscil SpA, Redo Sip.A., Presspali SpA. of Milan and Fonda- 2ioni Specialt $.r1. of Parma for their co-operation, Brombachvorsperre Dammquerschnitt ig 38. Waterpeootng of dim founcations a Brombich (Germany) by jecqroutng in rock 3P Line Lined blasthoes 7 4 lasing operations @ om ig (@ Alsston ceages nserton @ Ping fig 37. Waerprocting work of a fare stone black dike: asin opera: a nprovee grand cua sirgronieg pears OD biting 7) Conte! yes ting wit gnessa semen ovteg Fig 38 Wateprocing work of a lange sone block dhe: jecgrouing ‘peratensBibliography Bact G, Lenawon P, and Petagentye ¥. (1091) L'applicasions eal isitng. pe grtiliag ‘sel progdtt » sola. emtrnica. dele lors delVautostads: LivemesCivieavacchis Inderal Mating om Sol road er Mon Bosasso R, Ricer P, Luxagoe P. ond Focaracet A Lmpieg del jekyvuting per lo seaso di una golena a delle profonits termatibed Mo i aad Rock gv nent au Uudrground Waris Mla Camanse Guacreuu Jo Land LuNAmo PL (WH) Tanel de Cimpinas evolucon det diseno ¥ problemas. de aperacon siner onal Congress ot Tunes ant Wier, Mata Cobain A, LUNAROH P, Plz2Akort) EM. and TESSERIS. G. D: (1992) Preconsslidamento del terene mediante jt grouting nel sottepasco della Tangerziale Bt i Milano ds paste dulla Lan S'dilla metropolitans, lntetanl Movtnng a Sol ane Rovk Innprosement i Uadergonsd Works. Milan Focacct C. Lusaapt B, Pizzaxort! EM. anal Zawpoy F. (99 f ppreconsoldamento del terreno a mesa di iniesion et sgmuting per ls gallery a tre bitoni Tarvisio’ della Linen FS. Udine TTarwsin, dineretinal Mctng Sit) ond Rick tps m Ladirgrnind Bris Milan Gonisent Gi. Dysart Pang Peet Croso: A (1 La prima aypleazione del je-grouting in otizontale comme procunten ipo lle sea dt galerie fn ferent nes Mectiig a Si on Rsk Improvement i Ui Mion Liuss'C, sean) PE (19849. Conlon de Hp rad Bock Iimpreen Und «199 oansisances et experienc Grovind innprovement by means of jetogrouting omatins) Roforermest en Place doe Sole doe Roos Call Parle Lonanor P. (982) Nowlle mithode de coustiaetion cles Gere XIV ber latencies le arma en rembli th Caters lanes Dnge Rjo de ene, ‘anni, ripristien pevisorn,riusruriane eefiniva del ponte fertovtario stent dalla piena, I Cinceuo dl Mics Pains Paria Lanai P(198)) Limpicgo del jet-grouting or Patgace gator ‘terran soft, Inernational Meeting ov Sei a Kock Bnpmice iment on Undogrannd Woes. Milan Lonanne P, tinny RL and Foc atscr A. (198%) Nouvelles orienta tions pour k prokct et la construction ces tunnels dans des (orton meubles. Eades et experiences sar le preconiinenient dle hs cavite et a preconsolidation dr nosau a iront, Call Tiservational Taine ot Abin ot Terni Meu" Pans Lossany Poand Lorre © (9S) Mathodes de presoutonement et Dréectanchement pour ley arava en somteran. frries Ae tideetntevnaioaes 900, LoxanorP. Masescaat E and Torsacnt K.(6 Il preconsal Trenlo'imestante f-grouting mala ebalisnaricny ci apore 1 Netteeramess Infernal Congress Large tDalergronad Ope (0983) La plena sel lame Taro del neveebre 1982, fag Blomus. Lesan 0. and Pixar B, M. (04) Saf grind Rinnillig a the Misr Moira and Alan Railway Link Gaol Tunteting Covrst Insiuation of Civil Engingers, to dea Discussion contributions on this paper should reach the editor by 26 Sepiember 1997