TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT in the field of human resource management is concerned

with organizational activity aimed at bettering the performance of individuals and groups in
organizational settings. It has been known by several names, including employee development,
human resource development, and learning and development.

Training and development encompasses three main activities: training, education, and
development.

training
This activity is both focused upon, and evaluated against, the job that an individual
currently holds.

education
This activity focuses upon the jobs that an individual may potentially hold in the future,
and is evaluated against those jobs.

development
This activity focuses upon the activities that the organization employing the individual, or
that the individual is part of, may partake in the future, and is almost impossible to
evaluate.

The "stakeholders" in training and development are categorized into several classes.

1. The sponsors of training and development are senior managers.

2. The clients of training and development are business planners. Line managers are
responsible for coaching, resources, and performance.
3. The participants are those who actually undergo the processes.
4. The facilitators are Human Resource Management staff.
5. The providers are specialists in the field.

The conflicts are the best part of career consequences are those that take place between
employees and their bosses. The number one reason people leave their jobs is conflict
with their bosses. And yet, as author, workplace relationship authority, and executive
coach, Dr. John Hoover[5] points out, "Tempting as it is, nobody ever enhanced his or her
career by making the boss look stupid." [1] Training an employee to get along well with
authority and with people who entertain diverse points of view is one of the best
guarantees of long-term success. Talent, knowledge, and skill alone won't compensate for
a sour relationship with a superior, peer, or customer.

Typical Reasons for Employee Training and Development

Training and development can be initiated for a variety of reasons for an employee or group
of employees, e.g.,:

 When a performance appraisal indicates performance improvement is needed

  To "benchmark" the status of improvement so far in a performance improvement
effort
 As part of an overall professional development program
 As part of succession planning to help an employee be eligible for a planned change
in role in the organization
 To "pilot", or test, the operation of a new performance management system
 To train about a specific topic (see below)

Typical Topics of Employee Training

1. Communications: The increasing diversity of today's workforce brings a wide
variety of languages and customs.
2. Computer skills: Computer skills are becoming a necessity for conducting
administrative and office tasks.
3. Customer service: Increased competition in today's global marketplace makes it
critical that employees understand and meet the needs of customers.
4. Diversity: Diversity training usually includes explanation about how people have
different perspectives and views, and includes techniques to value diversity
5. Ethics: Today's society has increasing expectations about corporate social
responsibility. Also, today's diverse workforce brings a wide variety of values and
morals to the workplace.
6. Human relations: The increased stresses of today's workplace can include
misunderstandings and conflict. Training can people to get along in the workplace.
7. Quality initiatives: Initiatives such as Total Quality Management, Quality Circles,
benchmarking, etc., require basic training about quality concepts, guidelines and
standards for quality, etc.
8. Safety: Safety training is critical where working with heavy equipment , hazardous
chemicals, repetitive activities, etc., but can also be useful with practical advice for
avoiding assaults, etc.
9. Sexual harassment: Sexual harassment training usually includes careful
description of the organization's policies about sexual harassment, especially about
what are inappropriate behaviors.

General Benefits from Employee Training and Development

There are numerous sources of online information about training and development. Several
of these sites (they're listed later on in this library) suggest reasons for supervisors to
conduct training among employees. These reasons include:

 Increased job satisfaction and morale among employees

 Increased employee motivation
 Increased efficiencies in processes, resulting in financial gain
 Increased capacity to adopt new technologies and methods
 Increased innovation in strategies and products
 Reduced employee turnover
 Enhanced company image, e.g., conducting ethics training (not a good reason for
ethics training!)
  Risk management, e.g., training about sexual harassment, diversity training

Purpose of Employee Training and Development Process

Reasons for emphasizing the growth and development of personnel include

 Creating a pool of readily available and adequate replacements for personnel who
may leave or move up in the organization.
 Enhancing the company's ability to adopt and use advances in technology because of
a sufficiently knowledgeable staff.
 Building a more efficient, effective and highly motivated team, which enhances the
company's competitive position and improves employee morale.
 Ensuring adequate human resources for expansion into new programs.

Research has shown specific benefits that a small business receives from training and
developing its workers, including:

 Increased productivity.
 Reduced employee turnover.
 Increased efficiency resulting in financial gains.
 Decreased need for supervision.

Employees frequently develop a greater sense of self-worth, dignity and well-being as they
become more valuable to the firm and to society. Generally they will receive a greater share
of the material gains that result from their increased productivity. These factors give them a
sense of satisfaction through the achievement of personal and company goals.

The Training Process

The model below traces the steps necessary in the training process:

 Organizational Objectives
 Needs Assessment
 Is There a Gap?
 Training Objectives
 Select the Trainees
 Select the Training Methods and Mode
 Choose a Means of Evaluating
 Administer Training
 Evaluate the Training

Your business should have a clearly defined strategy and set of objectives that direct and
drive all the decisions made especially for training decisions. Firms that plan their training
process are more successful than those that do not. Most business owners want to succeed,
but do not engage in training designs that promise to improve their chances of success.
Why? The five reasons most often identified are:

Time - Small businesses managers find that time demands do not allow them to train
employees.
Getting started - Most small business managers have not practiced training employees.
The training process is unfamiliar.

Broad expertise - Managers tend to have broad expertise rather than the specialized skills
needed for training and development activities.

Lack of trust and openness - Many managers prefer to keep information to themselves.
By doing so they keep information from subordinates and others who could be useful in the
training and development process.

Skepticism as to the value of the training - Some small business owners believe the
future cannot be predicted or controlled and their efforts, therefore, are best centered on
current activities i.e., making money today.

A well-conceived training program can help your firm succeed. A program structured with
the company's strategy and objectives in mind has a high probability of improving
productivity and other goals that are set in the training mission.

For any business, formulating a training strategy requires addressing a series of questions.

 Who are your customers? Why do they buy from you?

 Who are your competitors? How do they serve the market? What competitive
advantages do they enjoy? What parts of the market have they ignored?
 What strengths does the company have? What weaknesses?
 What social trends are emerging that will affect the firm?

The purpose of formulating a training strategy is to answer two relatively simple but vitally
important questions: (1) What is our business? and (2) What should our business be?
Armed with the answers to these questions and a clear vision of its mission, strategy and
objectives, a company can identify its training needs.

Identifying Training Needs

Training needs can be assessed by analyzing three major human resource areas: the
organization as a whole, the job characteristics and the needs of the individuals. This
analysis will provide answers to the following questions:

 Where is training needed?

 What specifically must an employee learn in order to be more productive?
 Who needs to be trained?

To Employee Training and Development Process - Training

Methods for Employees - Top
Begin by assessing the current status of the company how it does what it does best and the
abilities of your employees to do these tasks. This analysis will provide some benchmarks
against which the effectiveness of a training program can be evaluated. Your firm should
know where it wants to be in five years from its long-range strategic plan. What you need is
a training program to take your firm from here to there.
Second, consider whether the organization is financially committed to supporting the
training efforts. If not, any attempt to develop a solid training program will fail.

Next, determine exactly where training is needed. It is foolish to implement a companywide

training effort without concentrating resources where they are needed most. An internal
audit will help point out areas that may benefit from training. Also, a skills inventory can
help determine the skills possessed by the employees in general. This inventory will help the
organization determine what skills are available now and what skills are needed for future
development.

Also, in today's market-driven economy, you would be remiss not to ask your customers
what they like about your business and what areas they think should be improved. In
summary, the analysis should focus on the total organization and should tell you (1) where
training is needed and (2) where it will work within the organization.

Once you have determined where training is needed, concentrate on the content of the
program. Analyze the characteristics of the job based on its description, the written
narrative of what the employee actually does. Training based on job descriptions should go
into detail about how the job is performed on a task-by-task basis. Actually doing the job
will enable you to get a better feel for what is done.

Individual employees can be evaluated by comparing their current skill levels or

performance to the organization's performance standards or anticipated needs. Any
discrepancies between actual and anticipated skill levels identifies a training need.

Selection of Trainees

Once you have decided what training is necessary and where it is needed, the next decision
is who should be trained? For a small business, this question is crucial. Training an
employee is expensive, especially when he or she leaves your firm for a better job.
Therefore, it is important to carefully select who will be trained.

Training programs should be designed to consider the ability of the employee to learn the
material and to use it effectively, and to make the most efficient use of resources possible.
It is also important that employees be motivated by the training experience. Employee
failure in the program is not only damaging to the employee but a waste of money as well.
Selecting the right trainees is important to the success of the program.

Training Goals

The goals of the training program should relate directly to the needs determined by the
assessment process outlined above. Course objectives should clearly state what behavior or
skill will be changed as a result of the training and should relate to the mission and strategic
plan of the company. Goals should include milestones to help take the employee from where
he or she is today to where the firm wants him or her in the future. Setting goals helps to
evaluate the training program and also to motivate employees. Allowing employees to
participate in setting goals increases the probability of success.

Training Methods
There are two broad types of training available to small businesses: on-the-job and off-the-
job techniques. Individual circumstances and the "who," "what" and "why" of your training
program

determine which method to use.

On-the-job training is delivered to employees while they perform their regular jobs. In
this way, they do not lose time while they are learning. After a plan is developed for what
should be taught, employees should be informed of the details. A timetable should be
established with periodic evaluations to inform employees about their progress. On-the-job
techniques include orientations, job instruction training, apprenticeships, internships and
assistantships, job rotation and coaching.

Off-the-job techniques include lectures, special study, films, television conferences or

discussions, case studies, role playing, simulation, programmed instruction and laboratory
training. Most of these techniques can be used by small businesses although, some may be
too costly.

Orientations are for new employees. The first several days on the job are crucial in the
success of new employees. This point is illustrated by the fact that 60 percent of all
employees who quit do so in the first ten days. Orientation training should emphasize the
following topics:

 The company's history and mission.

 The key members in the organization.
 The key members in the department, and how the department helps fulfill the
mission of the company.
 Personnel rules and regulations.

Some companies use verbal presentations while others have written presentations. Many
small businesses convey these topics in one-on-one orientations. No matter what method is
used, it is important that the newcomer understand his or her new place of employment.

To Employee Training and Development Process - Training

Methods for Employees - Top
Lectures present training material verbally and are used when the goal is to present a
great deal of material to many people. It is more cost effective to lecture to a group than to
train people individually. Lecturing is one-way communication and as such may not be the
most effective way to train. Also, it is hard to ensure that the entire audience understands a
topic on the same level; by targeting the average attendee you may undertrain some and
lose others. Despite these drawbacks, lecturing is the most cost-effective way of reaching
large audiences.

Role playing and simulation are training techniques that attempt to bring realistic
decision making situations to the trainee. Likely problems and alternative solutions are
presented for discussion. The adage there is no better trainer than experience is exemplified
with this type of training. Experienced employees can describe real world experiences, and
can help in and learn from developing the solutions to these simulations. This method is
cost effective and is used in marketing and management training.
Audiovisual methods such as television, videotapes and films are the most effective
means of providing real world conditions and situations in a short time. One advantage is
that the presentation is the same no matter how many times it's played. This is not true
with lectures, which can change as the speaker is changed or can be influenced by outside
constraints. The major flaw with the audiovisual method is that it does not allow for
questions and interactions with the speaker, nor does it allow for changes in the
presentation for different audiences.

Job rotation involves moving an employee through a series of jobs so he or she can get a
good feel for the tasks that are associated with different jobs. It is usually used in training
for supervisory positions. The employee learns a little about everything. This is a good
strategy for small businesses because of the many jobs an employee may be asked to do.

Apprenticeships develop employees who can do many different tasks. They usually
involve several related groups of skills that allow the apprentice to practice a particular
trade, and they take place over a long period of time in which the apprentice works for, and
with, the senior skilled worker. Apprenticeships are especially appropriate for jobs requiring
production skills.

Internships and assistantships are usually a combination of classroom and on-the-job

training. They are often used to train prospective managers or marketing personnel.

Programmed learning, computer-aided instruction and interactive video all have one
thing in common: they allow the trainee to learn at his or her own pace. Also, they allow
material already learned to be bypassed in favor of material with which a trainee is having
difficulty. After the introductory period, the instructor need not be present, and the trainee
can learn as his or her time allows. These methods sound good, but may be beyond the
resources of some small businesses.

Laboratory training is conducted for groups by skilled trainers. It usually is conducted at a

neutral site and is used by upper- and middle management trainees to develop a spirit of
teamwork and an increased ability to deal with management and peers. It can be costly and
usually is offered by larger small businesses.

Trainers

Who actually conducts the training depends on the type of training needed and who will be
receiving it. On-the-job training is conducted mostly by supervisors; off-the-job training, by
either in-house personnel or outside instructors.

In-house training is the daily responsibility of supervisors and employees. Supervisors are
ultimately responsible for the productivity and, therefore, the training of their subordinates.
These supervisors should be taught the techniques of good training. They must be aware of
the knowledge and skills necessary to make a productive employee. Trainers should be
taught to establish goals and objectives for their training and to determine how these
objectives can be used to influence the productivity of their departments. They also must be
aware of how adults learn and how best to communicate with adults. Small businesses need
to develop their supervisors' training capabilities by sending them to courses on training
methods. The investment will pay off in increased productivity.
There are several ways to select training personnel for off-the-job training programs. Many
small businesses use in-house personnel to develop formal training programs to be
delivered to employees off line from their normal work activities, during company meetings
or individually at prearranged training sessions.

There are many outside training sources, including consultants, technical and vocational
schools, continuing education programs, chambers of commerce and economic development
groups. Selecting an outside source for training has advantages and disadvantages. The
biggest advantage is that these organizations are well versed in training techniques, which
is often not the case with in-house personnel.

The disadvantage of using outside training specialists is their limited knowledge of the
company's product or service and customer needs. These trainers have a more general
knowledge of customer satisfaction and needs. In many cases, the outside trainer can
develop this knowledge quickly by immersing himself or herself in the company prior to
training the employees. Another disadvantage of using outside trainers is the relatively high
cost compared to in-house training, although the higher cost may be offset by the increased
effectiveness of the training.

Whoever is selected to conduct the training, either outside or in-house trainers, it is

important that the company's goals and values be carefully explained.

Training Administration

Having planned the training program properly, you must now administer the training to the
selected employees. It is important to follow through to make sure the goals are being met.
Questions to consider before training begins include:

 Location.
 Facilities.
 Accessibility.
 Comfort.
 Equipment.
 Timing.

Careful attention to these operational details will contribute to the success of the training
program.

An effective training program administrator should follow these steps:

 Define the organizational objectives.

 Determine the needs of the training program.
 Define training goals.
 Develop training methods.
 Decide whom to train.
 Decide who should do the training.
 Administer the training.
 Evaluate the training program.
Following these steps will help an administrator develop an effective training program to
ensure that the firm keeps qualified employees who are productive, happy workers. This will
contribute positively to the bottom line.

Evaluation of Training

Training should be evaluated several times during the process. Determine these milestones
when you develop the training. Employees should be evaluated by comparing their newly
acquired skills with the skills defined by the goals of the training program. Any discrepancies
should be noted and adjustments made to the training program to enable it to meet
specified goals. Many training programs fall short of their expectations simply because the
administrator failed to evaluate its progress until it was too late. Timely evaluation will
prevent the training from straying from its goals.

Training and development describes the formal, ongoing efforts of organizations to improve the
performance and self-fulfillment of their employees through a variety of methods and programs.
In the modern workplace, these efforts have taken on a broad range of applications—from
instruction in highly specific job skills to long-term professional development. In recent years,
training and development has emerged as a formal business function, an integral element of
strategy, and a recognized profession with distinct theories and methodologies. More and more
companies of all sizes have embraced "continual learning" and other aspects of training and
development as a means of promoting employee growth and acquiring a highly skilled work
force. In fact, the quality of employees, and the continual improvement of their skills and
productivity through training, are now widely recognized as vital factors in ensuring the long-
term success and profitability of small businesses. "Create a corporate culture that supports
continual learning," counseled Charlene Marmer Solomon in Workforce. "Employees today must
have access to continual training of all types just to keep up…. If you don't actively stride against
the momentum of skills deficiency, you lose ground. If your workers stand still, your firm will
lose the competency race."

For the most part, the terms "training" and "development" are used together to describe the
overall improvement and education of an organization's employees. However, while closely
related, there are important differences between the terms that center around the scope of the
application. In general, training programs have very specific and quantifiable goals, like
operating a particular piece of machinery, understanding a specific process, or performing certain
procedures with great precision. On the other hand, developmental programs concentrate on
broader skills that are applicable to a wider variety of situations, such as decision making,
leadership skills, and goal setting.

Training in Small Businesses

Implementation of formal training and development programs offers several potential advantages
to small businesses. For example, training helps companies to create pools of qualified
replacements for employees who may leave or be promoted to positions of greater responsibility.
It also helps ensure that companies will have the human resources needed to support business
growth and expansion. Furthermore, training can enable a small business to make use of
advanced technology and to adapt to a rapidly changing competitive environment. Finally,
training can improve employees' efficiency and motivation, leading to gains in both productivity
and job satisfaction. According to the U.S. Small Business Administration (SBA), small
businesses stand to receive a variety of benefits from effective training and development of
employees, including reduced turnover, a decreased need for supervision, increased efficiency,
and improved employee morale. All of these benefits are likely to contribute directly to a small
business's fundamental financial health and vitality

Effective training and development begins with the overall strategy and objectives of the small
business. The entire training process should be planned in advance with specific company goals
in mind. In developing a training strategy, it may be helpful to assess the company's customers
and competitors, strengths and weaknesses, and any relevant industry or societal trends. The next
step is to use this information to identify where training is needed by the organization as a whole
or by individual employees. It may also be helpful to conduct an internal audit to find general
areas that might benefit from training, or to complete a skills inventory to determine the types of
skills employees possess and the types they may need in the future. Each different job within the
company should be broken down on a task-by-task basis in order to help determine the content of
the training program.

The training program should relate not only to the specific needs identified through the company
and individual assessments, but also to the overall goals of the company. The objectives of the
training should be clearly outlined, specifying what behaviors or skills will be affected and how
they relate to the strategic mission of the company. In addition, the objectives should include
several intermediate steps or milestones in order to motivate the trainees and allow the company
to evaluate their progress. Since training employees is expensive, a small business needs to give
careful consideration to the question of which employees to train. This decision should be based
on the ability of the employee to learn the material and the likelihood that they will be motivated
by the training experience. If the chosen employees fail to benefit from the training program or
leave the company soon after receiving training, the small business has wasted its limited
training funds.

The design of training programs is the core activity of the training and development function. In
recent years, the development of training programs has evolved into a profession which utilizes
systematic models, methods, and processes of instructional systems design (ISD). ISD describes
the systematic design and development of instructional methods and materials to facilitate the
process of training and development and ensure that training programs are necessary, valid, and
effective. The instructional design process includes the collection of data on the tasks or skills to
be learned or improved, the analysis of these skills and tasks, the development of methods and
materials, delivery of the program, and finally the evaluation of the training's effectiveness.

Small businesses tend to use two general types of training methods, on-the-job techniques and
off-the-job techniques. On-the-job training describes a variety of methods that are applied while
employees are actually performing their jobs. These methods might include orientations,
coaching, apprenticeships, internships, job instruction training, and job rotation. The main
advantages of on-the-job techniques is that they are highly practical, and employees do not lose
working time while they are learning. Off-the-job training, on the other hand, describes a number
of training methods that are delivered to employees outside of the regular work environment,
though often during working hours. These techniques might include lectures, conferences, case
studies, role playing, simulations, film or television presentations, programmed instruction, or
special study.

On-the-job training tends to be the responsibility of supervisors, human resources professionals,

or more experienced co-workers. Consequently, it is important for small businesses to educate
their seasoned employees in training techniques. In contrast, off-the-job tends to be handled by
outside instructors or sources, such as consultants, chambers of commerce, technical and
vocational schools, or continuing education programs. Although outside sources are usually
better informed as to effective training techniques than company supervisors, they may have a
limited knowledge of the company's products and competitive situation. In addition, the cost of
some off-the-job training methods may be too high for many small businesses to afford.

Actual administration of the training program involves choosing an appropriate location,

providing necessary equipment, and arranging a convenient time. Such operational details, while
seemingly minor components of an overall training effort, can have a significant effect on the
success of a program. In addition, the training program should be evaluated at regular intervals
while it is going on. Employees' skills should be compared to the predetermined goals or
milestones of the training program, and any necessary adjustments should be made immediately.
This ongoing evaluation process will help ensure that the training program successfully meets its
expectations.

Common Training Methods

While new techniques are under continuous development, several common training methods
have proven highly effective. Good continuous learning and development initiatives often feature
a combination of several different methods that, blended together, produce one effective training
program.

ORIENTATIONS. Orientation training is vital in ensuring the success of new employees.

Whether the training is conducted through an employee handbook, a lecture, or a one-on-one
meeting with a supervisor, newcomers should receive information on the company's history and
strategic position, the key people in authority at the company, the structure of their department
and how it contributes to the mission of the company, and the company's employment policies,
rules, and regulations.

LECTURES. A verbal method of presenting information, lectures are particularly useful in

situations when the goal is to impart the same information to a large number of people at one
time. Since they eliminate the need for individual training, lectures are among the most cost-
effective training methods. But the lecture method does have some drawbacks. Since lectures
primarily involve one-way communication, they may not provide the most interesting or
effective training. In addition, it may be difficult for the trainer to gauge the level of
understanding of the material within a large group.

CASE STUDY. The case method is a non-directed method of study whereby students are
provided with practical case reports to analyze. The case report includes a thorough description
of a simulated or real-life situation. By analyzing the problems presented in the case report and
developing possible solutions, students can be encouraged to think independently as opposed to
relying upon the direction of an instructor. Independent case analysis can be supplemented with
open discussion with a group. The main benefit of the case method is its use of real-life
situations. The multiplicity of problems and possible solutions provide the student with a
practical learning experience rather than a collection of abstract knowledge and theories that may
be difficult to apply to practical situations.

ROLE PLAYING. In role playing, students assume a role outside of themselves and play out
that role within a group. A facilitator creates a scenario that is to be acted out by the participants
under the guidance of the facilitator. While the situation might be contrived, the interpersonal
relations are genuine. Furthermore, participants receive immediate feedback from the facilitator
and the scenario itself, allowing better understanding of their own behavior. This training method
is cost effective and is often applied to marketing and management training.

SIMULATIONS. Games and simulations are structured competitions and operational models
that emulate real-life scenarios. The benefits of games and simulations include the improvement
of problem-solving and decision-making skills, a greater understanding of the organizational
whole, the ability to study actual problems, and the power to capture the student's interest.

COMPUTER-BASED TRAINING. Computer-based training (CBT) involves the use of

computers and computer-based instructional materials as the primary medium of instruction.
Computer-based training programs are designed to structure and present instructional materials
and to facilitate the learning process for the student. A main benefit of CBT is that it allows
employees to learn at their own pace, during convenient times. Primary uses of CBT include
instruction in computer hardware, software, and operational equipment. The last is of particular
importance because CBT can provide the student with a simulated experience of operating a
particular piece of equipment or machinery while eliminating the risk of damage to costly
equipment by a trainee or even a novice user. At the same time, the actual equipment's
operational use is maximized because it need not be utilized as a training tool. The use of
computer-based training enables a small business to reduce training costs while improving the
effectiveness of the training. Costs are reduced through a reduction in travel, training time,
amount of operational hardware, equipment damage, and instructors. Effectiveness is improved
through standardization and individualization. In recent years, videodisc and CD-ROM have
been successfully integrated into PC-platforms, increasing the flexibility and possibilities of
CBT.

SELF-INSTRUCTION. Self-instruction describes a training method in which the students

assume primary responsibility for their own learning. Unlike instructor- or facilitator-led
instruction, students retain a greater degree of control regarding topics, the sequence of learning,
and the pace of learning. Depending on the structure of the instructional materials, students can
achieve a higher degree of customized learning. Forms of self-instruction include programmed
learning, individualized instruction, personalized systems of instruction, learner-controlled
instruction, and correspondence study. Benefits include a strong support system, immediate
feedback, and systematization.
AUDIOVISUAL TRAINING. Audiovisual training methods include television, films, and
videotapes. Like case studies, role playing, and simulations, they can be used to expose
employees to "real world" situations in a time- and cost-effective manner. The main drawback of
audiovisual training methods is that they cannot be customized for a particular audience, and
they do not allow participants to ask questions or interact during the presentation of material.

TEAM-BUILDING EXERCISES. Team building is the active creation and maintenance of

effective work groups with similar goals and objectives. Not to be confused with the informal,
ad-hoc formation and use of teams in the workplace, team building is a formal process of
building work teams and formulating their objectives and goals, usually facilitated by a third-
party consultant. Team building is commonly initiated to combat poor group dynamics, labor-
management relations, quality, or productivity. By recognizing the problems and difficulties
associated with the creation and development of work teams, team building provides a
structured, guided process whose benefits include a greater ability to manage complex projects
and processes, flexibility to respond to changing situations, and greater motivation among team
members. Team building may include a broad range of different training methods, from outdoor
immersion exercises to brainstorming sessions. The main drawback to formal team building is
the cost of using outside experts and taking a group of people away from their work during the
training program.

APPRENTICESHIPS AND INTERNSHIPS. Apprenticeships are a form of on-the-job

training in which the trainee works with a more experienced employee for a period of time,
learning a group of related skills that will eventually qualify the trainee to perform a new job or
function. Apprenticeships are often used in production-oriented positions. Internships are a form
of apprenticeship which combine on-the-job training under a more experienced employee with
classroom learning.

JOB ROTATION. Another type of experience-based training is job rotation, in which

employees move through a series of jobs in order to gain a broad understanding of the
requirements of each. Job rotation may be particularly useful in small businesses, which may
feature less role specialization than is typically seen in larger organizations.

Applications of Training Programs

While the applications of training and development are as various as the functions and skills
required by an organization, several common training applications can be distinguished,
including technical training, sales training, clerical training, computer training, communications
training, organizational development, career development, supervisory development, and
management development.

Technical training describes a broad range of training programs varying greatly in application
and difficulty. Technical training utilizes common training methods for instruction of technical
concepts, factual information, and procedures, as well as technical processes and principles.

Sales training concentrates on the education and training of individuals to communicate with
customers in a persuasive manner. Sales training can enhance the employee's knowledge of the
organization's products, improve his or her selling skills, instill positive attitudes, and increase
the employee's self-confidence. Employees are taught to distinguish the needs and wants of the
customer, and to persuasively communicate the message that the company's products or services
can effectively satisfy them.

Clerical training concentrates on the training of clerical and administrative support staffs, which
have taken on an expanded role in recent years. With the increasing reliance on computers and
computer applications, clerical training must be careful to distinguish basic skills from the ever-
changing computer applications used to support these skills. Clerical training increasingly must
instill improved decision-making skills in these employees as they take on expanded roles and
responsibilities.

Computer training teaches the effective use of the computer and its software applications, and
often must address the basic fear of technology that most employees face and identify and
minimize any resistance to change that might emerge. Furthermore, computer training must
anticipate and overcome the long and steep learning curves that many employees will
experience. To do so, such training is usually offered in longer, uninterrupted modules to allow
for greater concentration, and structured training is supplemented by hands-on practice. This area
of training is commonly cited as vital to the fortunes of most companies, large and small,
operating in today's technologically advanced economy.

Communications training concentrates on the improvement of interpersonal communication

skills, including writing, oral presentation, listening, and reading. In order to be successful, any
form of communications training should be focused on the basic improvement of skills and not
just on stylistic considerations. Furthermore, the training should serve to build on present skills
rather than rebuilding from the ground up. Communications training can be taught separately or
can be effectively integrated into other types of training, since it is fundamentally related to other
disciplines.

Organizational development (OD) refers to the use of knowledge and techniques from the
behavioral sciences to analyze an existing organizational structure and implement changes in
order to improve organizational effectiveness. OD is useful in such varied areas as the alignment
of employee goals with those of the organization, communications, team functioning, and
decision making. In short, it is a development process with an organizational focus to achieve the
same goals as other training and development activities aimed at individuals. OD practitioners
commonly practice what has been termed "action research" to effect an orderly change which has
been carefully planned to minimize the occurrence of unpredicted or unforeseen events. Action
research refers to a systematic analysis of an organization to acquire a better understanding of the
nature of problems and forces within it.

Career development refers to the formal progression of an employee's position within an

organization by providing a long-term development strategy and designing training programs to
achieve this strategy as well as individual goals. Career development represents a growing
concern for employee welfare and their long-term needs. For the individual, it involves the
description of career goals, the assessment of necessary action, and the choice and
implementation of necessary steps. For the organization, career development represents the
systematic development and improvement of employees. To remain effective, career
development programs must allow individuals to articulate their desires. At the same time, the
organization strives to meet those stated needs as much as possible by consistently following
through on commitments and meeting the employee expectations raised by the program.

Management and supervisory development involves the training of managers and supervisors in
basic leadership skills, enabling them to effectively function in their positions. For managers,
training initiatives are focused on providing them with the tools to balance the effective
management of their employee resources with the strategies and goals of the organization.
Managers learn to develop their employees effectively by helping employees learn and change,
as well as by identifying and preparing them for future responsibilities. Management
development may also include programs for developing decision making skills, creating and
managing successful work teams, allocating resources effectively, budgeting, business planning,
and goal setting.

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