DANSK SKIBSTEKNISK FORSKNINGSINSTITUT

DANISH SHIP RESEARCH INSTITUTE

Lyngby Danmark

REPORT No. DSP-14

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 DANSK SKIBSTEKNISK FORSKNINGSINSTITUT
Is a self-supporting Institution, established fo carry eut research in the fields of shipbuilding, marine engineering end ship-
ping. According of Its by-laws1 confirmed by his Majesty the King of Denmark, it is governed by e council of members elec-
ted by shlpbuilders, shipowners and the Academy of Technical Sciences.
The report s are on sale through the Danish Technical Press at the prices stated below.
The views expressed in the reports are those of individual authors.

DSP No. Author Title Price D. Kr.

J. STRØM-TEJSEN Damage Stability of Ships 8,00

2 J. STRØM-TEJSEN Damage Stability during the Period of

Flooding 8.00

ULRICH JOHANNSEN Recording Ship Stocks and Spare Parts 5,00

3

4 GERT ADRIANSEN ALGOL-program tu brug ved

oplgning af propelleraksler i skibe 5,00

5 ULRICH JOHANNSEN Rationalized marine diesel engine

operation and maintenance 5,00

6 Ship Trial Trip Code 1964 10,00

7 GERT ADRIANSEN An ALGOL-programme to Facilitate the

Allingment of Ship Propeller Shafts 5,00

8 C. W. PROHASKA Factors Influencing the Choice of the

Principal Dimensions and Form
Coefficients of Ships 10,00

9 ULRICH JOHANNSEN Skibsberegningspregrammer for

elektronregnemaskine 5,00

10 HARALD WESTHAGEN Launching Calculation and Analysis 8,00

and
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11 ANDERS BØGELUND ALGOL-program Iii brug ved beregning

at rammekonstruktioner - 5,00

12 RICHARD NIELSEN Jr. Analysis of Plane and Space Grillages

under Arbitrary Loading by Use of the
Laplace Transformation 50,00

13 G. R. DICOVI Damage Stability Calculations by

Electronic Computer 5,00

14 E. KANTOROWITZ Mathematical Definition of Ship Surfaces 25,00

Mathematical Definition of Ship Surfaces.
Den polytekniske Lreanstalt, Danmarks
tekniske Højskole, har antaget denne
afhandling tu forsvar for den tekniske
doktorgrad.

E. Knuth- Wint erfeldt

rektor

Paul Carpentier
inspectør

Lyngby den 4 april 1967.

Forsvaret finder sted

torsdag den 6 juli 1967 kl. 14.00
i auditorium 12 bygning 308
Danmarks tekniske Højskole, Lyngby.
MATHEMATICAL DEFINITION
OF
SHIP SURFACES
by
E. Kantorowitz.

t25D Z&I/

1967
Lyngby Denmark.
 Eliezer Kantorowitz 1967,

This report has been typed by Mrs. B. Cribb

on punch tape controlled Friden Flexowriter,
and has been printed by Polyteknisk Trykkeri,
Copenhagen, Denmark.
 Acmovledgement.

The present method was developed at the Danish Ship Research Institute
in the period 1961 1 966. The first experiments vere done with a primitive
assembly laxiguae on the heavily booked DASK computer, and vere thus very.
cumbersome The installation of a GIER computer at the premises of the In-
stitute was, therefore, of decisive importance. The GIER computer, which is
produced by the Danish firm Regnecentralen, baa one of the most efficient
ALCOL compilers hitherto written, which enabled many different methods to be
tried with relatively little menual effort.
Late in 1962, it was decided to try to fit polynomials directly to the
ship surface A computing procedure for this purpose was developed In the
spring of 1963 with the advice of Mr. P. lvbndrup, Regnecentralen. Thiring the
same period preliminary curve fitting and data test prograes vere prepared
with the assistance of Mr. Z. Zarhy. These programs were used for the ex-
periments required for the further development of this method. There were
many problems to be solved and a multitude of parameters which could be
varied. The techniques developed at that time solved the problem in principle,
but there vas still much to be done before the method could be used practi
cally. During that period, reports arrived concerning poor results obtained
elsewhere with the same subject, and doubts arose in some circles whether the
problems could be solved at all. Deputy director H. Fogli of Nakskov Shipyard,
therefore, examined the results which bave been obtained with a tanker arid a
cargo liner, and recomnended the continuation and Intenaivation of the work.
Mr. Anders Bøgelund and Mr. Gert Adiansen thus joined the project in the sum..
mer and aitumn of i 96i. These highly qualified co-workers enabled a thorough
discussion of the different aspects of the work. Furthermore Mr. Bøgelund
prepared the fina], curve fitting program, and some auxiliary progras,
while a progrune for preparation of mould loft tables was prepared by Mr. G.
Adriansen and Mr. A. Bøgelurid. A very fast machine code version of the sur-
face fitting prograimne was prepared by Mr. P. Fleron. Finally in November
1965 the programme was released for the use of the customers of the Institute,
and has since been used for 33 different ships.
Further to the above mentioned contributions the success of the present
work is due to the information and encouragement obtained from the shipyards
of Nakskov, Helsirigør and Odense, and to the assistance of the computer
center staff,Mr. S. Velschou M.Sc., Mrs. I. Nielsen, Mrs. B. Michaelsen, and
Mrs. B. Cribb, who also typed this report. Messrs. M.S.Chislett and. K. Pucill
have checked the &glish wording of this report,and Mi.a I. Larsen bas drawn
the figures.
The author is very grateful that he has been given the chance to do this
work. The confidence and support shown by the director of the Institute,
professor C.W.Prohaska, and later by director Otto Petersen and deputy direc-
tor H. Fogli of Nakskov Shipyard have been of decisive importance to the
accomplishment of this project.

Lyngby E. Kantorowitz.
29 ly 1967.
 Sumnry. 1.
Introduction. 11,

2.1. !.thematical versus graphical definition of ship forms. 1.

2.2. Aim of the work. 5.
Review of earlier works, 7.
3.1. Sectional curves methods. 7.
3.2. Draught functions methods, lo.

3.3. Special draught functions methods.. 12.

1. Description of' the method, 15.

14.1. Principal characteristics of the present work. 15.

Ii,2. The inathemtical representation of a ship. 20.
14.2.1. Definition of the hull surface. 20.
1,2.2, Definition of' curves, 22.
14.2.3. General considerations on the calculation methods employed. 27.
14.2,14. Calculation of the curve coefficients. 28.
14.2.14,1. Calculation of a chain composed of' a single polynomial. 29.
14,2,14,2, Calculation of a chain of polynomials. 30.
14.2.14.3. The numerical power of the method. 32.
14.2.14.14, Calculation of the conic sections, 55.
314,
14,2.14.5. Calculation of circular arcs with prescribed radii.

li,2,5, .Calculation of the surface coefficients. 35.

14.2,5,1. The conditions imposed on the surface polynomials. 35.
Ii.2.5.2. The method used for obtaining smooth transition between 56.
the polynomial surfaces.
14,2,5.3. The economy of two alternative methods for the calculation 57.
of a polynomial surface.

14.2.5.14. The method used for the claculation of' a surface polynomial. 38.

14.2.5.5. The method used for imposing the boundary conditions on a 39,
surface polynomial.

5. Implementation of the method on the HyA-GIER computer. 143.

5.1. Programming techniques employed.

5,2. Check of the input data.

5.3. Calculation of the ship definition, 145.

5.14. Check of the results.

5.5. Preparation of the data required for the claculation of' 118.

curve definitions.
5.6. preparation of data for the surface calculations. 51.
Discussion of the results. 53.

6,1. The polynomials suitable for the surface representation.

5i.
511.
62. An accurate representation of any ship surface is
obtainable.
The connection betveen the different parts of the ship 55.
6.3.
surface.
6.Ii. The value of the ability to represent any ship shape 55.
accurately.
56,
65. ' The manual effort needed to prepare a ship definition.
6.6. The computer time and computer storage required. 57.
The ship definition is suitable for future applications, 58.
6.7.
6.8. Comparison the sectional curves and the surface expression 59.
method.
Conclusions.
60.

References.
62.

ApPENDXCF.

The method used for fitting a polynomial to a surface. 67,

The data forms used for the GIER computer. 72.
78.
Real roots of a polynomial having real coefficIents.

i. Calculation of a chain of polynomials. 81.

814.
Resume (Danish summary).
 -1-

1. Sumn.ry.

The coming of electronic computers and numerically controlled tools has

enabled the automation of a considerable part of the shipbuilding process.
The implementation of such techniques necessitates, however, a mathematical
definition of the shape of the ship surface instead of the graphical repre-
sentation hitherto used. The object of the present work is to provide a
method for the preparation of a mathematical definition of a ship surface
given by a small scale design lines drawing. The design lines drawing is
still considered as the most useful], tool for designing ship lines as it is
a clear way of elaborating a compromise between the different technical
requirements.

Earlier work in this field can be divided into draught functions methods
and sectional curves methods. In the former, the parameters of the waterline
expression are defined as functions of the draught. The sectional curves
methods are a mathematical analogy to the traditional graphical methods. The
thin elastic battens used by draughtsmen are thus substituted by . ,Spline
functions,,. These functions are fitted to a number of waterlines and trans-
verse sectional curves in an iterative process, which is continued until the
two sets of sectional curves represent the same surface. In some of the
earlier works mathematical transformations are employed, whereby the ship
shape is modified into a surface which is more easily fitted. Only the sec-
tional curves method has hitherto enabled an accurate definition of a wide
range of ship shapes. There are, however, some difficulties in obtaining
sufficient smooth surfaces with this method. The solution of the surface
definition problem by means of draught functions, sectional curves methods
and the employment of transformations introduces the problem of how to handle
these devices.
In the present method, mathematical expressions are fitted directly to
the ship surface and to the different contour and boundary curves. The ship
surface and the different curves are divided Into the parts of which they
are composed, to which polynomials and arcs of conic sections are then fitted.
Polynomials are employed In most cases, but arcs of conic sections are mostly
used for the parts which are perpendicular or nearly perpendicular to the
abscissa plane/axis.
The division of the surface and the different curves into the parts of
which they are composed is done manually, and is based on a visual analysis
of the lines drawing. The limits between the different parts of' the surface
are usually the lines of discontinuity In the second and higher order deriv-
atives found on the ship surface (Fig. ).
 -2-

The coeffioientB of the expressions defining the ship are calculated

from fixed data, such as the maximum breadth of the ship, and from coordin-
ates lifted from the design lines draving. As the lifted coordinates are in-

accurate, the coefficients are calculated such that the fixed data are main-
tained. and such that the curves and surfaces give the best fit to the lifted
coordinates using the least squares criterion.
When calculating the curves, any group of connected polynomial curve

elements is calculated separately. AU the coefficients of the polynomials

constituting such a group are calculated simultaneously by solving the normal
equatiOns. The system of normal equations is extended such that the different
conditions imposed on the curve are satisfied. e.g. that the curve passes
through fixed points or that a&jacent polynomial elements have common ordin-
ate and tangent at the point of connection. The extension of the normal

equations is obtained by applying Lagranges multipliers.

A surface polynomial P(x.z) defines the halfbreadth y of the ship as a
function of the distance x from amidships and the draught z, i. e.

y = P(x.z).

The polynomial P(x,z) is calculated as a linear combination of a set of

orthogonal polynomials. These polynomials are generated so that they are

orthogonal to each other with respect to the configuration of the abscissas

(x,z) of a number of points where the halfbreadths have been lifted from the
lines drawings. Boundary conditions are imposed on the surface polynomial by
introducing a number of points that satisfy the conditions, and by assigning
high weights to these points during the calculations.
Since ships have quite complicated shapes, a considerable amount of data
is needed to specify all the details of a ship surface. The manual lifting
and the checking of these data has proved to constitute a major part of the
whole process. Special prograes have therefore been prepared for check of'
the input data. Furthermore, a programme was prepared to test whether a cal-
culated mathematical surface is acceptable. This programme compares, the

halfbreadths lifted from the drawings, with the corresponding mathematical

ones, and checks a number of properties such as the concave and convex
character of a number of selected sectional curves. Furthermore the body plan
of the faired ship is drawn by the computer for visual analysis of the char-

acter of the lines. All the programmes, except the procedure for fitting

polynomials to surfaces, were prepared in ALGOL. These programmes have been

employed successfully for the preparation of accurate definitions for ships

 -5-

of all normal types and for a number of specilized vessels.

The straight forward approach of the present work resulted in a method
which is relatively easy to learn and use. The computer time and computer
storage required for the preparation of a mathematics], ship definition, and
for the use of the definition in future programmes are moderate. The present
method has thus proved suitable as a routine procedure in the shipbuilding
industry.

Fig. 1. The coordinate axes used in this work.

 2. Introduction.

2.1. Mathematical versus graphical definition of ship forms.

In most shipyards today, shipbuilding technique is based on the use of a

graphical definition of the ship surface. The shape of the ship surface is
thus defined by a lines drawing, which shows a number of sections through the
ship. The dimensions needed when building a ship are lifted or derived from
this lines drawing (Fig. 2). An alternative to this graphical technique is to
define the ship surface by means of a number of mathematical functions which
can then be used for the calculation of any dimension needed. Such a mathem-
atical-numerical ship definition was, however, not practically possible for
shipyards before the coming of high speed automatic computers. Mathematics].
def initions of somewhat idealized. shipforms have nevertheless been used for
many years for hydrodynamic calculations on the research level.
The coming of' numerically controlled tools enables a considerable part
of the ship production process to be automated (Fig. 3). The data which are
fed into these machines and control their functions can either be prepared
manually or by means of digital computers. As the amount of work involved in
the preparation of these data is considerable, the use of computers can be
expected to be the rule. In order to be able to use a digital computer for
this purpose the shape of the ship must be mathematically defined.
One of the most important concepts In the field of computer applications
is that of Integrated data processing. i.e. letting a principal part of the
Information-flow and information-processing within a concern occur within one
common electronic data processing system. In such a system all Information
used more than once can be stored In a common store, where it Is accessible
for later processing in a fast and reliable way. The ship form Is an example
of information which is used many times during the shipbuilding process. 1'he
ship form Is thus used for detérmination of the shapes of plates and frames,
for the positioning of equipment and machinery inside the hull, for hydrosta-
tic calculations, for calculations of volume of cargo spaces and so on.
A ship surface Is composed of a number of parts having different shape
characteristics such as the stem, stern, parallel-body and flats of bottom.
An accurate mathematical definition of such a complicated surface involves a
considerable number of parameters, and is therefore not suited for manual
calculations. 1hen computers are used, the evaluation of a complicated math-
ematical expression does not, however, constitute a practical difficulty. It
is therefore likely that mathematical definitions of ship surfaces vili
 - ___;-__
- - / '; : Fig. 2. Mould loft in a
traditional yard. The
/ T:Y/7. -.-------.
:-..-.: :.Z
-
.,-.
.1 .-.-.
J
figure shows the pro-
duction of wooden

-'T
-
-.

J..
i--.
-- ...,- I
L
- -,.__----/ ¿7
.
. -.
...-.. .
-
A
templates
ship
for
plates using the
sectional curves drawn
some

on the floor of the loft

in full scale. The
templates are later
used for marking on
the plates the edges to
be cut (the figure stems

. from L.A. Kisby, Ski-

bet, Copenhagen 1949).

T---.,
Ii,. t ('-- I..

11i i

t------- -- .,. » i
I

1Ir,.t -
.. -
.

rii--
:r,i
s
..'!7 .I ?
C

;'ik
.

'I, J
T'

Fig. 3. Numerically controlled plate cutting machine (made by Messer).

The computer produces a punched tape giving the coordinates of a number
of points on the plate along the edge to be cut. This tape is put into the
director which then automatically controls the cutting machine. The ESSI
director which is seen to the right is produced by Kongsberg Vaapen-
fabrikk, Norway (Werkfoto Messer Grisheim G.M. B. H.).
 -5-

replace lines drawings i the building processes, such that electronic data
processing systems and numerically controlled tools can be utilized.
The complexity of mathematical ship definitions causes some difficulties
when new ships are to be designed. During the process of designing new lines.
a ship form that satisfies a number of different requirements is developed.

The naval architect operates with a conception of the shape which is easily
expressed graphically Mathernatial expressions are not suited to this Job as
the creative power of the designer is burdened with the irrelevant problem of
how to describe a given shape mathematically. It is therefore likely that

lines drawings will continue to be a tool for designing new ships, and that

the mathematical definition of the surface will be produced from these draw-

ings.
It is possible that computers some day will be used for the preparation
of the design lines drawings, such that the design process results directly
in a mathematical ship definition. Such a technique seems possible as devices
for in/output of graphical data are fast developing. One may imagine a design.
process where the lines drawings appear ori a ,,screen,. connected to the com-
puter. and where the designer Improves the lines on the screen by means of a
special pen. The process may for instance start by the designer specifying a
modification to be employed ori a parent ship, the data of which are stored In
the computer. The lines of the resulting ship then appear on the screen, such
that the designer can either accept, or try to Improve the shape. The search
for a satisfactory solution is facilitated by the ability of the computer to
calculate the different characteristics of the designed hull In a short time.
The techniques of computer-aided design have already been tried experimental-

ly [21]. There are, however, many problems to be solved before these tech-
niques can be fully utilized. One such problem is that of representing a ship
surface in a digital computer. i.e. of preparing a mathematical definition of
a ship surface.

2.2. Aim of the work.

The purposes of the present work are:

To devise a system of mathematical functions that can be used for the
representation of most ship surfaces with the accuracy necessary when

building a ship.
To develop a method for the calculation of the numerical values of the
coefficients of a mathematical representation of a ship surface given by
a design lines drawing.
 -6-

As the design drawings are made to a very small scale, the lifted data
do not represent a surface which is smooth enough for building a ship. The
method for the calculation of the mathematical surface representation must
therefore include a fairing of the lifted data. The deviations between the
faired mathematical surface and the lifted data should, however, be of the
same order of magnitude as the errors in the lifted data. This requirement
for , .practical identity,, between the surfaces represented by the design
lines drawing and the mathematical expressions, is introduced though consider-
able deviations may be accepted in some cases. Discussions regarding the ac-
ceptance of such big deviations are thus avoided, helping to reduce the time
needed to arrive at a mathematical ship definition, and eliminating a possi-
ble source of friction. It is furthermore undesirable that designers of new
ships should be restricted by a mathematical method which limits the shapes
that can be used.
The method developed should be suitable for routine procedures in the
shipbuilding industry. It should therefore permit the production of the
mathematical ship definition within a short time, and with a minimum of
effort.
 -7-

3. Review of earlier works.

The subject of mathematically defined ship hulls was treated by Chapman

[10] as long ago as the middle of the 18th century. and has since attracted
many researchers. A review of works prior to 1955 is found in [3h.), while
later works are reviewed in [28] [148] [32]. Furthermore, a comparison between
hi. specific methods is found in [13].

The subject has been considered from two different points of view, that
of the practical shipbuilder and that of the hydrodynamist. The interest of
the hydrodynamist stems from the need for a mathematically defined ship hull
when calculating the hydrodynamic forces on ships at sea. For this purpose
the definition should preferably be relatively simple, in order to facili-
tate the manipulations called for by the equations involved. As hydrodynamic
calculations made hitherto, are based on a number of rough approximations,
the mathematical definition has not needed to describe the ship form very
accurately. Mathematical hull definitions, which are primarily intended for
hydrodynamic calculations, are treated in [20]. [25]. [26], [38] and [14i].
The interest of the practical shipbuilder stems from the need for a mathe-
matical definition of the ship in order to utilize digital computers and
numerically controlled tools in ship production. The ship definition neces-
sary for this purpose must be very accurate. Complicated mathematical expres-
sions may, however, be accepted for this task as computers will be involved
in such production techniques. As the approach of the present work is that
of the practical shipbuilder, only works related to this approach will be
reviewed.
The different methods published in the field rep?esent all degrees of
completion, from proposed methods which have never been tried, to methods
which have been tried on a number of ships. The different methods will, how-
ever, be reviewed without regard to the degree to which they have been
developed.
The methods published may be divided into two groups, sectional-curve
methods and draught-function methods.

.1. Sectional curve methods 11 1171 1181 12141 F211.

The numerical methods reviewed In this chapter are mathematical ana-

logies of the traditional graphical methods for the fairing and definition of
:3hip surfaces. These methods are based on the use of up to four different
systems of sectional curves, namely transverse sections, waterlines, but-
tocks and diagonals. These curves are obtained as the intersection of the
 ship surface with the four systems of planes given by equations of the types
x=a, z#b, y=c and ridz+e. where x, y, z are the variables (see Fig. i) and
a, b, c, d, e are constants. The ship surface may be considered as being
composed of an infinite number of transverse sectional curves distributed
over the length of the ship. The surface may similarily be defined by an
infinite set of any of the three other types of sectional curves. The ship
surfaces defined by the different sets of sectional curves should of course
coincide. The reason for employing different types of sectional curves dur-
ing the fairing process is to ensure that the ship surface obtained, is
smooth in ali directions.
On the lines drawing it is of course only possible to draw a finite
number of the sectional curves, and any additional curve which might be
needed is obtained by graphical interpolation between the drawn curves. The
drawing of the sectional curves and the graphical interpolation between them
is done by means of either a thin elastic batten or French curves. French
curves are templates, the edges of which have shapes cormnonly met with when
drawing ship lines.

Lidbro [273 divides the ship surface into about 200 parts. In each part
the transverse sectional curves are defined by polynomials or by arcs of
conic sections. This mathematical method thus corresponds roughly to the
drawing of ship lines by the means of French curves. Unfortunately the pa-
per gives no information about the methods used for calculating the coef-
ficients of the functions used. The other workers in the field use the
spline function which is the mathematical analor of the elastic batten.
The spline function concept vas developed by Theliheimer [1i] from
elementary theory for elastic beams. According to this theory an elastic
batten supported at a number of points, as is the case when drawing ship
lines, is represented by a third order polynomial (a cubic) for each inter-
val between two adjacent support points. At a support point the two acLjac-
ent cubics will have common first and second derivatives, while the values
of the third derivatives will normally be different. Such a serie of cubics
is therefore defined, as a sTline function.
The assumption made in the elementary theory of elastic beams, i.e.
that the deflections are small and that the beam material Is linearly elas-
tic, do not apply very well to actual deflections and to the wooden or plas-
tic battens used when drawing ship lines. The usefuilness of' the spline
function stems, however, from the fact that its third derivative Is discon-
tinuous at a number of points. This enables the spline function to change
its character significantly at these points of discontinuity. The flexibil-
 -9-

ity of the spi inc function may be illustrated by the fact that a apUne
curve can be composed of both curved and straight parts.
It seems at a first glance that the apune function has the advantage
of being composed of very simple elements, namely cubics. Cubica are, how-
ever, not very suited for defining parts of the curves where the angle
between the abscissa axis and the tangents is bigger than 3o-4o degrees.
Such curve parts are therefore avoided in the apUne function methods, either
by dividing the curve into a number of sections to each of which a suitable
rotated coordinate system is applied ([i] and [24]) or by transforming the
ship lines mathematically to a new set of lines which are less steep ([4]).
These measures unfortunately outweigh the advantages of the simplicity of
the cubic representation.
RSsingh [7] avoids the need for a proper orientation of the coordinate
system to the spline curve by using arcs of circles instead of cubica for the
definition of the spline function. He arrived at this method by studying the
changes of curvature in different sectional curves.
Gospodnetil [iO] avoids the shortcomings of the cubics by applying
eliptic integrals for the definition of the apUne function. Gospodnetics
representation is obtained by a carefull use of the theory of the thin
elastic beam.
The spline function is calculated from coordinates which are lifted
from drawings and are therefore not very accurate. Some smoothing of the
errors must conseq.uently be included in the calculation method. The coeffi -
cients of the spline function are therefore calculated such that the quantity

2
- 'n
+ f
t'

n
-rj
n
(i)

has the smallest possible value. In this expression f is the spline ordinate
which replaces the rith lifted ordinate y, f is the second derivative of the
spline function and r the corresponding second divided difference calculated
from the lifted coordinates, and S is a weighting factor, the value of which
is found by triai and error such that undesirable fluctuations in the apune
curve are avoided. The two quantities of the above expression may be consi-
dered as an ordinate and a curvature conservation condition. Bakker {1] uses
a smoothness condition instead of the curvature condition namely

(2)

I.(1 Is the kth derivative of the apune function corresponding

,where to
 -10-

the nth lifted ordinate. Bakker f inds empirically that k5 is the most suit-
able value.
The ship surface is faired in the same way as in the graphical methods,
i.e. by successive fairing of different types of sectional curves1 which is
repeated until ali the changes in the ordinates in a fairing cycle are below
a prescribed tolerance.
It is of course. necessary that the ship surfaces defined by the dif-
ferent systems of sectional curves, e.g. waterlines and transverse sections.
are practically identical. The spline function used for defining the sec-
tional curves must therefore be so flexible,, that both the waterlines
and transverse sectional curves can be fitted the same ship surface with
sufficient accuracy. If this is not the case, the iterative fairing process-
described above will not be convergent. Such convergence difficulties are
likely o occur in highly curved parts of the surface (see [is] page 25). If
on the other hand, the function used for defining the sèctional curves is too
flexible,,, it vil], not be suitablé for smoothing out the errors in the
lifted coordinates. The .,flexibility,, of the spline function must thus be
balanced between two inconsistent requirements. Adjustments of the . flexib-
ility, of the functions are made either by changing the numerical value of
the coefficient S in equation (i) or by changing the number of lifted
coordinates,
The difficulty of obtaining coincidence between the surfaces defined by
the different types of sectional, curves, stems from the fact that the method
only operates with tvo dimensional curves, which of course was a physical
necessity in the original graphical methods. On a computer it is, however1
possible to fit a mathematical surface directly to the ship surface, so that
the problem is avoided. Such methods are reviewed in the two following
chapters.

5.2. Draught function methods ref. [3][5][7]{8][ 11][22][23][ 28]

[53][37][4i].

A group of methods for fitting a mathematical expression to a ship

surface are the draught function methods which are based on the fact that
waterlines can normally be defined by polynomials, and that the difficulties
in defining the ship form stems from the changes of the form when moving in
the vertical direction. In all these methods the waterline polynomials are
therefore represented by a number of parameters which are given as functions
of the draught. i.e. the draught functions. The task of fairiri.g and defining
the ship lines is thus reduced to the choice and calculation of suitable
 draught functions.
The calculation of the draught functions is performed in two stages.
First, polynomials are fitted to a number of waterlines. These polynomials
are calculated such that they give the best fit, in the least squares sense,
to the ordinates lifted at the respective waterlines. From these polynomials
the corresponding parameter values are then computed. In the second stage,
each parameter is faired against draught. This fairing is performed by
fitting a function to the values calculated in the first stage. The expres-
sions obtained are the draught functions.
Two criteria have been applied in the choice of waterline parameters to
be defined by draught functions, namely the numerical suitability, and the
applicability to mathematical ship design. While the first criterion is a
necessary one, the application of the second criterion is dependent on the
approach to the problem, and has therefore only been employed In some of the
works.

The problems raised by the numerical suitability of the parameters cho-

sen may be illustrated by the fact that the coefficients of the waterline
polynomials, calculated by some of the commonly used least squares methods,
are not suitable as parameters, because the coefficients of two almost iden-
tical waterlines might be very different. By applying other methods, coeffi-
cients are obtained which are very suitable as parameters. This Is for
Instance the case in Hayes work [ii] [23], where the waterline polynomial is
expressed as a linear combination of Chebychef polynomials. Geometrical
quantities, which are known to vary with the draught In a simple manner, are
suitable as parameters. Examples of such geometrical quantities are water-
line area and halfbreadths at certain stations. Such parameters are very
suitable, as it Is possible to express each of the polynomial coefficients
as a linear combination of these geometrical quantities, and vice versa (for
a verification see [28]).
Some workers claim that they have chosen parameters which are suitable
for mathematical ship design, i.e. designing a new ship merely by specifying
the draught functions, without the need of making a lines drawing. Some of
the parameters used in these works, such as for instance high order water-
line area moments, have, however, not hitherto been used for ship design.
Furthermore, if mathematical sMp design Is aimed at, it will be necessary
to study the dependence of the different hull properties on the numerical
values of the coefficients which define the draught functions. This is not
very practical because of the high number of coefficints Involved and be-
cause different types of draught functions might be used for different types
 -12-

of ships. The number of draught functions necessary to define a ship is

roughly the same as the number of sectional curves found on a design lines
drawing, which reflects the fact that the tvo sets of curves contain the same
amount of information, namely that necessary for defining a ship surface. It
seems much more convenient for the naval architect to design ships by means
of lines drawings, which directly show the form of the ship, than by the use
of a set of draught function curves which define the ship form in a compli-
cated way.
Difficulties in obtaining a close fit to actual ship surfaces by draught
function methods are reported in [13] and [28]. In [28] maximum deviations of
about 6 inches between the design lines drawings and calculated surface are
considered to be the rule. This poor fit is due to the fact that the assump-
tion that all waterlines can be defined by polynomial of an order of about 5
is not always valid. It is thus often impossible to fit the waterlines
through the lower part of a cruiser stern with such low order polynomials.
Furthermore, all the published draught function methods, with the exception
of the not completely developed methods of [7), neglect the lines of discon-
tinuity found on ship surfaces (discussed in chapter Li.i. point 4).

3.3. Special draught function methods.

This chapter treats four draught function methods, which deviate con-
siderably from the methods discussed in the previous chapter. In the four
methods described below the centre plane of the ship is used as the abscissa
plane and the ship surface is defined by giving the ha]fbreadths as a f unc-

tion of two variables, most often the draught and the distance from amidships.
Berghuis and R6sing&s methods [7][8][33J not only use polynomials but
also other functions for defining the waterlines. Furthermore, the waterline
expression is calculated by fitting a function to the second derivative of
the waterline and by Integrating this function twice. The numerical values of
the second derivative are calculated at a number of points using dif-
ferences between the ordinates lifted at these points. This approach is based
on a study of the role of change In curvature on the ship form. From a later
paper 18] it seems, however, that the method has been modified so that the
waterline function is fitted directly to the lifted ordinates. Unfortunately
two of the parameters used in the first two paper; were numerically unsuit-
able, such that it was necessary to fair and define these two draught func-

ticns graphically. It was therefore proposed in the last paper [7] to use 3
transverse sections as draught functions.
 Atkens and Tapia [2){ 6) define the ship surface by a thematical
expression which is defined such that the transverse seàtlons and waterlines
are apune curves (described in chapter 3.i.). The coefficients of the
expressions are calculated such that the maximum deviation between the math-
ematica]. surface and the lifted offsets is the smallest possible. i.e. the
so called minimax criterion. Furthermore, unwanted Inflection points in the
transverse sections and waterline curves are to be avoided. This Is achieved
by requiring that the second derivative of the surface along the transverse
sections and waterlines have the correct sign. The coefficients of the sur-
face expression are calculated using linear prograsing techniques (see e.g.
[12]). For each of the lifted ordinates, four constraints are thus set up to
express the requirements, that the second derivative of the mathematical,
surface in the vertical and longitudinal directions will have the prescribed
sign, that the ordinate of the mathematical surface Is smaller than or equal
to the lifted ordinate plus the maximum deviation, and bigger than or equal
to the lifted ordinate minus the maximum deviation. As every one of the lif-
ted points gives rise to 4 constraints, the linear prograzmning problem
becomes so bulky, that only parts of the ship surface could be fitted at a
time, even though a big computer (i1 7090) was used. In the later work [6].
it is reported that considerable savings were obtained by replacing the
ciinirnax criterion with the requirement that the sum of the deviations should
be the smallest possible. The computer capacity needed is still somewhat
large. The problems of connecting different surfaces and the treatment of
surfaces nearly perpendicular to the centre plane are yet only solved in a
sketchy manner.
Pien [31] uses a polynomial for defining the ship hull. As polynomials
are not suited for describing the parts of the surface w'iich are almost per-
pendicular to the abscissa plane, the ship hull is first transformed mathe-
matically into a new and much smoother shape. As a result of such a modif Ic-
atiori, an afterbody, shown in the paper, could be defined by a polynomial of
only eighty coefficients. Unfortunately little mention is made in the paper
of the difficult problems of defining the stern/stem regions and of devising
the interpolation formula to be used for the transformation given by equation
9 of the paper. The last point may reflect the problem introduced when
employing transformations, which Is the choice of a suitable transformation
formula. The solution of this problem Is not obvious, as the ship Is modified
by the transformation into an unfamiliar shape.
Hayes and Clenshaw' s method 111)123] has the same basic ideas as Piena
method. The stem/stern region are however in this method treated In a satis-
factory manner, and the transformation used is more simple and suitable. As
 ..j14_

a result of these transformations, the waterlines vil], automatically have the

correct tangent at their entrance to the parallel middle body. As, however, the
transformed surface is defined by a single polynomial, it is doubted whether
the surface representatin obtained is flexible enough to cover all normal

ship types.
In the draught function methods reviewed above, the surface expressions
are derived by first setting up a waterline expression. whereafter the con-
stants in the waterline equation are substituted by functions of draught. It
is, however, also possible to derive a surface expression directly. This

approach is found in the present work which is described in the following

chapters.
 -15-

11.. Description of the method.

4.1. Principe.], characteristics of the present work:

j,) The faired ship surface is defined by mathematical expressions.

The results of the computer process are the numerical values of the
coefficients in the eqiaation
y = f(x,z)
giving the halfbreadth y of the ship as function of the draught z and the
distance x from amidships (see Fig. i). The ship surface may thus be repre-
sented in future computer programmes in a convenient manner by the function
f(x,z). By using appropriate functions the ship surface may furthermore be
represented by a relatively small number of coefficients.

2) The surfaces represented by the design drawing and the mathematical

expressions are practically identical.
With the present method, the calculation of an accurate numerical repre-
sentation of the surface can probably be made for most ship types. The
observed deviations between the calculated surfaces and the design lines
drawings are of the same order of magnitude as the accuracy of the drawing.
The Intentions of the designer are thus fully preserved In the mathematical
representation of the surface.

5) The mathematical expression Is fitted directly to the ship surface.

The techniques of transforming the surface into a more suitable surface
before fitting the mathematical expression are not applied. The problem of
choosing proper transformations for different ship types Is not simple and Is
therefore avoided. Instead, the mathematical functions are fitted directly to
the ship surface. The experience gained when using the method is therefore
directly related to shapes that can be studied on the lines drawing. This is
both a practical and efficient technique as one becomes familiar
with the
shapes vhlch may be represented by the different functions.

Li) Division of the ship surface Into parts having shapes of different
charac ter.

Different corJslderations are employed when designing the different parts

of the ship hull. For the submerged part of the hull, a number of hydrodyn-
ami.c and hydrostatic requirements must be satisfied. Above the water, regard
is given to space for cargo and equipment. The difference
between these two
parts is, for most ships, apparent at the after part of the aftbody. The
 -i. 6-

transverse sectional curves at the after part of such ships are norm ly

composed of three parts (Fig. 14), The submerged part vhich is nearly straight
and the part above the water which is roughly elliptical and convex. These
two parts are connected by a third part which is rougly circular and concave.
The second and higher order derivatives of such a curve are obviously discon-
tinuous at the two points where the three parts are connected. One may thus
trace on the ship surface two lines of discontinuity in the second and higher
order derivatives. Lines of discontinuity may also be introduced in order to
facilitate building the ship or for other reasons. A special case is the

knuckle line, which represents a discontinuity in the first derivative. A

study of the lines of discontinuity is found in [7].
The lines of discontinuity represent boundary curves between parts of

the ship surface which have shapes of different character. In the present
work a separate mathematical function is fitted to each of these parts of the
surface (Fig. 5. 6, 7 and 8). These functions are calculated such that atija-

cent parts of the ship surface are connected in the manner intended by the
designer, i.e. either only having common ordinate (a knuckle line) or also
having common tangents (normal case).
The division of the ship surface along the lines of discontinuity is

made manually, and is based on a visual study of the shapes of' the surface

as shown on the lines drawing.

parallel middle body

Lines of discontinuity
N

flat of bottom
X
.)
y

Fig. 14. Lines of' discontinuity in the second and higher order derivatives
of the surface expression y=F(x.y).
 -17-

Application of powerful functions.

Most parts of the ship surface are represented by polynomials in the two
variables x and z (Fig. i). Polynomials have been chosen for the representa-
tion of the ship surface because of the ease vith which they and their deriv-
atives may be manipulated, and because of the role of polynomials in the
field of function approximation. In practice, polynomials proved suitable for
the representation of most parts of the ship surface. Polynomials are not
suitable for the parts of the surface that are almost perpendicular to the
abscissa plane y=O, i.e. the bottom, the stem and stern. These regions, how-
ever,, only constitute a small part of the ship surface, and in the present
work they are defined by surfaces, the sections of which are conic sections.
This method is in agreement with the traditional techniques, where the stem
and stern are designed by conic sections, and where the bilge region amid-
ships is usually defined by a circular arc.

Check of the input data by computer.

The amount of data necessary for a detailed specification of a compli-
cated ship surface is quite considerable. As these many data are manually
prepared, errors can hardly be avoided. If the calculations start vith
erroneous data, a lot of computer and operator time is wasted, and the total
time needed for preparing the mathematical representation of the ship surface
is prolonged. The input data are therefore thoroughly checked by the computer
before the calculations are begun.

Check of the results by the computer.

As the intention is to use the method as a routine process in shipbuild-
ing, is it necessary to check in an easy and fast way whether or not the
mathematical representation obtained for the ship surface is acceptable. Such
a fast and easy check can of course only be achieved by means of a computer.
A special program for this purpose is described in chapter 5)i.
Another reason for having a fast computer test for the applicability of
a calculated ship surface is that a number of trials might be necessary when
fitting a set of polynomials to the surface of a new ship type. By utilizing
the error indications given by the test prograe, a suitable set of polyno-
mials may be found after a few attempts. As the calculation of the surface
expression and the tests are performed by computer, the whole process can be
performed in a short time even in cases where a number of trials are neces-
sary.
 -18

up limit of side

lore rvtip limit polynomial t

foreend
y= P1(x.y)
/stem
'uiiîL!Ze WI entrance

bitgetimit waterlines defined

Transverse sect ions by conic Sections
defined by Conic
z bilge section s

flat of bottom

Fig. 5. Mathentica1 representation of a fore body.

limit of side
fore WI entrance! foreend

ore midship timil polynomial 1

Stem
y: P1 (x,z)

bit ql imit Conic

bottomlimit i N sections
z bilge
z keel
flat of bottom

yhitae ol nomiol
bOttOmlimit
fore midship limit
lore wi entrance
Conic
section

X 02
fore end

Fig. 6. Mathematical representation of a forebody with bulibous boy.

 -19-

up limit of Side

aft end aft wi entrance

conic aft midsfljp limit
sect Ons
polynomial 3 y r P3 (x,z)
Stern

polynomial 2 y: P (x,z)
oft end polynomial i y P1 (x__pilaelimjt
c't wi entrance
ca
,.inflS ! bliqe
keel
X flot of bottom
polynomial aft midship limit

4
aft wI entrance
conic y bilge bottom imi
section oft half breadth

Fig. 7. Matheniatica]. representation of an after body.

u limit of side

alt end alt wl entrance z mid

conic
oft midship limit
sections polynomial 3 polynomial 4
stern y: l(x,z) y:R,(x. z)

polynomial 2
oft end polynomial t bil.e li
aft wt entrance y :P1 (z. z)
z bilge
keel c
flat of bottom
ô
X v-t--t
polynomial aft midship limit êY

aft wI entrance
y bilge bottom limit K
conic
Sect ion aft haltbreadth

z
. o
X

Fig. 8. Mathematical representation of an after body. The polynomial sur-

faces are divided at the station xanid.
 -20-

14.2 The mathematical representation of a ship.

14.2.1. Definition of the hull surface.

The coordinate system used is shown on Fig. 1. As ships are symmetrical
about their longitudinal centre plane (ro). it is sufficient to define half
of the ship. The surface of the ship is hence defined by giving halfbreadth
y (ao) as function of x and z, i.e.
rf(x.z)
f(x, z) stands for a number of functions, each defining the ship surface with-
in a specific region. Fig. 5 shows the different regions used when defining
the fore body of a ship. The after body is treated in the same way (Fig. 7
and 8). The different regions shown in Fig. 5 are:
i) Parallel middle body - Here the surface of the ship is defined by the
transverse sectional curve amidships giving halfbreadth as function of
draught. i.e.
y=f(z)
Flats of bottom - Here the ship surface is defined by the keel plane, and
by the plane of the rise of floor.
Curved surface betveen the parallel middle body and the stem region. This
surface is divided in the manner illustrated in Figs. 5. 7 and 8. In each
part the ship surface is defined by the polynomial equation

y=P(x.z)= a1 X
ii
Z

1=0. J0
where I and J are the orders of the polynomial P(x,z). Fig. 22 shows an
example of the polynomial coefficients ajj.
Normally the different pOlynomial surfaces together constitute one
smooth surface. Iii some ships, however, the hull is composed of two dif-
ferent smooth surfaces that meet each other along a longitudinal knuckle
line. In such a case the knuckle curve is defined mathematically and is
used as the boundary between the polynomial surfaces above and below lt.
14) BIlge region between the flats of bottom and the lowest polynomial surface
Here the ship surface Is defined, such that any transverse section (x=con-
stant) constitutes an arc of a conic section, Each of these conic sections
is calculated such that it has common tangents with the polynomial surface
and with the flat of bottom at the upper and lower limits respectively of
the section (Fig. 9a). Furthermore the conic section Intersects a longi-
tudinal construction curve. The projections of this curve on the two long-
itudinal coordinate planes are denoted (ybilge, zbilge) and are shown in
Figs. 5 to 9. In some ships the bilge sections are not tangent to the flat
 -21-

of bottom at the after part of the after body (Fig. 9b). The angle y shown
in Fig. 9 is zero in the interval between ai1dships and a point which is
denoted , . xtana.ft,, in the data form shown in appendix 2. When moving aft
from this point. y increases steadily.

ttots

bottom limit bottom limi

buI.

b
a

Fig. 9. Transverse sections through the bilge region:

case a: O<xxtan aft. case b: xtan aft.

5) The stem region. Here the ship surface is defined, such that any horizon-
tal section, i.e. a waterline, constitutes an arc of a conic section. Such
a conic section is calculated, such that lt is tangent to the polynomial
surface at the aft boundary of the stem region, and such that its axis of
symmetrl is parallel to the x-axis (Figs. 5 and io).
 -22-

stem
stem
tore wi entrance
tore WI entrance

'I)

case 2: b>a
casel : b<o

Fig. 2.0. Ends of waterlines.

4.2.2. Definition of curves.

Further to the mathematical representation of the hull surface, a number
of curves must be defined. These curves are listed in appendIx 2 (page 0.1
and 0.2) and Include:
Contours of the hull. e.g. stem, stern, midship section. sheer and camber.
Boundaries between the different parts of the hull surface, e.g. the limit
of the stern region, and the limits of the parallel middle body.
The three coordinate axes shown In Fig. i define three coordinate planes
x=O, y0 and z=0. Each of the above curves is defined by its projection on
one of these three planes. This corresponds to the common ship yard practice
of defining a curve by its projection on one of the principal design planes.
The proj ected curve is defined by a mathematical function corresponding
to the abscissa and ordinate axes specified for the curve in appendix 2. The
function used to describe the projected curve is composed of a number of' func-
tions, each defining the curve in its specific interval, such that the curve
is built up of a chain of curve elements. Such a curve element may be repre-
sented by:
i) A polynomial,
An arc of a conic section,
An arc of circle having a prescribed radius.
An arc of a circle can of course be defined as an arc of a conic section,
but
is treated as a special case because ship designers often define parts of
cur-
ves by means of circular arcs of prescribed radii, e.g. the bilge radius in
the transverse, sectional curve amidships. Fig. il illustrates how a typical
stern is divided into curve elements.
 10000 curve;
eters The stern is eXpressed ai
.hlp nos 12811 f(z) in the coordinate
Edition i/3-66j system shown in fig. I
lIt
number of elementas 7
First curve element
limits 0.00000 order .1, i.e. o straight line
ordertp: 1, 0.6000 given by the equation:
straight line coeff: .317381250 2 -.253125019 z 31.74 -0.2531(z -0.6000)
05z 1.4O68ß
limit: 1.140686 )
ordenO
rmdiue;-1.0000
centret 1.65225 32.503)1
limiti 1.79713
ordertp: 1. 2.2000
coeff: .315728571 ,2, .11e6428601

lisait: 2.514866
order; O
5.280 radivas-0.9500
ellipse
centre: 2.lIIl 32.56389
limit: 3.31727
order.tp: l 3.71100
4.180 coeft: .336231999 2. .Ji80000 i.
straight line limIt: 4.18000
$4 orders-i 2
z2
3317 coeff:-.132108551 1 -.168801666 1
z
.153326775 .8529119319 2
_.%914371e117 2
circle z
-.100000000
sign
i -.1140737541
i
Ie

limit; 5.28000
constant
2.549 order.tp: 1. 7.6400
straight line coeff: .369988401 2 .331000018

1.797 limit of curve; 10.0000

circle
1.40 7 dMa end

straight line * arc of o conic section 4.185 z 5.28 The coefficients of the
different terms in the equation ore shown.
the equation in order to eXpress z = I (z), o When jpar ranging
squoPWerm op
X
pears. This term is in this cose given the sign - in order to-
optain the correct branch of the conic section.

Fig. i.i.
Fig. 12.

Division of a stern into a nmiber of curve elements.

The coefficients of the functions which define the stern shown on
Fig. 11..
DSRI
Ljort.kr.v. 99 ?AZRE4 A )4AT)AT!CAL R3iTATXQI Ejort..J 99 FAIPIPO AND N&4ATICAL RrtTIr2f C?
e
Lyngby - Un.rk SHIP LIPES - 5 U
ta form, Curve Description (see poges 0.1, 0.2 end 0.3). CIKA'1 --
A curve i. d.tin.4 by a eMin of curve l.nte, which er. to b. speeift.d polynomial oukar of points should exceed the order et the poinoaal.
b.3'. The curve sl.nt. p.rmittsd and tb. cod. ,u.r. to be used for the Circle - state the reittu.. in both coluna.s.
epec ificetione urs: COnic section stat. at }Aest oint. Point. near the limits of the conic
[eodJ type section alld not be etated here, since the sha,e at these regIons I s
adequately d.i.n.d by the end point tangents of the s4jacent ynomials.
J
n the coni: section be.. s vertical tangent at one ut its ilz..ta a new
J I tLßt_.!.tte 5k I
poLynomials curve .lan. oust be int.ruticed. ThIs .lsm.nt is a vertical ,.Ine which
h:'-+ :;;:s::;;e. htLA boÏcti
or circle). The computer vili choos, the type of conte
that fits best to the given condition...

represent.. the tangent end Is specifIed by two .othts. The fIrst I the end
point of the couic ere. vhi..e the second is positIoned above or below the
first one dapenttng on whether the conIc fts.s a positive or negatIve derIvatIve
adjacent to 'I. vertical tangent.
0L_!ote circle specified by Lt. radius. F - if it ta rsç'..Ir.d to force the curve thrcugJ a ,otoZ state befOre the
- abscissa (? for fIxed). In the case of a conIc section on.l,y Is permitted.
Thu computer vili position the ere, of conte sections and circle. so that .aeh Limita - point.. havt.zlg abscissa outside the interval s,.ecified for i.'ts curve
of them is tangential to its two adjacent curve elemente, which cust be spec it led can a.so be stated. ¿so overlaptng between tAs points speeifi.d for
a. polynomial.. tve sdje,cen; eements mey result in s ours natural transItIon between tnem.
Abscisse., o? limite. The coordinate ext. to be used are stated in u table on llame of the curve ttabi.e om pes i..2 aM
pages 0.2 aM 0.3. The curve elemente are specified below such that the colu
,,abucieeas of the limits,, vili have increasing valuas downwards. i
1h. order of connection te defined as: F'Abeciseacrd-At' F AbscIssa ordinate 'F bscIa ordInate I .sb3C.sse. .rdInate
o jír.,, f 3/. 'íF5 O,'90
[orúer The two adjacent .lementi havait the point of conr.ectton7 1.6 i/.-10 31. 69
- t dttf.ret ordinates i... jump in the curve.
con ordinate at a point, which fits bet for the curve.
O con ordinate at the atetad limit.
L_' I con ordinate and tangent.
in ca,. of a drei. specified by its radius (eods O) or conOectIon order -
the accuret. value. of the abscissae of the limite vili be calculated by the eca-
poter. State neverthelese approxinate values for these abseissas.
To the cas, of a circle or coni section, etat. order of connectton I with the
two adjacent pol.ynomie.is.
!4ame of curve (see table on pages 0.2 and 0.5
A text to identIfy the curve. State at least the date.
ThIs tenttfication te useful! if different proposals
are trled. F sbsctesa'ord.Inat.e 'P ..bsclssa ordinate' 7 bsc tesa ordinate 7 ,bsCi;se. ordinate
The curve t, composed of the eener.te: '/6/ ..3.ÇPÇ co
cf' code r,t.mber crder of con-s
limit tcr type of nectton with j
elemer.t subsequent
Sraeet abeetesa of fIrst, element e lenar.t
o L
t' 2 / 1'
2 o /
Put order of connection after laut
3
I.
/ I
.3.3 o Il
sienent 5
4/f / /
6
i -/ /
/o I, o
e
.3
it titis tore Is l&et pese of a....l curve nate
end element
',a'.e .uAtb. end
L -.
Fig. 13. The data supplied to the computer for the calcula:ion of the stern shown on Fig. 11.
 -25-

94 50 41. 15 -53.00 -107. 79

______p=7 p.1

p ceder the polynomial used.

Fig. i. Definition of a bottom limit1, curve by a chain of three polyno-

mials.

bottom
1376
itT-66 j
29
number of element,: 3
limit: -107.79000
order.tp: 7. -80.3950
coeff: .7T1166873 1 .355819866 -.584(22358 -.3693063(4 3.
.725783937 .2654181645 _6 -.429739361 ,-8 -..5100ie512-i0.
limIt: -53.00000
order.tp: 1. -5.9250
coeff: .115200001 2 -.728986059 e-9.
1imt: i.1500Q
order.tp: 7. 67.8250
coeff: .851585(48 1. -.290628750 -.626876741 -2 .1817149052 3.
.574Q9114814
,-5. -.1140530755 .,_6 -.778(90699 ..9 .5?SS4957S..iQ
limit of CU1Ve: 94.5000
data end

Fig. 15. Coefficients of the .bottom limit,1 curve shovn on Fig. 114.
tjort.rsvuj 99
Lnby Den.r4'.
Data tore: Curve Description sea

,Ai::. .-:' uT uilAL R .sfrATzczi

IXP L4E5
.l. C.2 end 3.31.
L r namy
lijorteiue&Ye 99
Ijngby - Der.r
CDl1

F;G
-.- cRvE.
olyTilal - number cI .olnta should eaceed t order of the lnoma..

LiliES
RRIPTLJi ..F
A curv, is defined by a chain of cur,. .l.isent. vhtch sr. to be specIfied Ciro:. - atete ta redits In both cos . -
bijou. The curve eleeinta permitted and the cods .uwar. to b. ua.d for the - sta4 at iaa.st e otht. PoInts near the .lmita the conic
ap. ficatio..e 52.I section s..l.t nt be st&.ed here obOe the ahae t tr.ese reglns Is
eijacent lyn,oaa.
edaquately da f nad by the and ,.olnt tangents ofatthe
When the co.: sectIon &s a vertis.l tangent or.. .if Its lImIta. a new
pulynomls.l. curvs .lant a..at se Introduced. This alant to a YertIca. lin, which
i straight lin.
tal rereesnts the tangent sod Is seclf.ed by two s.ilnts. The fIrst Is the end
l
p p..order jo ?oLnt of the 0.45.10 arc vh.Lla the second is .osltIuned a&'we or below the
arc of s conic .etion (elltpee, itpeitol. peao.a cc,ntc sectton fIrst one d ending on whether th, cOnIc has a 'o6Itve or nega'Ive derIvatIve
a&je.cent to tse verllcs.. tergent.
or circle). The coput.r utLi chocei thi ty'e of contO a poInt stat. before the
-
- lt lt Is reç...red to tozo. the curve fthrough
that fits beat to the given eondtttor.a. abadesa (P for fI.ed). n the case e Conic sectlOr. only F la jera.ittcd.
L._ src of circle puctfted by Its redlu.. Limita - j,'oInts having abscIssa csststda the interval :.ctf led for iia curve
between L-se ,ozsts eeitte4 ror
element can s..so be sW.ad. n .sveria.tng natural
The coeput.r vt.l position th. arcs of conic section. ami etre'es si that each two adjacent elemsnts mey result In a tressa tion between tn,a.
of thee Is tangential to it. two adjacent curvi .mente, wnlch cuat b. .pectfied
55 Name o1 the curve (tania on egeo &. i ami .
bot om
b.eI..e.s of Atmits. The coordInate axt. to b. used are staid In a table on
paces .2 arid .'. The curve e.ents are epectflsd beLa, auch that the colui 1Absctssa'crd.r.at.' bsclssa ordInate 'F Absctsa ordtnatr / Abscsia ordInate
,abectesaa of the lstt, vtl have increa.tng values downwards. -i7.9 a /. -40
1/33 . Y5 11.3/5
The order of conriectior. Is defIned ae -
/00.4 t 4"f F '10 vg. 32 lo if. Ç -
order ' The two adjacent .lenents have at the point of conr.ectton:'
different ordInate. i.e. ,jwap In the curve.
-- . -
-
- 90.0 q i, Sj 10. fl
¡
-2
cor ordOnate at a point. which ?Ite best for the curve. Iao 7.9-1 - ¿o ,o.v
eon ordInate at the eteted tait. ;
O
coin ori r.a'.e and tangent. _j - - 70.0 105$'
-- ¿5.04/OS
_-64.0 II-2$
-
SO
90 lii
4'2
in case of a circle specified by ite radius (code C) or connectthn order -
. -
the accurate values of the abscissas of the iteits wIll be calculat.d by the com- j5g if.3/f c, 9$'5 0.01'?
tor these abscieeae.
puter. state nevertheless approxtte velu.. atete
Tn the caes of a circle or coni setiOn order of connection i with the
two adjacent polynomiale.
curve
!iams of curve (see table on pe.ea 0.2 and
o ) 5'1SfS7.11, .
A text to identIty the curve. State at least the dati.
identification le usetull uf dIfferent proposals ,,, ' Abpcissaord.inat P AbscIssa ortttnat.' 7 ..bscissa orijisiate' ! Abscissa .,rdinat.
Thu
are tried.
Th curve i. composed of the elemer.ta: [scfii
limit
f code numbeiT orr o? ¿t
for type of neetton with
elemer.t subsequent
ScelIst abscIssa of fIrst elenent i -4ja7?Q element
Pt ord.r of conn.ction after last
eleeent - O
Lt this form i. last jage of a.Lj curve data. 'tate
J data end.
Fig. 16. The data supplied to the computer for th
 -27-

14.2.3. General considerations on the calculation methods employed.

Fig. 17. The GIER computer which has been used for the present work. The
unit closest to the door is the drum storage. On the top of this unit is
seen the Benson - Frace plotter coupled to the computer. The computer which
is produced by Regnecentralen of Copenhagen has an outstanding ALGOL .O

compiler.

The choise of calculation method is a function of the capabilities of

the computer to be used. i.e. the storage capacity, the computing speed and
the accuracy of the numerical representation. The methods described in this
work were prepared for the FIyAGIER computer, and can therefore be used on
installations equivalent or superior to this computer.
The HyA-GIEB Is a parallel binary computer with a 42-bit word length.
The storage comprises a 1O214word core store, and a 38L400_word drum store.
Originally the capacity of the drum storage was only 12800 words, and the
first edition of the fairing programme was therefore adapted to this limited
capacity. All the calculations described in and 14.25 are made with built
-in floating-point arithmetic. The accuracy of a floating point number cor-
responds to 29 significant binary digits (bits), which is closely equivalent
to 9 d'irrial digits. The time needed to perform an addition and a multiplica-
tion between two r;-ting point numbers Is 0.12 and o.i8 millisecond. Most
other GiER instruct.Loii. are performed In 0.05 millIsecond. Early in 19(7 a
plotter w roupld to tìe computer, which enables curves to be drawn at a
 -28-

speed of UP to 9 cm. per second.

of the curves are defined
The principal parts of the curved surface and
is that curves are
by polynomial chains The difference between the two cases
in two variables
described by polynomials in one variable, while polynomials
are used for surfaces.
to a number of
A review of the different methods of fitting polynomials
principal methods
given points is found in {i14]. There are two different
In
which are used when searching for the best fit in the least squares sense.
solution
the first method the polynomial coefficients are obtained from the
the normal equations. These equations are
of a system of linear equations,
derived directly from the least squares criterion. i.e. by differentiating

the sum of the squares of the differences between the ordinates of the given
polynomial values, with respect to the coeff i-
points and the corresponding
dents of the polynomial, and by putting these derivatives equal to zero. In
of a
the second method the polynomial is calculated as a linear combination
set of orthogonal polynomials.
work the problem is more complicated than in Íi] as a
In the present
chain of polynomials is used instead of a single polynomial, and as a number
of boundary conditions are imposed on the polynomials. The principles of the
where
two above mentioned methods are nevertheless found in the present work,
equations
the curie coefficients are calculated by solving a system of linear
The
and the surface coefficients by applying a set of orthogonal polynomials.
calculation of the surface coefficients by solving a system of linear equa-
considerations
tions vas not practicable on GIER because of speed and storage
and because numerical difficulties could be expected for the reasons given in

14.2.I&. Calculation of the curve coefficients.

The data necessary for the calculation of the mathematical definition of

a curve are filled ir. on the data forms shown ir. appendix 2. The wiy in which
the curve is to be split up Into number o'
curve elements nd the mt.hem-

to be fitted tc the different elements re specified on the

tical functions
first data form. The character of the connections between the different curve
can thus have common
elements are also specified. Two adjacent elements
speci-
ordinate or tangent at the point of connection. lt is also possible to
at the point of connection, which, however, is not men-
fy coon curvature
since it proved to be of little value. On the
tioned on the data forms,
each of
second data form the coordinates of a number of points are stated for
fall into two categories:
the different curve elements. The stated points
 -29-

Points defined by coordinates lifted from the drawings. The coordinates of

these points are not very accurate.
Fixed points whose coordinates are calculated from design considerations.
In the data form the letter f is stated ahead of the coordinates of the
fixed points so that the computer can distinguish them from the lifted
points.
The curve is calculated such that it intersects the fixed points and.

gives the best fit in the least squares sense to the lifted points.
Two examples are given in figures 11 to 16, which show the two curves,
the data supplied to the computer and the resulting coefficients.
A curve element defined by an arc of a circle or a conic section is only
permitted between two elements of the polynomial type, while polynomial curve
elements may succeed each other. A curve can therefore be considered as being
composed of a number of polynomial chains which are connected by arcs of
conics and circles. The different polynomial chains are calculated first.
Thereafter each pair of adjacent polynomial chains are connected by an arc of'
a circle or a conic section such that the arc is tangent to the two polyno-
mial chains at their end. points.

14.2.4.l. Calculation of a chain composed of a single polnomial.

Let us first consider a polynomial chain composed of only one polynomial

and where no fixed points are specified. The coefficients of' the polynomial
tire then ca1uitted merely by the use of the leaut uqurvu criterion. Let the
curve be given by the. porits
(x1. y1).. ..(x,
and let the polynomial be defined by

(1)

where a am are the unknown coefficients of the polynomial. These coeff i-

dents are chlcui.ated by the use of the least squares criterion. i.e. such
that the quantity

j 2
(P(x.)-y1)c.]2= (2)
1=0 j=o
is a minimum. c1 in this expression denotes a number by which (P(x.)_y) is
multiplied in order to obtain the distance from (x1,y) to the polynomial
 -39-

the method shown on Fig.18.

curve. The numerica]. value of c, is calculated by
coefficients e, am
The independent variables in the expression S are the
of the polynomial. By
differentiating S with respect to a0 am and putting
equa]. to zero, one obtains a system of m + i. linear
these m + i derivatives
the norma]. equations. By solving this system of linear equations
equation,
the numerical values of the coefficients of the polynomial are obtained. This
chapter 9.
method Is treated in detail in many text books. e.g. [29]

Fig. iO.
Calculation of the dist-
ance of a point from a polynomial
curve. The polynomial P(x) fitted
to a number of points, the coordi-
nates of which have been lifted
from an inaccurate design drawing.
A and B are two of these points.
B is the considered point and A is
an adjacent point. The distance
from B to rP(x) is calculated. as:
C ((Px)-.y ),vhere C cosrcosß
cos is calculated from the
triangle ABC.

t4..2 .11.2. Calculation of a chain of polynomials.

composed
In cases when fixed points are specified, and when the chain Is
and tangent are speci-
of a number of polynomials for which coon ordinate
imposed on the po-
fied at the connection points, a number of conditions are
fuif lied. The coeff I-
lynomial coefficients, such that these requirements are
such that these conditions are
dents of the polynomials are thus calculated
from the
satisfied and such that the sum S of the squares of the distances
Each of the conditions is
lifted points to the polynomial curve is a minimum.
coefficients which must
formulated by setting up a. function of the polynomial
be equal to zero. The different types of conditions are:

i) Forcing a polynomial through a fixed point (xf.yf):

a14_yf_o (i)
f(ao,...,am)P(xf)_Yf
1=0
are given. f(a0,.. ..am) Is solely a
as the numerical values of (Xf.Yf)

function (a linear combination) of the coefficients a0 am.

polynomials a and b at the connecting

2) Common ordinate for two adjacent
abscissa xc:
m
a1x - b1x"0 (2)

i=o =0
 -31-

value of x is known, g is solely a function (a linear

As the numerical
combination) of the coefficients a0 b.
a and b at the con-
3) Con first derivative for two adjacent polynomials

necting abscissa

h(a0 a,b0 j ia1X'1 ib1X10 (3)

i=l 1=1

values of Xc is known, h is solely a function (a r

Since the numerical
linear combination) of the coefficients
It is seen that any one of the conditions results in an equation

F=O (Li)

where F is a linear combination of the coefficients of one of the polyno-

mials (case i) or of the coefficients of two adjacent polynomials (cases 2

and 3).
The sum, S, of the squares of the distances between the lifted points

and the polynomial chain curve, is composed of the sums calculated for the

different polynomials. For each polynomial the sum is calculated in the way

described in 4.2)4.l.
The coefficients of the polynomials of the chain can now be calculated

by a method proposed by Lagrange. whereby one searches for the minimum of the
expression:
S (5)

where stands for a coefficient denoted Lagrange multiplier.

The independent variables in this expression are the coefficients of the
polynomials in the hain and the Lagrange multipliers assigned to the diffe-
rent condition functions F. By differentiating expression (5) with respect

to these variables and putting these derivatives equal to zero, a system of'

linear equations is obtained. The numerical values of the coefficients of' the
polynomials rind ofthe Lagrange multipliers are then obtained by solving this
system of equations. The Lagrange multipliers are not used for curve defini-

ticn, but their numerical values are indications of the degrees of constraint
irripoed on the polynomials in satisfying the corresponding conditions.
'Ehe equ'itiom of the i i.riear system whl ch :tem from ?.he dj f1ererAtlat Ion
Qf (r vitti respect to the different polynomial coefficients c., may be
wi-i tten

as a(F) =0
(6)
 -32-

8 SI 8c1 is calculated in the same way as in the case of a chain composed of

only one polynomial (b.2.1.l.). 8E(p, F1 )/8c1 is a linear combination of

since the F expressions. i.e. (i) (2) and (3). are linear
some of the j.z

combinations of the polynomial coefficients cl.

The equations of the linear system which stem from the differentiation

of (5) with respect to the different ,i may be written

as Ji_o
8OEM.F.) (.)

since the expression for S. i.e. (2) in 14.2.11.1.. does not contain any p
and equation (7) is reduced to
ji1 =0 ,
a ( E F) (8)
au1

As furthermore, the F expressions (i) (2) and (3) do not contain any ,u

equation (8) is reduced to

F1 = O (9)

The system of linear equations to be solved is thus composed of equations of

work the system of linear equations is
types (6) and (9). In the present
solved by the algorithm given in [16] page 25-26, which is based on elimina-
of partial
tian of the coefficients below the diagonal with the application
pivoting. Some improvement may possibly be obtained when using total pivoting
[L19].

A complete definition of the method used for the calculation of the po-
lynomial chain is given by the ALGOL procedure In appendix l.

4.2.14.5. The numerical power of the method.

The numerical power of the method was tested by using the programme

of the coefficients of a known polynomial chain. i.e. the

for calculation
coordinates of the 1.nputed points were calculated exactly from the known

of the polynomials. The differences between the calculated and

coefficients
of the polynomials represent the rounding errors introduced
true values
during the computations. The programme was tested on a number of polynomial.

chains of the types to be used l'or the ship definition and proved to be suf-

ficiently accurate.
 The best numèrlcal resu.lts vere obtained when the abscissas of the
points, used for the calculation of a certain polynomial, vere measured from
the centráid of the abscissas. With this technique a separate coordinate
system is used for each of the polynomials of a chain. This does not, hovever,
inconvenienci the user, as the transformations betveen the different coordi-

nate systems are made by the computer.

Calculation of the conic sections (Fig. 19).

The coefficients of a conic section are calculated such that the conic
section is tangent to the two adjacent polynomial curve elements at their end.
points, and such that the best fit is obtained to a number of points, whose
coordinates are lifted from the drawing. The calculations are performed by a
method similar to the one used in [23]. Let the equations of the two known
polynomial end-point tangents and of the straight line connecting these two

points be
yrn1X+c1
y m2x+c2 (i)

y=m0x+c0
The equation of the conic section can then be written V

(y_m1x_c1)(y_m2x_c2)K(y_mx_c0)2. V '
(2)

where the constant K is calculated from the cOordinates of the.lifted. points.

Fig.' 19. Calcúlation of a conic section given by the points A',B.D and the
tangents a't A and B. The point D must be positioned. inside the triangle ABC.
 -3".-

Equation (2) may be abreviated to

= Kz. (3)
1112
of 101 z and 12 appears from Fig. 19. For each
The geometrical meaning
lifted point, a K value is thus calculated from the equation
(14)
K = z1z2/z.
value
The K value to be used for defining the conic section is a weighed mean

- -
of all of these K values, i.e.
(5)
where w represents tvett. The weight w assigned to a certain K value is
with which this K
calculated such that it is proportional to the accuracy

value is known. The error hin a K-value Is calculated from the expression:

h=dK/K( (dK/dy)dy)/K'( i/z1+1/z2-2/z0)dy (E)

dy Is the reading error which is assumed to be the same for all

where
lifted points. K is calculated by puttrlg the weight wI./h In (e), i.e. from
K =(1/h, i/(l/h . (')

From the expression (() it appears that points near the ends of the arc yield
to lift points
very inaccurate K values. It is therefore not recommended
close to the ends of the conic arcs.
The above equaticn (2) for the conic section includes a term in y'. When
the equation Is rearranged in order to express y as a function of x. a square

root terni therefore appears. The sien given to this term indicates which of

two branches of the conic section is used for the definit.ion of the
the
actuttl curve e1ment. This sign must therefore he Irte ti;Ien h; thp thfinitiCn
of the curve cicmerit.

Calculation of circujar arcs with prescribed radii (F'ig. 2t;).

14.2.14.5.

The coordinates of the centre of a circle are ealcuated such that the

circle is tangent to the two adjacent polyr;orr.1rì. eurve e.em.ts rit their end
points. When filling In the data form, the accurnte vaiues c abscissr;s A and

of the two adjacent poLyr;omial curve elements rire not

B of the end points
known. Approximate values for A arid are, however. stated or. trie
normally
The accurate position of the er;d points ar-ci the centre of the
dsta form.
circle are calculated on the computer ny an iterative proces.
During each iteration the computer calculates the point of intcrsecticn

the two straight lines that are paralel to the tangents of the
C between
polynomials at their assumed end points A and B. Hereafter the abscissas of A
and B are changed by the amounts dA and dB by which the abscissas of the
centres CA and CB are changed when shifting to the new centre C. This process
continues until the changes are below a prescribed tolerance.
 -'5-

Fig. 20. Calculation of the centre

of an arc of a circle. The figure
shows a single step of the itera-
tive process. At the beginning it
is assumed that the circle is tan-
gentlal to the two adjacent curves
at A and B. A proposed centre of
the circle C' is found as the point
of intersection between lines par-
allel to the tangents at A and B
in the distance R. In the fol-
lowing step A and B will be
sumed to be the points of tangency.
as-
r

4.2.5. Calculation of surface coefficients.

This chapter describes the methods used for the calculation of the coef-
ficients of the polynomials that define the ship surface between the parallèl
middle-body and the stem/stern region. The rest of the ship surface is
defined by means of curves and conic sections as described in .2.l. The
coefficients of these curves and conic sections are calculated by the methods
given in 4.2)4.

1L2.5.l. The conditions imposed on the surface polynomials.

As described in L.2.l a number of polynomials in the two variables x and
z are used for defining the ship surfaces between the parallel middle-body
and stem/stern region. The coefficients of these polynomials are calculated
from a number of half-breadths lifted from the drawings, such that the best
fit in the least squares sense is obtained. Furthermore, a number of condí-
tions must be satisfied.

1) Along the boundary between polynomial surface and the parallel middle-
body the value of the polynomial must be equal to the halfbreadth in the
middle-body. Furthermore, the surface tangent in any waterline plane.
z=constant, must be parallel to the centre plane, y = O. i.e.
aP(x.z)/ a x=o
where y=P(x.z) is the equation of the polynomial surVace.
 Along the curves denoted fore en&. and ,aft end.. (see Fig. 5 and 7)
the value of the pölynomial must be equal to the ordinates given by the
curves denoted , ,fore halfbreadth,, and , af t halfbreadth,,. These four

curves must thus be calculated before starting the calculation of the

surface equation. In the cases where the accurate dimensions of the

stem/stern are fixed by design considerations, the end,,, and half-

breadth., curves are positioned on the stem/stern in accordance with

these dimensions, such that the surface Is forced to fit to the prede-

signed stem/stern. In the cases where the stem/stern Is not accurately

predesigned, the end,,, and ,.,ha.lfbreadth,,, curves are taken from the

lines drawing. One of the most commonly used design lines is the curve
of Intersection betveeñ the centre plane, y=O, and the continuation of

the ship surface, disregarding the highly curved stem/stern region (see

Fig. .5).
3) Along the boundaries between the different polynomial surfaces the ad-

jacent surfaces must have comon ordinate and tangent planes. When the
boundary curve is a knuckle line, only common ordinates are required.

.2.5.2. The method used for obtaining smooth transition between the poly-
nomial surfaces.
The. amount of computation needed for the calculation of the polynomial

coefficients is a rapidly growing function of the number of coefficients to

be calculated simultaneously (formulas for this function are found in 14.2.5.

3.). Simultaneous calculation of the coefficients of all the surface polyno-

mials will therefore result in an unacceptable computation time using the
computer GIER, available to the author. Furthermore, such a large computation
may involve numerical difficulties due to accumulation of rounding off errors.
To overcome these difficulties, the coefficients of each of the surface
polynomials are calculated separately. Smooth transition between adjacent po-
lynomial surfaces is obtained by one of two different methods. In the first
method the polynomials are calculated one by one. When the polynomial to be
calcuJated has a common boundary with a poiynomla]. urface culcuat.ed pre-
viously, the new polynomial is forced to, have the saíne .ordIntte arid UtngezltH
along the common boundary. In the second method a number of auiclÏiary polyno-

mials are first calculated. The auxiliary polynomials represent surfaces

which are denoted ,,connecting surfaces,,. A connecting surface is calculated,

such that it represents a part of the ship surface around a boundary between
two adjacent surface polynomials. The two surface polynonIals are thereafter
calculated, such that they have the same ordinates and tangents as the con-
 -37-

necting surface along the boundary curve. The connecting surface is thus in-

troduced for the calculation of the ordinates and tangents to be imposed on

the two adjacent surface polynomials along their common boundary.
It should be noted that the ship surface obtained by the present method
is in principle .ifferent from the surface obtained when calculating all the
surface polynomials simultaneously. This is because the problem solved in the
two cases is not exactly the same. The difference between these two solutions
is probably small.

11.2.5.3. The economy of two alternative methods for the calculation of a

surface polynomial.
As described in 11.2.11.. the coefficients of the polynomials that repre-

sent curves are calulated by solving systems of linear equations. This

method seems less attractive in the case of surface polynomials, as the num-

ber of linear equations to be solved is so high, that numerical difficulties

can be expected for reasons given in [114]. The surface polynomials are there-
fore calculated as linear combinations of sets of orthogonal polynomials. The
use of orthogonal polynomials also results in a considerable saving in compu-
ter time. The time needed on GIER for the solution of n linear equations, by
the method of [16]. and within the range of n values likely to be met within

this work is

0.009 n2'5 seconds.

The number of equations n is equal to the number of polynomial coefficients p

plus the number of conditions f (see 14.2.11.2.), i.e. n=p+f. Furthermore a

considerable amount of computer time b is needed for the calculation of the

coefficients of the linear equations. The total computer time required is

thus

b+0.009(p+f)2'5 seconds (i)

The GIER time needed for the calculation of the polynomial coeffls ients by
the method used in the present work is

0.0008 p2 (q+f) seconds, (2)

where p is the number of polynomial coefficients, q is the number of half-

breadths to which the polynomial is fitted and f is the number of points with
high weight introduced to impose the different cOnditions. The value of p Is

the same in equation (i.) and (2). the values of f are rearly the same. Over
the range of p. q and. f values for which the process Is to.be applied, the

GIER time needed when using orthogonal polynomials. is in any case less than

half the time needed for the linear equatións method, even if the quantity b

in equation (i.) is neglected.

The formulas given above for the computation times for the two methods.

resulted from an analysis of the GIER time used, when employing efficient

machine code versions of the original ALCOL programmes. The ratio between the
computer time needed for trie two methods, will probably be different when

using á computer having other properties.

L.2.5»4...The method used for the calculation of a surface polynomial.

A method for fitting a polynomial in one variable to a function, given

by a number of points, is described by Forsythe in [iLs]. The polynomial is

calculated as a linear combination of a number of orthogonal polynomials,

which are generated by means of a simple recurrence formula. Cadvell extends

these techniques In [9] to the case of a function in two variables, te.

surface fitting. Unfórtunately, the recurrence formula becomes quIte compli-

cated in the case of two variables. In the present work the orthogonal poly-

nomials are generated in a straIghtforward nnner, without applying any

recurrence formula. This resulted in a relatively simple computer programme.

A detailed description of the method is found in appendix 1. It Is remarkable
that no assumptions are made in this method regarding the configuration of'

the abscissas of the points tó be fitted by the polynomial. A typical conf i-

guratlon of such abscissas is shown on Fig.. 2L1.

The surface fitting method of. the present work was suggested to the
author by Per Mondrup. A number, of' versions were thereafter tried in order to

find, the sequence of operations giving the best numerical results. These

numerical experiments were performed both with parts of a ship surface and
with ship like surfaces defined by given polynomials and resulted in the com-
putation process given In appendix 1. Phe'numerlcal experiments demontrat..ed.
as expected, that the most accurateresults are obtained, when the coordinate
system Is positioned such that origin is placed at the centroid of points to

be f itted by the polynomial.

 4.2,5.5. The method used foi imposing the boundary conditions ion a surface
polynomial.
The boundary conditions are imposed on a polynomial by introducing a
number of points that satisfy the conditions, and by assigning a high weight
to these points in the surface fitting process. The weights used in this work
are thus ifor offsets lifted from the drawings and 1000 foroffsets calcu-
lated from the boundary conditions. A method for the calulation of the most
suitable weights, was not developed, as this aspect of the problem did not
seem to be of vital importance.
Let us for instance consider a polynomial surface
y=P(x,z)
where the maximum exponent of x is 7, and let us suppose that we want this
surface to intersect a waterline1 z'const., the halfbreadths of which are.
given by the equation
y=f(x).
By inserting z=const. into the surface equation y=P(x.z), the equation is
reduced to a polynomial solely in x of the order 7. As such a polynomial is

uniquely defined by 8 different points, it Is sufficient to force P(x.z)

th-ough 8 points calculated from the equation y=f(x). If f(x) is a polynomial
of an order equal to or less than 7, the surface P(x.z) and the waterline
will coincide. f this is not the case, the surface cannot be expected to
intersect the waterline in more than the 8 calculated points, the deviation
between the surface and waterline in such a case may nevertheless be so small
that the surface can practically be considered as intersecting the waterline.
A boundary condition stating that the surface should have a specified
tangent (derivative), in a given direction, at acertain point, is satisfied
be forcing the polynomial surface through two very close points, positioned
on each side of the point on the specified tangent. Let us again consider the
above example, and further specify the tangents in the z-direction along the
waterline z=const. by the equation
= g(x).

in thi: ca;e the urface i forced through 8 pair; ol' clo;s points. A pair
thuz consiztz oÍ' the two polritz (x,z-iiz,f(x)_g(x),ciz) and (x,z+dz,f(x)sg(x)
dz), where dz is a zmall increment, whih .i the prezent programme is put
eqüal to 2._L4xLpp where Lpp is the length of the ship.
when it is specified that the polynomial P(x,z) to be calculated should
have the same ordi.nate.and tangent as an adjacent polynomial- surface y=Q(x,z),
which has been previously calculated1 the functions f(x) and g(x) are not

calculated. Instead, the halfbreadths of the pair of points at (x z-dz) and

(x.z+dz) are calculated directly from Q(x,z).

 apr 2 input
ship nr: 121.2
foi-e
surface nr: i
limits: 1.0000 l0.(Xx
orders of polynomial: 6, 7
nr pointe: 155, L#8
xt at: -19,5145 14.8121,
I valuea
-10.050G -15.14-)QQ -16.7500 -20.1000
_28.14750 - -
-23,14500 -25.1250 -26.8000
-3o.i5cc -lo.c,soo -15.4000 -16.7500 y Y&1Uea:
-28.475e -50.1500 -10.0500 -13.4000
.20,1000, .25.1.500 -25.1250, -26.8000 6,34 5.8850, 5.20cc,
-16,75cg -20.1000 -23.4500 -25.1250 0.5550, .505e, 5.114 2,500c 1.7900,
-26.80(0 .28.4750 -30.15cc -10.0500 6.1.200, 6.0400 5.14600, 1.0600
.25.1250 -26.8000 .28.14750 -50.1500,
.15,1.000 -16.7500, -20.1000, -23.4500 1.5250, 0.5950 .5550,
6.465o 6,1700 5,6200 5.4200, 2.7550; 2.0550 - -

-25.4500, -25.1250, ..51,6250 -i3,4occ -16.7500, -20.1000 2,280c 1.5500 14.7600 5 6400 2 9800 - - - -
-26.8000 -28.4750 0.775e, 6.4900, 6.2700
- - - -
.20.1000 -23.450e -25.1250 -26.8c0
-50.15cc. -51.8250 .13.400cj -16.7500 5,18cc 2.14700 1.7550, 0.91.50 5.7700: '.91400: s:8.cc -

-16.7500 -20.1000
-15.1.oc -16.7500,
-31.8250 -13.14000
-5.i500 -51.8250
-S0.i5ccj -31.8250,
.28.4750, -30.1500,
-30.1500 -31.8250,
-50.1500 -51.8250
.28.4750 -30.1500
-26.8O -28.4750
-7.So, -7.2198,
-10.1990 -10,1186
-
.28.14750 -50.15cc, -31.8250,
-
-23.4500 -25.1250 .15.1.000 4.oc, 5.5750, 2.660e, 1.9200, 0.1550 6.5500 5 8950 5 1100
.26.8000 .28.1.750 -50.1500, -51.8250 5.2650, 4.2000, 1.1200 0,3050' 6:40,0' 6'oó5o - -- -
.20.1000 -23.4500 5.5600, 2.84o, 2.1050,
6.14450 - - - - -
-25.1250 -26.8000 -28.4750 -30.1500 6.105G, 5.4150, 1.2850: 0.14,50:
-16.7500, -20.10cc .38cc, 5.71400 5.0200,
- - -
-25,4500 -25.1250 -26.8000 -28.4750 6.1.750, 6.1900, 2.2850 i.50o 0 6100
-16.7500 -20,1000 5.5550, 4.5500, 5.9250,
-53.5000, -16.7500,
-25.4500, -25.1250. -26.6000 .28.4750 0.7800, 6,4900 6.2600, 5.7000, 14.7250- 5.2150: 2.1.800' 1:5o
-20.1000 -25.145cc, -25.1250. .26.8000 1.8000, 0.91450, 14.1200 5 kocc 2 6550 - - - -
-31.8250, -35.5c 6.5250. 5.850e, 14.9050:
- -
-55.5000, .514,3575
-23.4500. -25.1250, -26,8000. 48.1.750 1.9850, 1.1250, 0.2200, 6.5750, 5.960C, 4.Sooc 5.5950' 2:8.00 -
-)5.500
-25,4500. .25.1250, -26.8o0, .28.4750 3.0550, 2,1806 5.0800 14.1.800 3.7900 -
_54.5375, 1.5250, 0,14250, 5.1.220, 14,8500 14.1800' -
-55.175e -23.4500, -25.1250, -26.8000 2.6150, 1.7900, 5,14400
-31.825e -55.5000 0.9200, 0.4600, 5.7800, 5.2450 - - -
-50.150e -51.825e
.514.3575, -55.1750, .25.1.500. 3.(95o, 2.5000 1.146001 1.00(0, 0.5750, 6.1550: 14.6050' 5 88cc
-55.socc, .54,5.575, -55.1750, -25.1250 4.14200, 5.6250, 5.6800' 5.0850 - -
-8.0568 -7.95614, 2.8600, 2.0600, -1-,635o
-
-8.7575, -8.6771, .9.1.782. -9.3978 5.514cc, 1,2250 6.5100 -5 90(0 - - - -

-10.9197 -10.8593, 5.91oc 5.150e, 2,3800, 1.9850 i" -

.13.0529 -12.9725 -13.1109 -13,0505
.-i1.64çj, -11.560e, -12J612, .12.28c8 6,5000 6.5000 6,50(0 6,5000 6,5000 1.5750'
-15.16(2, -15.0798 -15.36(2
-15.7865, -15.7o6j, -14.592), -14.3119 6.S000, 6,S000 650o0' 6.5000' 6,5000 -- ..8
-30,75c, -31,2643 -15.2798, -15.36(2, -15.2798 -15.5602, -15.2798 6.5000 6.5000
6.500e 6.5000: 6.5000, 6.5000 6.s000' 6.5000
-51.6815 -52.0557, -
6.5000 6,50c, 6.5000, 6,5000 -
.55.4784 -33,6--6 -52.54cc, -52.6275 -32.9150, 6.s000, 6.5000, 6.50o 6.50cc
-55.9(92, -54.2811, 6.S000, 6.5000 6.5000 6,5000 -
-55.1950, -56.2759, -57.4398, -55.2025
-38.0548 0.0600, 0.0600 6.50(0 6 ,oco -
0.o600, O.06co, o.o6oc,
0.0600, 0.0000, 0.0000, -0.0000, oo600' -0.0600' o'o600
z Vfll'.ie5 0.0000, 0.0000: - -

1.00(0 1.0000 1,6000 1.0(00

1.0000 - 1.5000, 1,0000, 1.0060, 1.0(00, 1.0000
1.5(00 1.5000, 1.5000, 1.50Cc,
1.5000, 1.5000, 2.0000, 2.0000 1,Seco, 1.5000
-Fig. 2'. The coordinates of th. pointa wed for the calculation of a olyno
2.0000 2,0CJ(J(1 2.0000, 2.0000
2.0000, 2,0000 2,5000 2,5000
2,0000
2.5000, 2.5cC-u 2.50cc 2,5000 2.500c' 2,5000
mial y-P(x,z), which represent the surface of a fore body. The
3.ccco, 2.500e, 2.5000, 5.00, 5.0006, figure shows
3.cccc 3.000e, 5.ococ, 3.0000
5.5cc.c, 5.0000,, 5.ccoo, 5.50cc. 3.5000
5.5ec 5.5000, 3.50cc 3.50cc, 5.5000, 5.5000,
the data In the format used with GIER. The maximum exponents of x and z in - -
.00cç, 4,ec 4.O000
.5CC0 .5OCo,
4.oü 4,0c, 4.oç, 4.0000 -
.5Cc the polynomia3, expression are and 7 respectively.
14.51co, 14.5000, l..5000, 4.5000, 4.5000
The weight assigned to
5.cco0,
5.0( 5.C( 5.000e, 5.00co, 5.000e, 5.0000
5.5Ceo 5.500e, 5.500e, 5.5000,
the first 135 points is 1, while the weight given to the last 48 points is
5.50cc, 5.500e, 5.5..C-( 6.0000, 5.Scoc, 5.5000
6. ecco, 6, c.00e, 6, ccoo,
6.c«j, 6.0060, 6.c.cc,c, 6.occç 1000. The centre of gravity of the pointá is (xt,z.t)-(..19.3j143
7.ceoc, 7.00cc, 7. 7, C,0«, 7.00cc 14.81214). The -.
7.0000, 7.0000 e.eeco,
8, c,oçj 8.cc, 7.0e,
8.00, 8.oe polynomial -
. coco 8.0000 8,0000 - -

9.0110, 9.0000, 9.0000, 9.0000

Is fitted to the points (x-xt,z-zt,y). The GIER time required to
9.ecc( 9.0000 9.0000 9,00cc,,
9.51-co, .5cc,o, 9.0000, 9,5000. 9.5000 - - -
9.5000, 9.5000, 9.500e, 9,5000,.
calculate this surface is accordj,n to equation (2) in 14.2.5.3.
1.0000, 1.0000 1.5000 1.5000,
9.5000,
3.0010, 3.cc 5.5000
2.00, 2,0(00, 2,5000 2.50cc 0.0008 - -
14,9799, 3.510c, 4.oc, 4.5000V seconda a 8 minutés. -- - -
4.9799, 5.0201, 5..&2c1, 4.5000
7.000 5.5000, 5.5000, 6.0001, 6,0000
7.00 8.oc 8.0c °.0CCC, 9.0000,
1.00(0 0.500e,
This -time Is unnecessarily, high and is due to the relatively high number of
2.0000 2.50(0, 3.socc,
9.5(11
14.9799, 5.0201, 5.5001, 6.0000, G.c«,,c, 1..500
-
7.0000, 8.0000, 9.0000, 9.5600
points used.
 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

0 .582083890 1. .21432145657 -.20370146 -1 .532062666 -3, .9898501469 1765614815 J4-.5956551142 Ji1 .351171968 v-5,
1 .205917763 -.31481o1978 .-1.22851icQ68 -2 .707617171 ,-3-.1142183867 ,-5-.79862901414 13J1, .592585519 ,_5. .215150889 e-5.
2 -.170070897 1_.69711l4860 _3 .141466614992 -3,-.255639586 -3,-.825514o11Ii e-14, .25078CQ16 J#, 55655C458 ,-5,-.576825991 -6
3 .257372870 -5 .22141425703 -3-.2718595o9 _14_.230I4311330 -11 .9014596889 -5 .25014056014 _5,_.3081476701 6,....569656819 7
4 .219198939 _14_.911576106 ..5..756379910 (5. .5051188589 .2161103082 ,,-5,-.2183163i5 ..,6-.7965Ii7759 -i .1610911038 e-8,
5 -.318536138 -5-.2257514013 m-5. .272120118 .14699751470 .-.6 .1461414861113 ,_7_.11314Olhl522 ,-7-.2269972112 _8.196089I4Z#2 9
6 -.185o863 ,_6_.6765814235 ,-.7. .37514605114 ,-7. .75508(912 -8,-.239559557 z-8, .22738211311 ,-9. .30(291519-10-.201037550,-10,

Fig. 22. The coefficients of the polynomial calculated from the data shown
on Fig. 21. It should be noted that the sign of the coefficients varies over
the table. Small alterations in the input data often result in considerable
changes in the values of coefficients of opposite sign. The changea are1

however such that the value of the polynomial only changes in accordance
with the slight modification of the input data.
 5. Implementation of the method on the HyA-.GIER computer.

One of the objects of the present work (given in 2.2.) is to prepare a

method suitable for routine production of mathematical definitions of ships
given by design drawings. To illustrate this aspect. the Implementation of
the method on the HyA-GIER computer wifl be considered.

5.1. ProgrammIng techniques employed.

The principal characteristics of the HyA-GIER computer installation are

given in chapter Ll.2.3.. One of the biggest advantages of this computer is
the ALGOL compiler prepared for it. This compiler incorporates practically
all the facilities of ALCOL 60. gives a fast translation and reasonably fast
execution of the programmes. Furthermore, the highly elaborate system of
error indication enables most of the syntactical errors of a new programme to
be detected in a singlé computer run. This combination of a poverfu.1 language
and powerful compiler, was very valuable when devising the numerical methods.
as different possibilities could be tried with relatively little programming
effort.
The implementation of the present work on HyA-GIER resulted in a big
programme system. This is not only due to the complexity of the computizg
procedures, but also to the requirement for a system, which is suitable for
routine calculations. For this reason the data forms, shown In app. 2. are
devised with the emphasis on ease of filling in and avoidance of errors,
which, however, results in a rather complicated input programme. Furthermore,
a number of facilities are build into the system to ease the operation of the
computer and to avoid failures of computer runs due to operator mistakes.
After the testing of the system in ALGOL, the procedure for fairing sur-
faces, given in app. 1. was rewritten in machine language In order to save
computing time. For the rest of the programme, i.e. most of the programme.
such rewritting was not found advantageous. The saving in computation time
could not offset the advantages of having the programme in ALGOL. The advan-
tages are the clear documentation of the. computing process and the ease of
programme maintenance, i.e. ease of improving and correcting the programme at
later stages. ALGOL programmes can furthermore be adapted relatively easily
for use on other computers if necessary.
 14_

5.2. Check of the input data.:

The input data supplied to the computer are specified in the data forms

shovn in app. 2. The data stated on these forms a.re punched on a paper tape.

which is fed into the machine. There are thus two sources of' errors in the

input data, namely those due to mistakes made whén filling in the forms and

those introduced when preparing the punched tape.

The last class of errors is avoided by the use of check sums. The per-
son who fills in the data forms, calculates the sum of each group of numbers

filled in, and states the bums in special spaces in the forms. If the com-

puter arrives at the same sums when reading the data. there is a practically
full guarantee that no unclear figure has been misinterpreted and that no
wrong figure has been introduced when preparing the punched tape. Furthermore,
when calculating the check sums, the person who fills in the data reviews the
figures an extra time, when other errors may be found.
The detection of errors due to mistakes in filling in the data form is a
more difficult task. The test is made by checking whether some known proper-
ties of the inpute4 quantities are valid. For instance a halfbreadth lifted
from a waterline should be smaller or equal to the maximum halfbreadth amid-

ships.
The traditional way of checking a table of lifted halfbreadth, is by

studying the variation of the haifbreadths when moving along the different

waterlines and transverse sections. In some shipyards, divided differences

are used for checking the halfbreadths on a transverse section. The divided

differences are alsc used in some yards for fairing the halÍ'breadths. This is

done manually by correcting the numerical Values until a smooth variation of

the divided differences is obtained.

As the bbject of the check programme in the present work is not to

smooth the input data, but only to detect mistakes, a more simple scheme is
employed. Instead of divided differences. a table of.chord surface deviations,
see Fig. 2. is printed by the computer and manually surveyed for errors. The
chord surface deviation method is more convenient than the divided difference
method, because it is easier to check a distance on a drawing than to check a
slope or a curvature. Furthermore, when a mistake Is. found the magnitude and

sign-of the error can easily be estimated from the chord surface deviations.
 -

yk

Fig. 23. The surface chord

deviation y-k.

5.3. Calculation of the ship definition.

The mathematical methods employed for the calculation of the ship def i-
nition are given in Li.2.3., and .2.5. As is seen from these chapters.
some of the curves must be calculated before starting the surface calcula-
tions. The programme is therefore divided into two separate programmes, one
for the curves and one for the surfaces,
As explained in chapter ¿.l. point 11.. the ship surface is divided by the
lines of discontinuity into a number gf parts, each of which is defined by a
separate function. In few difficult cases a further subdivision of' the ship
surface may facilitate the fitting of a surface expression. The prepared pro-
gramme permits the surface to be divided in the manner illustrated by Fig. 5
to 8. In Fig. 7, the surface is defined by 3 polynomial surfaces, but it may
In other cases, be divided into any required number of polynomial surfaces.
The boundary between two adjacent polynomials Is either a waterline z=con-
stant, or a roughly horizontal curve defined by z=f(x). Furthermore, as the
lines of discontinuity tend to disappear half way between the parallel mid-
die body and the stern/stem, see Fig. 4. the programme also permits the half
body to be divided longitudinally into two parts by a section x=xmid, see
FIg 8. In each of the two parts the surface may again be divided by water-
lines and nearly horizontal curves as described above. The longitudinal di-
vision, further, enables the slightly curved part of the surface near the
parallel middle body to be defined by a low order polynomial.
As described in 2.5.5., connection between two ad.jacerxt surfaces Is ob-
tained by forcing the two surfaces through a number of common points on the
boundary between them. The case %ihere two polynomials are connected along a
waterline is treated in 2.5.5.. When, however, the boundary is a curve repre-
and conic sections. the determination of
sented. by a number of polynomials
the necessary number of common points on the curve is complicated. An empir-
ical rule is therefore employed for the determination of the common points on
Ac-
the boundary between the polynomial surface and the parallel middle body.
cording to this rule, the fixed points on this boundary curve, are positioned
on the waterlines used. for lifting halfbreadths (see Fig. 214). Likewise, the

fixed points on the curves that guide the ship shape at the ends are also
positoned on these waterlines. The useful results obtained by this water-
due to the way in which these waterlines are posi-
line rule,. are probably
tioned (see .6.).
A urfoc. poIyflomio n rçiOn 2
WL
7

WI.
A surfQce polyñomial in r.gi 3

'iuirnu
55

lull".
5

3 3

as 2.5

2 2

t.5 lß
. mid

, mid

Fig. 214. The points employed for the calculation of two different surface

polynomials. The points lifted from the drawings are marked by circles with-

out dots and are positioned on waterlines 1, L., 2, 5. b, , 5.',

and 7. The points calculated from the boundary conditions are marked by

circles with dots. The polynomials in region 2. which is positioned between

the parallel middle body and x=xmid, are calculated first. For the given

polynomial, conon ordinates with a previous'y calculated polynomial are

specified along the waterline z=2.2 while common tangents are specified

along Region S is positioned between x=xrnid and the stern. The poly-

nomial shown in region 5 is connected to the polynomials in region 2. to the

guide curve at the aft end and to a previöusly calculated polynomial at its

lower boundary. No connection is forced on the upper boundary of this poly-

nomial., since it is assumed that the polynomial above has not yet been cal-

culated. The figure also shows that halfbreadths outside the actual piece of

surface may be used for the claculation of the polynomial. The halfbreadths

to bè employed are specified in each case according to the circumstances.

 Bull members1 which 'are attached to the hull in an unsmoothed mariner are
not included, in the mathematical definition of the Sk4.p surface in this first
implementation of the method. An example of such an attached hull-element (or
hull appendage), is a propeller bossing designed as a tube that Intersects
the ship surface. The tubular propeller bossirig and the hull can obviously, be
considered as'tvo different bodies that are attached to each other. The b,est
solution is probably to prepare a separate programme for production of math-
ematical definitions of attached hull-members (appendages). Such a programme
can also be used for defining items such as the rudder and the funnel. The
definition of the surface of these bodies may be based on techniq,ues similar
to those employed for the hull surface.

5.11. Check of the results.

The best way of checking 'the shape of, the calculated mathematical, sur-
face is to study a lines drawing representing thi surface. This Is however1
only practicable on a computer having facilities for graphical display, which
enables a lines drawing of the computed surface to be produced in a short
time. Unfortunately such a device was first installed at a very late stage
(early in 1967). and the original programme vas therefore based on numerical
criteria for the acceptability of a m thematiôal ship definition. The cri-

teria used are:

i) That the deviations between the lifted halfbreadth and the mathematical
surface are below a prescribed tolerance.
2) That a number of selected, waterlines and transverse sectional curves have
the correct convex and concave character. In regions where the surface is
b
nearly plane, there is, however, very iittle senze in checking whether the
surface is slightly concave or convex. Instead, it is sufficient to check
that the depths of possible humps and hollows (FIg. 25) are below apre-
scribed tolerance. If this tolerance is made adequately small, the surface
is flat for all practical purposes.
The computer prints a table of the deviations between the lifted and
calculated halÍ'breadths, and a list describing the concave and convex charac-
ter of selected sectional curves. Such a list contains the abscissas of the
points where the curves change character. i.e. the inflection points, and the
corresponding depths of humps and hollows.
The determination of the abscissas of the inflection points on a given
sectional curve, is based ori the fact that the second derivative of the func-
tion representing the curve is zero at these points. Since no inflection
 Fig. 25. Cà.lculation öf the depth
d of a hollow in a transverse
sectional curve given by the po-
Poits of
lynomial equation rP(z). First ,nflect,on
the inflection points are found
by solving the equation P(z)=O.
whereaf ter d is calculated as
the curve chord deviation half
way between the points of in-

flection.

pòints are found in conic sections. only the part of the sectional curve

which is defined by polynomials need be considered. As the second derivative

of a polynomial is also a polynomial, the investigation is reduced to the
well known problem of searching for zero points (roots) of a polynornial(see

App. 3).
In some cases the shape of the sectional curve was not satisfactory.

even though the division into concave and convex parts was correct. More in-
foxtion seems thus necessary to characterize the shape. These difficulties
were1 however, avoided by the installation of an automatic drawing machine1

such that the shape of the curves can be checked visually.

As described in 11.2.5.5. and 5.3., the connection betveen adjacent sur-
faces is obtained by assigning the weight 1000 to a number of points on the
boundaries between the surfaces. These points are in some cases positioned in
accordance with a theoretically derived rule, arid in other cases In accordance
with an empirical rule. It is thus not obvious whether the connection between
the different surfaces Is good enough, and. the check programme therefore

tests this property. This check is made by comparing the ordinates and the
first derivatives of adjacent surfaces at a high number of points along the
boundary curves.

5.5 Preparation of the data needed for the calculation of curve definitions.

As described in chapter 4.2.2. a curve is built up of a chain of curve

elements. Polynomials are normally used for parts of the curve where the angle
between the tangent 8M the abscissa axis is nottoo big. i.e. belov 60-70
degrees. If the angle is big. especially 90 degrees. arcS öf conic sections.
are employed. The use of arcs of conic sectionsis of course not confined to
these cases1 as they ay also give a good. fit to some nearly horizontal curve
parts. When the character of the shapes of the vazious curvetypes is learned,
it is relatively easy to fit a chain of these curve elements to a given curve.
Thin procecs in cirniiu to the graphical method where a curve In fitted uning
a number of French curves.
A specification of the curves employed in the present implementation is

found in appendix 2 (page 0.2 and 0.3). Some considerations regarding these
curves are given below. For clarity, the names employed for the different
curves are underlined. Examples of the curves discussed are shown on Fig. 5
to 8. It may be noted that these curves are the same as those encountered
when preparing a lines drawing.
The curves defining the contours of the ship, i.e. the stem, stern, mid
section. camber and sheer are traditionally defined by straight lines, arcs
of circles, second order parabolas and slightly curved parts. There are thus
no difficulties in defining these curves in the traditional manner by the
present method.
It is not possible to accurately define the position of the boundaries
of the flat parts of the ship. i.e. the fore mid ship limit, aft mid ship
limit and bottom limit curves. This is due to the fact that the curved part
of the surface is almost flat where it is tangential to the flat parts. For-.
tunately,it is sufficient to produce these curves with the accuracy by which
they can be derived from the drawing. As the points lifted for these curves
at the different sections show considerable scatter, a graphical fairing of
these curves on the lines drawing Is necessary.
A nwnber of numerical methods have been tried for the calculation of the
point where a waterline, given by a number of halfbreadths, enters the parai-
lei middle body. It was found that this point is mainly dependent on the half-
breadths nearest the parallel middle body, which is hardly surprising. Based
on this knowledge, a simple and quite efficient, method has been devised by
Hayes .[2]. In this method a parabola is calculated, such that, it passes
through the two halfbreadths nearest to the parallel middle body, and such
that it touches the flat side of the middle body. The point of tangency
between the parabola and the flat side, is used as an unsmoothed ordinate on
the boundary of the parallel middle body. This numerical technique is, how-
ever, not used in the present implementation, as the graphical derivation of
these boundary curves seemed to be the most simple solution. In some yards,
the bôundarles of the flat parts are ineluded on the lines drawing. This Is of
eo'ursé an advantage. when the present method Is to be used.
The fore/aft end sud foreLaft halÍ'breadth-curves are the projections of
two three-dimensional curves that guide the shape of the ship surface at the
ends of the ship (see ¿&.2.5.i. point 2). Such guide curves are also used In
graphical methods.
The fore/aft vi entrance-curve shows where the slightly curved part of
the ship surface ends, and where the highly curved stem/stern begins (see Fig.

5 and 7). This curve is derived graphically from the lines drawing, and is
used as the boundary of the steWstern to be defined by arcs òf conic sec-
tions.
The 7bilge and zbil curves are the projections of a three-dimensional
curve that guides the conic sections In the bilge region. Most parts of this
curve can be derived from the drawing with sufficient accuracy. The curve
must, however, be forced to intersect the mid section curve at the entrance
to the parallel middle body. Furthermore, tare must be exercised In the case
where both concave and convex transverse sectional curves occur (see Fig. 9a
and 9b). A straight transverse sectional curve must be found on the boundary
between the convex and concave regions. To: understand the difficulties in the
region around this straight sectional curve Fig. 19 will be considered. This
figure shows the conic section. which defines the transverse sectional curve
in the bilge region. A is the point whére the sectional curve leaves the flat
of bottom, i.e. the intersection between the shown transverse section and the
longitudinalbottom limit curve. Likewise, B Is the point where the sectional
curve leaves the lowest polynomial surface, i.e. the intersection between the
given transverse section and the longitudinal bilge lirnl.t curve. BC is the

tangent of the lowest polynomial surface at B, and D is the point of intersec-

tiori between the longitudinal guide curve given be (ybilge, zbile) and the
transverse section. When nearing the boundary between the regions with con-
cave and convex transverse sectional curves, the angle between BA and BC
narrows, and D must be.positioned between these two close lines. At the
ctridht cectlorì;iJ curve the two 1. Ines coincide, zmd Ii rnut tn pi ued ou Lh I::
common line. in order to satisÍ'y thee requirerncnts th lowcst plynorn liti nur-
face, the bottom limit and bilge limit curves must be calculated first, such
that the bounds between which the ybilge curve is to be forced may be estib-
lished.
5.6. Preparatiön 0f data for the surface calculations.

The lines of discontinuity, found on ship surfaces (see &.1. point Z&),

must be boundaries of the polynomial surfaces that represents the surface.

Tkie lines drawing is therefore analysed visually, and the ship surface is
divided in accordance with the observed lines of discontinuity.
When the ship surface has been divided, the orders of the polynomials

fitted to the different parts are chosen. There are two orders to be chosen

for each part, namely the highest exponents I and J of x and z in thé poly.!

nomial expression

i=o. j=o

By inserting a waterline equation. z = constant, into this expression it is

seen that any waterline in this part of the ship is represented by a polyno-
mial in x of order I. Likewise, all the transverse sections. x = constant.

are represented by polynomials of the order J. The choice of I and J is,

therefore, based on a visual study f the character of' the sectional curves

within the part of the ship under consideration. I and J must of course be

sufficiently high such that the most difficult sectional curve can be defined.
After dividing the hull into polynomial surfaces a choice is made. of

waterlines arid transverse sections, at the intersectiôns of' which half-

breadths will be lifted and used in the surface calculations. These waterlines
and transverse séctions must be chosen such that the number of half"breadths
used for the calculation of each surface polynomial is at least equal to the
number of coefficients in the polynomial. Furthermore, the hB.lfbreadths must

be distributed over the surface in such a manner that the shape of the surface
is fully represented. The calculations will for Instance yield a useless re-
suit if all the halfbreadths are lifted at the same waterline. The rule ap-

plied is, therefore, that the number of waterlines must be at least equal to
J+l, and that the number of halfbreadths must be greater than or equal to 1+1.
on at least J+l of' these waterlines. When counting the number of halfbreadths
on a waterline, regard is paid not only to the lifted halfbreadths, but also

to the two halfbreadths derived by the computer from the guide curves at the
end of the ship and at the boundary of the parallel middle body. lt turns out
that the normally drawn transverse sectional curves will, in most cases, give

a sufficient number of halfbreadths on the waterlines. As regards the number

of' waterlines, the rule of having J+l or a little more waterlines is not al-
ways sufficient. This is probably because the surface, in the present program-
 -52-

ship and at. the

me is forced to intersect the guide curves at the ends of the
of points with
boundary of to the parallel middle body by the introduCtion
high weights at the ends of each of the waterlines used. If the shape of the
the number of fixed points introduced by the J+1
guide curve is complicated
rule might be insufficient. An example is the fore body of the ship, where the
having
shape is often so simple that it can be defined by a single polynomial
J=6. The minimum number of waterlines is thus only J+17. It is. nevertheless.
found that nearly double this number of waterlines is required in some cases.
 -5.3-

6. Dicuzsicn of the results.

The method has been used for

a coEiderable number of ships, in-
clud.ing all normal ship types and
a number of specified vessels (see
F'ig. 26). Based on this experience.
a discussion of the different as-
pects of the present work is given
below.

Fig. 26. Some of the ships which

have been mathematically defined.
All the ships are drawn to the
saine scale. The biggest vessel is
a super tanker while the smallest
Is a trawler.
6.i.. The polynomials suitable for the surface representation.

As described iñ Ii..i.14. and 5.3. the lines of discontinuity found on the

ship surface are used as boundaries between the different polynomial surfaces.
It seems that it is not necessary to determine the position of these lines
there-
very accurately, and that a satisfactory subdivision of the surface can
For the seme
fore be obtained by a visual analysis of the lines drawing.
reason nearly horizontal lines of discontinuity can often be represented by
waterlines.
The subdivision shown in Fig. 5 and if seems to be suitable for ordinary
cargo vessels. The ntmber of polynomials in the after part of the afterbody
of the polynomials (I,J), defined in
varies between 3 and. 5. The orders
14.2.1.3. are for instaIce (6.7) in the fore body. (11,7) in the forward part
afterbody.
of the afterbody and. (5,14) to (5.6) in the after part of the

6.2. Ari accurate representation of any ship surface is obtainable.

It vas observed that the maximum distance between the points given by the
halfbreadths lifted, from the drawings and the resulting smooth mathematical
surface is 3-14 cm., when measured perpendicular to the surface. This figure

should be compared with the reading error and drawing accuracy,, which are

about 1-2 cm. The ratio between these figures Is such that one may assume that
the errors In the lifted halfbreadths due to the email scale of the design

lines drawing are smoothed out, while the humps and hollows intended by the
designer are preserved. The analysis of humps and hollows in selected. sections
through the calculated ships verifies this assumption.
As explained in 5.5., the orders of a polynomial surface are determined

by the shape of the most complicated sectional curve. Nearly flat transverse

sectional ' curvès are therefore In some cases defined by a high order polyno-
mial. One could, therefore, fear that unwaflted humps and hollows would appear
in such sectional curves. Such humps and. hollows, however, either did not ap-
due to
pear or were practically negligible. This high degree öf smoothness is
the application of the least square criterion and to the numerical stability
1.
of the calculation procedure employed, i.e. the procedure given in appendix
The computer prograimne has enabled the preparation of accurate defini-
of ships having very different form characteristics. Thus there are
tions
reasons to believe that the techniques of the present work can be employed

successfully on future, and hitherto not tried, ship types.

 6.3. Thé cnnection betveèn the different parts of the ship surface.

As described in 11.2.5. and 5.3.. connection, between the. different sur-

faces Is obtained by introducing a number of points with the weight 1000
along the boundary curves. The check programme shows that the change of half-
breadth when passing from one surface to the a&jacent one is about 01 nmi,'
while the change of inclination of the tangent is about 0.2 degrees. Doubling
the weight reduced the errors to roughly half these values. As, however, the

errors seem to be sufficiently small from a practical point of view, the

weight was not increased.
The method used to connect a polynomial surface to one previously calcu-
lated, is to Impose the tangents of the first polynomial on the new one along
the common boundary curve (11.2.5.2.). The tangents forced on the new polyno-
mial will deviate a little from the tangents which would be obtained If this
boundary condition was not used. The forced tangents, therefore, slightly af-
fect the shape of the surface in a belt along the boundary curve. This small
modification causes no problems vhen the surface Is curved, since the appear-
ance of such a surface is practically not influenced by so small a change.. If,
on the.other hand, the surface is flat, small but noticeable bumps may occur
in some cases. Care must, therefore, be exercised when imposing boundary con-
ditlon on a flat part of'the surface. This problem is avoided when the flat
parts aré calculated first and the curved ones are connected to them later.
In the first edition 'of the programme the after body could only be di-
vided in the pattern shown in Fig. 7, I.e. by a number of waterlines which
are positioned in accordance with the lines of discontinuity found in the al'-
ter part of the after body. The flat part nearest the parallel middle body
was, thus, unnecessarily dividéd by these waterlines. Small but unwanted
bumps appeared, sometimes along the waterlines for the reason given in the
section above. These difficulties were avoided in the second edition of the
programme, where the, flat part of surface Is not divided (Fig. 8).

6.4. The value of the ability to represent any ship shape accurately.

The draught function methods, reviewed In chapter 3.1.. do not enable ac-
curate representation of any ship form. The originators 'f some of these
methods claim, however, that the solution to ship design problems can be found
within the range of shapes that can be defined by their methods. Similar
claims are made for a method developed at the shipyard of B and W [35], where
 the ship surface is designed such that a major part of the shell plates are
developable. This approach facilitates the production process, but imposes

some restrictiöns on the ship shapes that can be built. In the present work,
on the other hand., the emphasis is on the ability to. represent any ship sur-

face accurately.
When designing a ship, considerations are given to the way the ship is

to be operated, the ease of production, the hydrostatic and hydrodynamic

characteristics required, and so on. These considerations result in require-

ments concerning the details of the ship shape such as- the minimum halfbreadth
needed at certain positions in order to accommodate some equipment In the

hull, the use of plane surfaces and other shapes which facilitate the produc-
tion, the minimum clearance needed between the propeller tip and the stern In
order to avoid vibrations and so on. It is noted that the details of the hull
shape are not only dependent on the functions of the ship, but also of' the

production techniques of the yard where the ship is tö be built, and of the
experience and ingenuity of the designers.
The steady growth of professional knowledge and Influx of new design
Ideas have resulted in a fast developemerit of the different ship types. These
improvements are often so valuable that they are Introduced in spite of the

savings obtained when building a number of identical ships. The use of compu-
ters for ship design and. production will further facilitate the tailoring of

ships to special trades arid a fast implementation of technical innovations.

The ability to produce a mathematical definition of any ship form, thus,

seems to be In accordance with the needs of the shipbuilding Industry.

6.5. The manual effort needed to prepare a ship definition.

The shapes of most ships are very complicated, since they are designed

tò meet a number of very different requirements. A detailed specification of

a ship shape will therefore, in any method, include a large amount of data.
The preparation of the data needed by the computer is therefore the bottle-

neck of the whole process.

The techniques of the present work are based on visual analysis of the
lines drawing, whereby the different curves and surfaces are cliv Ided into the

parts of which they are composed. Hereafter, the functions to be fitted to

the different part are chosen, and the coordinates needed for the calculation
of the coefficients of the expressions are lifted from the drawings. The nuin-
- ber of coordinates lifted for any part Is a little higher than the number of

coefficients In the function fitted to It. The total number of lifted coor-
 dinates is thus baed on a detailed analysis of shape and Is therefore only

slightly higher than the minimum number f data by which the shape can be
specified.
Considerable savings in the amount of manually prepared data may be ob-
tained when the actual ship is derived from an earlier ship which has been
mathematically defined. A computer may be employed for the transformation of
the earlier ship into the neu one. The computer may a. the same time be used
for different design calculations (see [21]). A discussion of such methods is,
however, beyond the scope of the present work.
The possibility of letting the computer analyse the shapes from the lif-
ted coordinates and automatically divide the surface and choose the functions
to be fitted, has been considered. As the manual analysis is dropped when ap-
plying such techniques, a large number of coordinates must be lifted to
ensure a sufficient representation of all surface details. The need. to lift a
large number of coordinates may therefore outweigh the advantage òf a compu-
ter analysis of the shape.
When one gets familiar with the shapes that can be described by conic
sections and polynomials, the division of a ship surface into parts that can
be defined by these functions is reletively easy. These techniques are simi-.
lar to the graphical methods, vheré one fits french curves to the ship lines.
The techniques of the present work are, therefore, easily understood and
implemented by operators familiar with drawing ship lines.
The present method is a direct method in the sense that mathematical
functions are fitted directly to the different curves and surfaces f Thereby
the operator avoids some of the complications of earlier methods such as the
choice of draught functions, the need to transform the ship surface into a
more suitable shape and. the problem of coincidence between the surfaces
defined by different sets of sectional curves A further practical advantage
of the direct method is that one operates with quantities which, represented
graphicafly, may be studied on the design lines di-awl.ng..

6.6. The computer time and computer storage needed.

The first implementation of .the present method was on a GIER computer

having a 12800 words drum (the characteristics of GIER are given in 4.2.3.).
With this limited storage, it vas necessary to perform the calculation in a
number of stages. The storage vas later enlarged to 38400 words, which enabled
the 10000 word programme and the data of a number of ships to be stored in the
computer simultaneously. Of the 10000 words 00 were prepared in the assembly
 -58-

language SLIP, while the rest vere translated from ALGOL. The part of the
prograe prepared in SLIP is the surface calculation procedure , apr 2..
given in appendix 1, while the ALGOL part includes input, check of input
data, sorting and arranging the data needed for the surface calculation,
check of results and. output.
The total GIER time needed to prepare a mathematical ship definition is
3-! hours. The computer time used. for preparation of correct input data,
calculation of coefficients and check of results are roughly equal. It is
-interesting that the calculation of the coefficients of the different curves
and. surfaces constitutes the smaller part of the whole process.

67. The ship definition is suitable for future applications.

The mathematical ship definition has hitherto been used in programnes

for preparation of mould loft tables and for different hydrostatic and volume
calculations. In these prograes and In other applications one often needs
a number of halfbreadths on the same waterline or on the sanie transverse sec-
tion. An examination of the definition of ship surface, as given in chapter
.2.1.. shows that waterline and transverse sections are normally composed of
arcs of polynomials and conic sections, i.e. the same representation as used
for boundary and contour curves. The exceptions are the bilge region and the
ends of the ship, where only the transverse sections and the waterlines re-

spectively are represented by arcs of polynomials and conic sections. It was

therefore found practical to base the programmes that use the ship defini-
tion on 3 ALCOL procedures for the calculation of:
i) the coefficients of a waterline curve specified by its z-value.
the coefficients of a transverse sectional curve specified by its x-value.
the ordinate of a curve at a specified abscissa.
In order to save computer time the body of the last ALGOL procedure was
written in machine code, whereby the average computer time needed to calcu-
late the ordinate of a curve was reduced to
0.01 second.
The ALCOL programme that inputs the ship definition and includes the
above mentioned 5 procedures and some other usefufl procedures Is stored in
OOO GIER words. Furthermore, 600-700 words are required to store the

600-700 coefficients
of which the ship definition is composed. The minimum storage needed for
manipulations with the ship definition is thus around 5000 GIER words. This
minimum can of course be reduced by excluding some of the procedures and by
 employing machiné codeé The ship definition can therefore be used on compara-
tively small computers.

6.8. Comparison between the sectional curies and the surface expression
method.

Of the earlier methods reviewed in chapter 3. only the sectioral curve

methods seem to be developed to such a degree so as to enable the preparation
of numerical representations for a vide range. of ship forms. Consequently
the results of the present work can only be compared with those obtained by
the sectional curves method.
The surfaces obtained by 3 different sectional curve methods have been
compared with those obtained by the surface expression method of the present
work. In all 3 cases the halfbreadths obtained by the sectional curves method
represented a surface which vas less smooth thari.that obtained by the method
of the present work. It seems that there are some difficulties in obtaining
sufficient smooth surfaces with the sectional curves method1 which is prob-
ably due to difficulties in balancing the flexibility.. of the spline
functions between, the smoothing and the fitting requireménts (the problem is
discussed in detail in 5.1.).
The computer time required to prepare a ship definition by the surface
eqna tion method is 3_Li hours on GIER. The corresponding time for a sectional
curves method implementation on the SAAB 1)21 computer is 5 hours (ref.{13]
page 25). Such a comparison betweeh different methods may of course be biased
by differences in programming efficiency. As, however, the SAAB D21 computer
is 3_14 times as fast as GIER. one may assume that the surface expression
method requires less computer time than the sectional curves method.
The ship definition resulting from the sectional curves method is com-
posed of the definitions of the transverse sectional curves through all
building frames (surface points between the frames are obtained by interpola-
tion). The numbers of coefficients required to represent a frame is around 60.
The ship definition obtained by the sectional curves method. thus consists of
about 10 times as many coefficients as employed tri the present work.
 -60-

Conclusions.

Ships are designed to meet many different requirements. and the details

of a ship surface thus represent solutions to specific design problems. The

attn of the present work, to be able to represent any ship shape accurately.
thus corresponds to a definite need. The method of the present work, i.e. the

division of surfaces and curves into the parts of which they are composed.
and the fitting of polynomials or arcs of conic sections to these parts, seems
to be a satisfactory solution.
The method of the present work is a direct one in the sense that mathe-
matical expressions are fitted directly to the ship surface and the different
boundary and contour curves. This direct approach results in a system which

is relatively easy to learn and use. Furthermore, the computer time and

storage required to prepare a ship definition are reasonable. The resulting

ship definition is composed of comparatively few coefficients, and enables

the computation of any halfbreadth in a very short time. The method described
in this report is thus suitable as a routine procedure in the shipbuilding

industry.
 -61-

I\L
.

\
\
!
\

\\\\\\
\ \ I\ L

': ' \\ \.. '

\

\\ \

\\
\ \\\\\\\\\\ \\\
\\\ N

\\\\
N N

4 \\ \ \\ \\
\\\\\\\\\ \\' \\\ \\\\\\ \\\\
\

\ \\
N

N
\ \\ \\\ \\ \\
\ \\ N \\ \\\
\\
\ \ \

\\ \\ \\ \\ \\\ \\
\
\\\ \
\
\
\ \ \ \\
\\ \\ \\\

L
\ \ \\

\\ \\ \\ \ - \\
\\\ \ \
\ \\ \ -
\
\\
'\ \
\

A body plan produced from the mathematical

I ship definition on the Benson
France plotter coupled to the GIER computer.
 .62 -

References.

[i] Asker, Bengt: The Spline Curve, a Smooth Interpolating Function Used in
Numerical Design of Ship Lines.
Nordisk Tidsskrift for Informationsbehandling (BIT). 2. (2-1962),76-82.

AtkIns, D.A. and Tapia, R.: Mathematical Ship Lofting.

California Section of S.N.A.M.E. October 1962.

Di Bella. Alf io: Equations of Ships Hulls.

Genova University, 19148.

[14] Bakker, A.R.: Application of a Computer to some Shipbuilding Problems.

mt. Shipbuilding Progress 12, (June 1965), 2145_2614.

[5] Benson, F.W.: Mathematical Ship Lines.

I.N.A., 82, (19140). 129-150.

f 6] Berger, S .A.. Webster, W.C., Tapia, R.A. and. Atkins, D.A.: Mathematical
Ship Lofting. Journal of Ship Research. 10, (Dec. 19(6). 203-222.

Berghuis, J. and Rsingh. W.: Etudes des Compromis Relatifs aux

Discontinuites.
Bulletin Technique du Bureau Ventas, 145, 10 (Octobre 19(3), 171-181.
Also found in the English issue of June 19F14.

Berghuis, J.: Experience with Mathematical Shipform.

Seminar on Computers in Ship Research and Design, held at N.P.L. 1962,
Ship rep. L12.

Cadwell, J.H.. Williams, D.E.: Some Orthogonal Methods of Curve and

Surface Fitting.
The Computer Journal, 14, (i92). 2Á0_2(14.

[io] Chapman, F.H.: A Treatise on Ship-Building (ri'o Translated into

English by J. Inman Cam, and Lond. 1820).

[ii] Clenshaw, C.W., Hayes, J.G.: Curve and Surface Fitting. Journal.
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113] Engvall, L.0., Jacobsson, A.: Matetisk Fombestamning.

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[1)4] Forsythe, G.E.: Generations and Use of Orthogonal Polynomials for Data
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Gerritsma, J., Kerwin. J.E.. Newman, J.N.: Polynomial Representation

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International Shipbuilding Progress. 2. (July 1962).

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Regnecentralen, Copenhagen 1962.

[17]. Gohin, F. Perrot, B. and other: Numerical Fairing and Representation

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 -66-

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 Apendixi.
The method used for fitting a polynomial to a.. surface..

The. polynomial equation to be fitted to a surface :

may be written as
X Y
z=P(x,y)= k1x'Yi . .. .

(i.)

i=o jo
where X and Y are the maxirnu exponents of x and y. The coefficients of
the polynomial are caluÏated from the coordinates of R given points (Xryr
Zr) such that the best fit in the lèast squares sense is achieved, i.e. such
that the quantity

)_Zr)2 (2)
r1

where Is a weight, 1 as small as possible. In the present. work the weight

.1. is assigned to normal points, and a high veight. wisused for the fixed
points.

The method used for calculating the polynomial coefficients k1, is given
by the ALGOL -O procedure ;,apr 2.. stated belöv. The proôedúre is based on
the weil known technique, in which the approximating functioñ is built up as
a linear combination ofa set of orthogonal functions. The polynomial P(x,y)
is thus calculated as

aL(x,y) (3)
t=l .

where the at. are coefficients (Fourrier coefficients) and the Lt.(x.y) are
orthogonal polynomials. These. polynomIals are generated such that they are
orthogonal to each other with respect to the configuration of the abscissas
(XrY/ the given R-points, i.e. such that
R when uv
. L (x ,y )L (x
r u r r y r'
fO
i when uv
Each of the orthogonì polynomials Lt.(x.y) corresponds to one of the
coefricicnt k.. ot' tn polynomial P(x,y) to be calculated. The number Q of
orthogonal polynomiaLs is thus

The way ir which the orthogonal polynomials and their cöefficients are
numerated is demonstrated in Fig. 27. It is seen that the tth orthogonal po-
 where X and
lynomial haS 'one term more than the t-i. polynomial. namely a term
to which the polyno-
y have the same expönentsi and J as.the coefficient
polynomials and the coefficients
mia]. corresponds. The different 'orthogonal
(i.j) or by the t number.
of the polynomials are thus characterized either by'

exponent
Fig. 27. The ordar in which the 2 V'3 of y
orthogonal polynomials are genera-
o
ted and numerated. In the given
example the orthogonal polynomials
have t-numbers ranging fromito
2
20. If we for inst. consider poly-
nomial number L we see that it is 3

comprised of terms where the x and

X4
y exponents are [O.0],[l,0].[0.i]
exp.
and {2,0]. '
of x

In the beginning of the process the coefficients k1 of P(x,y) are put

equal to zero. The orthogonal polynomials are then generated for increasing

t-values. The tth polyñomial is thus calculated such that it is orthogonal to

Is
the first t-i' polynomials. Every time an orthogonal polynomial Lt(x. y)
generated, the corresponding Fourrier coefficient at is calculated and the
contribution atLt(x.y) is added to P(x,y). '

In the ALGOL procedure apr, 2 the calculation of' the orthogonal polyno-

mials with increasing t-values is controlled by the counters tu and n, vhere

J-value. i.e.
tu is the order of the actual orthogonal polynomial and n is Its
m=i+j and n=j.
n
The different orthogonal'polynOmials are stored successively in an array L
their t sequence. The' tth polynomial is represented in array L by its t coef-
ficients which are also stored in their' t-sequence.The Örthogonal polynomials

are also represented by their values (ordinates) at the R points (xryr)

These values, are stored in an array zq, such that zq[t.r] is the value of po-
lynomial t at point r. As appears from the procedure the operations with the
 polynomials are. mad.e' both With thé coefficients and with the: store4 'values of
the ordinates. In this way the computing time needed for evaluating' the poly-
nomials at the R points is saved1 and the rounding-off error involved in the
polynomial évaluation process is avoided.
The calculation of the tth orthogonal polynomial begins with the assign-'
ment of the value O to the first t-i. coefficients and the value I. to the tth
coefficient. Hereaíter corréctiöns are calculated and addEd to the polynomial,
such that it becomes orthogonal to all 'the previously calculated t-i. orthogo-
nal polynomials. At last the polynomial is normalized1 i.e. it is di'rided by
such a nuzîiber that

v,c(zq[t.r])2 - 1. (5)

The orthogonalization of a polynomial t to an earlier generated polynomial ti

begins with the calculation of a coefficient a:

a=vxzq[t.r]xzq[tl,r]. ' ' ' ' (6)

r=i.

The ordinates of the polynomial t are therea!ter calculated as

(zq[t.r]) =zq{t,r]-axzq[ti,r].
new
These new, ordinates represent a polynomial ' orthogonal to polynomial ti. This
can be verified by applying the definition of orthogònality. i.e. equation
(). and by utilizing the fact that the polynomial 'ti. is normalized.
The Fourrier constant by which the tth orthogonal polynomial is multi-
plied is calculated from the formula

wxzq[t.r]x(4r]_zK[t.r]). (7)

where z[r] is the ordinate of the given rt.h point, and zK[t.r] the ordinate
of the surface polynomials at this stage of the calculation. By fitting the
contribution of the orthogonal polynomial to z[r]-zK[t.r]. the accumulation
of rounding-off errors is avoided.
 -70..

procedure apr2(x,y.z,Rl,R2.X.Y.Veight,K);
value Rl,R2,X.Y,weight;
integer Rl.R2,X,Y;
real weight;
array x,y.z.K;
comment A function z(xy) is given by R=Rl+R2 points. The coordinates of these
points are assumed to be stored in the arrays x,y and z. The weight i is as-
signed to the first Rl points, and weight ,veight,, to the last R2 point.
apr 2 calculates and stores in the array 40:X,0:Y] the coefficients of a
polynomial P(x,y) that gives the best fit to the function z(x,y) in the least
squares sense. X and Y are the maximum exponents of x and y in P(x,y);
begin
integer i,j,m,n,sl,s2.r.Q,R.T;
real xr,yr,yo;
Q:=(X+i)x(Y+i);
R: =Rl+R2;
T:=X+Y;
beg i n
array zq{l:Q,i:RJ.zK{l:R].L[l:(i+Q)xQ2].PY[OX];
comment
The arrays declared above are used for storing:
zq - the R ordinates of the Q different orthogonal polynomials,
zK - the temporary values of the ordinates of P(x.y) at the given R points.
L - the coefficients of the Q orthogonal polynomials,
px - the coefficients of the polynomial obtained when inserting
yyo into P(x,y);

Initialization of K and t:
for j:=O step i until X do
for j:=O step 1 until Y do KÍi.j]:=0
t:=l:

for m:=O step i until T do

for n:=if m<X then O else m-X step i until
if tii<Y then m else Y
begin
si: tx(t-i):2+l;
s2:=(l+t)xt:2;
comment
si and s2 are the adresses in the array L of the first and the last
coefficient of the t th orthogonal polynomial;

Initialization of the orthogonal polynomial and calculation of ordinates of K:

L{s21:=1;
yo: =-1000
tl:=m-n;
for r:=l step i until R do
begin
xr: =xÍ ri:
yr: =y[ r;
comment in the present application the given 1Joirit are Iifted t'rni
lines given by equations of the type y=yo, where yo ¡ n 'orj:LurL. Ii j

fact is utilized to save computing time. Each time a poInt Oli a new
line is encountered, y=yo is inserted into z=P(x,y) whereby a simpli-
fied equation z=py(x) is obtained. All the points on the line are then
calculated from this simplified equation;
if yryo then
 begin
for i:X step .1 until0
begin

for j:mY step -1 until O doff i+jLm then a:=axyr+x[i.jJ;

end for i;
yo:=yr;

a: =0;
for i:=X step-i. until Od.oa:=axxr+py[i];

zq[t.rJ:=a-4tixyrAn;
end for r;

Orthogona.lization to previously generated t-1 polynomials:

for tl.:=l step i until t-1 do
begin
a: =b: =0;
for r:=l step i until Rl do a:a+zq{t.r]xzq[ti,r];
for r:=R1+l step i until R do b:=b+zq[t.r]xzq[tl,r];
a:=a+bxweight;
LÍsi+ti-1]:=O;
u:=tix(ti-i.):2+1-si;
for 1:=sl stp i untïl sl+tl-l. do L[l]:=L{i]-axL{i+u];
for r:=l step i until R do zq{t,rJ:=zq[t,r]_azq.{ti.r];
end for ti; -

Normalization of the calculated orthogonal polynomial:

for r:=i step i until Rl do a:=a+zq[t.r]42;

for r:=Rl+l step i until R do b:=b+zq[t.r]f2;
a:=sqrt(a+bxweig1-t);
for r:=l step i until R do zq[t.r]:=zq[t.rl/a;
for i:=sl step i until s2 do L[i]:=L[iJ/a;

Calculation of the corresponthng Fourrier constant a:.

a: =b: =0;
for r:=l step i until Rl do a:=a+zq[t,r1x(zr]_zKr]);
for r:rRl4i step i until R do b:=b+zq{t.r]x(z[r]-zK{rJ);
a: =a4bxweight;

Addition of the contributïon of the orthogonal polynomial to K:

ti: =sl;
for i:=O step I until m do
for j:=if i'X then O else i-X step I until
if i=m then n eleif i<'Y then I else Ydo
be:i n
!:=K -,J.Ji+axLt tij;
ti:=t.i 'J;
crid for i and j;
t: t41;
end for m og n;
end zq.L
proc. apr2;
 -72-

Appendix 2.

Data forms used for the GIER computer.

The numbers stated on the data forms refer to their position in the sets of
forms to be prepared for the computer calculations axd not to their position
in this report.

Contents: page

Instructions1 page 0 to 0.3 73

Principal Dimensions, page i. 75
Stations for Lifting Halfbreadths, page 2 76
Offsets 76
Curve Description 77
Coordinates of points on the curve 77
OSRI peg.
Hjorteksrsvej FAIRB;G A.D MATHEMATICAL REPRESTAT10N DSRI pag.
o
Lyngby - - OF SHIP LThES Hjortckarsvej 99 FAIRIIG A1.D MA-THEMArICAl RERESRNTATIUN 0.1
tyngby - OF SHIF LIÑ'
I N S T R IJ C T I O N S
To be filled-i t-.' the custor; FiG. 1, CoordInate-axes,
Custoreer (Yard)
NUildin io.
Type of Shi;
Unit of lerth se( or feet)
The salse uztt ler.th is to te used on all data forms.

This set of dat-a forts cc'nçrises çaes O -

Date: SIznature:

To be flled_r v the ccrrrut1r office:

Orüer Io.
Offset data Nc. - y
Data received -

Curves.
Results dis;atcred
Each of the characteristic curves sçecIIed on page 0.2 and 0,3 Is defined by
a chain of curve elements (see data or , Curve- DescriptIon.,). The curve ele-
Data forms ments to be used are polynomials and arts of conic- sections.
3 sets of data f'r-s are to be conpieted: Curve elements designed as, straight Loes or psraboias -are naturally defined
i) surface -ard. by polynomials of ist and 2nd order.
surface aft, -
-2) Most curve elements can be defined by polydomials of the order 5-7.
3) Curve -elements having nearly vertIcal perts, I.e. where the angle between.
contour ei tcwdarv cu-es., the tangent and the abscissa axis reathes values higher than l0 degrees,
are most suitably defined by conic settlons.
Vertical parts of the curve, e.g. s-.eer curve at the bulkhead forward of
The first2 sets data forts are co:n;rised of: poop, are considered as discontinuitles because the ordinate Jumps. from one
FRflCIFC L'OSII;S - thIs data form Is prepared in 3 copies and value to another. As described on data form , Curve DescrIption,,, discon-
tinulties are -specified by statlr.g -2 In the column, , order of connection,..
-Is used as the first data form for each of
the sets listed above. z abscissa
z abscissa
srATI::;5 - ;ves statlrr.s t -which halfbreadths are- lifted.
OFFSITS - ves halfbreadths lifted from the lines drawings. More
or.e datp. frr wll r.orraliy be necessary.
p-1 - '- -.
-
The last set f ista 'orts s ccçrlsed of:
FRINC IF.SI;S, -

2. OJR0'T-ICN - thIs frr s conpleted for each of the curves to

e used (see raies 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3). -p - O
- 3. COJRDINATLE J' OCETS CN TRE CURIE - only one data form will norr.l-ly
- be necessary.

FIG'. 2. The curves ,mid section,, and stets',,. p Is the code number of the
curve elements as defined on data form ,Curve DescrIption.
IRI pag.
t)SRI
fljortekarsvej 99 kSD tkT1iEMATICAi REPR1ENTA'I'IQN 0.3 peg.
1ynby - Denmark SHIP LINEIS Hjortekrsvej 99 FA1RING ND MAT}MATICAL HEIRESENTATIIJN 0.2
I'agby - Densark UF SHIP LiNES

a a' orií ate

name of curve axis LXS comments CURVES are used in the fairing progrsmee for:
foreend X urves which guide the surface near the 1. contours of the hull e.g. stem, stern.
ends of the ship. The halfbreadth along 2. boundaries between different parts of the ship surface e.g.
these curves must be defined by the
forehalfbreadth,, and at thalfbrewith' the boundary of the parallel middle body.
aftend :' z Jcurrea.
5. design curves, e.g. the curve that guides the ship surface at
forehalfbreadth z w lHalfbresdth at , foreend,,. the end of the ship.
aftbalfbreadth z y )Halfbreadth at ,aftend,. 4. sheer and camber of upper deck.
buße limit X a Upper itmit of bilge region.
j The table below gives the curves which may be used. Only the curves that
are needed are however to be defined, the . knuckle,, curve is thus only ape. -
zbilge x I z )The z and y projection of the longl,tu-
Idinal curve that guides the conic sec. cifled when the ship has a knuckle line.
(tons of which the bilge region 18 Each curve Is defined as a function of one variable. The coordinate a's
ybilge X y )built up. used are those shown in FIG i page 0.1. The table below specifies for each
curve which axis is used for abscissas and which for ordinates.
bottom limit i y Limit of flats of bottom. Note that the x-coordinates are positive abaft amidships.
knuckle z z Defined when the ship has knuckle line. abscissa ordinate
name of curve axis axis comments
bknückle z When the ship has tvo knuckle lines,
atem z X Contour of the ship.
the upper one is defined by bknuckle,,
stern- z z Contour of the ship.
radius of gunwale z Defined when deck and shipside are
clsheer X z jEither centerline sheer or sheer
connected by a circle.. side sheer x z 5at side should be specified (not both).
camber y z The camber ordinate is measured from
the sheer at side at the fullest sect.
zkeel X z Height of keel.
zf loor x z Deadrise measured at B/2. Defined
when the deadrise is not constant.
rail x z Upper limit of shipside.
uplimit z -z Upper limit of faired part of shipside.
-
Upper limit is normelly positioned
above the rail.
mid sectiOn z y Contour of fullest section.
fore y- a z y When a half body is longitudinally
d1vided by a transverse section, the
halfbreadth at this station mey be
aft y a z y defined by this curve.
ystern z y Halfbreadth along the stern curve.
Defined when yatern + -0.
fore midshlplimlt z z
Limits of parallel middle body.
aft midshipiiniit z X

fore vi entrance z z The waterline entrance Curves give

the longitudinal position of the limit
(of the curved part of the stem and
istern, which is defined by conic sec-
aft vi entrence z z Jtions.
DSIU paRe pege
Hortek.rsvaj 99 pA1:: A MAT4AICAL REPE TATIil Rrteksvej 99 FAINO AND MATH)4AT1CAL R SEStATIC2 OF
Lyngb - Denme.r. - ShIP LDES lyngby - Denmark SHD' LINES
Oeta form: Ourve Descrl;ton (see poses J., 0.2 and 0.3). c:2W1NAiES UF ¡'OiNTS ( IME (IIRVE.
A curve is defIned by e chain of curve element., which are to be specified iolyncnial - number of points should exceed the order of the polynomial.,
below. The curve elemente permitted end the code nters to be used for the CIr,1s - stat. the radius in both columns.
specifIcations ere: "section - state et least one point. Points near the limite of the Conic
rection should not be stated here, rince the shape at there regions is
code type adequately defined by the end point tangents or the adjacent polynomial..
When the conic- section has e vertical tangent at one of its limits, a new
i straight Itne polynomial. curve element mast b. introduced. This element is a vertical line which
p porder plynooIel p-2,3,s,... represents the tangent, and is specified by two points. The first is the end
- point of the conic arc, while the second is positioned shove or below the
-i arc oi a conIc sectIon (ellipse, hjpetola, parabola conic .ection first one depending on whether the conic has a positive or negative derivative
or cIrcle). The coput.r vili choose the type of conic adjacent to the vertical tangent. -

that fits best to the given conditions.
O ero of a cIrcle specified by its radiue.
The computer wIU pos ition the arcs of conic sections end circles so that each
of them is tar.genttal to its two adjacent curve elements, which ast b specified
as 'olynoraiels.
Abscissas of liait.. The coordinate axis to be used ere stated in a table oñ
pages 0.2 end 0.3. The curve elements ere specifIed below euch that the colu
Y - ir it is required to force the curve through a point, state 7 before the
abscissa (F for fixed). in the care of a conic rection oni/I is permitted.
-
Limita - points having abscissa outside the intei-va), specified for the curve
can else be stated. An overlapping between the points specified for
two adjacent elements mey result in e mare natural transition between them.
Name of the curve (table on pages 0.2 and o.)).
-

,,abeetssns of the limits,, will have increüing valuesdovovards. [F Abscissa ordinate [ bacisse Ñii) (lAbacisse1ordina' íiAbscissa ordinate
-The order of connection Is defined a.:
order The two s.djacent eleaents have at tas point of connection: -- -
-2 different ordinates i.e. jump th the curve. -i----- --L-- - - -
-1 con ordinate at a point, which fits best for the curve.
O eon ordinate at the stated limit.
eon ordinate and tenRent.
t
In case of a cIrcle specified by its radius (code O) or connection order - -1,
the accuj-ate values of the abscissas of the liait. vi-11 be calculated by the eom-
put.er. State nevertheless epproximete value, for these abscissa..
In the case of e cIrcle- or conIc section, state order of connection i with-the
two adjacent polynomIals.
curve
Name of curve (see table on pages 0.2 end o.3)
A text to identIty the curve. State et least the dat..
ThIs identificatIon I. usetull if dIfferent proposal. -
Fitbscissa ordinate ryiAbscissa!ordijçate T"hbscjssa ordiiii1 Fbscissal
- -
-
- -
ere tried. H --- -- I;

The curve Is comp.rsed of the elements: - - . code numbs order of con-

for type o nection with
element subsequent -
-
Snalleet abscIssa of fIrst element : element
-i-- -
i
-

2, ¿ i
- -i
II
Put order of cor.neetion after last '-
element - 0 5
i------ --- -'--------- --r-
7 L- ---- L---
e e fl e
8
- - -
Lt this form is last page of efl curve date. -tate data end.,
end elemer.t
tiSRI
HjorteI5Yei 99 FAING AND MATl4PLTICAL BPREEENTP.TIQN
Lygby - Denrk OF 6}P LINE
PATA FORM: principal dimensions

Text stated in this space

by the customer will be
prtnted on te head of all
result sheets. This text
may for instanCe be the neme of yard and yard no.
Hull no. only to be filled-in by XRÍ
?rincipal dtmensiOTa
Length unit used. CrosS out the irrelevant unit. meter feet

D - Depth to uppermost deck amidßhips. Lpp

a - Draught to sur toa4line or B

desled draught. D -
ykeel - Distance from C.L. to point where
dead.rise begins. d -
h Deadrise measured at side. ykeel -
f Dtstance from amidships to fullest section h -
For iì ships having a parallel middle body
put . f is given the sigi - when the fullest f -
section is forward of amidships. xtaàaft -
xtanaft/fOre à In some cases the transverse eectioflß
are not tangential to the flats of the bottom at the xtan!ore
ends of the ship. xtan is the distance from amid-
ships (positive aft) to the point where the sections I -
cease to be tangential to the bottom. If the sections
are tangential to the bottom at the ends of the ship Ky -
put xtaaft Lpp and xtanfore -Lpp.
Kz
Before starting the calCülatiofl the computer
multiplies the distances lifted from the drawing
by the correction coefficients Kx Ky and Km.
When there are no c,,rrect.iofln put K -.
)istflnceD meesurei in the direction or the x-n.xis are multiplIPrI by Ks
(SeC Fig. on page (j.i) corresporiflKly Ky and Km are applied for distances
in the y and z directions.
The lifted distances which are multiplied by a correction coefficient arm:
I) The half_breadths and coordinates on dataform OFFSETS.
DESCRIPTiONS and COORDINATES OF
2) The cnord] sates on the dataformS CURVE
POINTS ON THE CURVE.
Other quantities which normally are fixed beforebftfld and not.lIfted from drawings
are not multiplied by any coefficient. These quantite5 are:
i) The principal dimensions on thi3 dataform.
2) Spacing between stations on dataform STATIONS.
)
Radius of circle elements in curie descriptions.
The corretlon coefficients are used where the drawing has shrunk so that it
s no longer correct to seele or when it Is convenient to mensure the coor-
dinates by means of a scale different tr, that of the body plan.
D3R1
pag. DR1
Hjortekrrevaj 99 FAIRING AND MATHD4ATICAL REPRESfl1TATIUN 1jortekersvej 99
Lyngby - Dencark FA Ri53 ¡,O HATHE4AT ! CAL RE3ION
UY SHIP LINES L,yigy - icnnark SHIP LINEE

STATIONS FO LIFTING }1AISBRZADTHS In thie table r.ly f b:e.-ithe outside the parallel middle body aro stated.
ffsete can be filled n for the exter.eion of the .hlp elde above the upper
The hAlfbreadths are lifted on the coiputer etatione epecif led belov. deck.
Co.çuter etatlor. le norì1v poeltloned amidehipe. It however the
tranoverse eectlon amdehtpe le not the fufleet one, the computer eta.
tlon O Is plAOed on the fuilest eectlon. In ench half chip the etationa DATA Fc::
are numbered from station O outward. (eec figure below). Nor.liy a
Station epacth of Lpp/20 anidahipe and of Lpp/1O at onde te reconded.
Customers water) ne N. I J I J

Sreudht
u.tbor of tiret ataton for
DIA FO1*( stat lone woich a halfbreadth te etated
Customers Copu.
etats ,fore, or . .aft.. I dIstance from eLatIon ter
Cue tomer. owpu.er - anldahlpe station
Station No. Station No. nuor epacing
n i nXl
froc to from to 2

EquaiIy apaced etatlon.s

are grouped together.
For each group the num.
ber n and the epacthg i
-F 9
10 i
are epecltied. The group il
nearest emidhlp te put
at the top of the co.
lusins.
n y be even or odd.
i) Use the column to the
rIght to check vhs. o s
ther L - itxi. e s o e
State L at bottom of Ix
column i. Coord.nates of extra pointe Ly
on the waterlIne. - -- - -
In ciee the nunber of offeet [y
stated above le lneutfjctent
-l--- ie' extra offsets can be etated
huile. vandret here. x le the dletance fromT
computer etetton O, end y ie1y
z the crrreepondtrg half Ï --
treadth.

cvi awl cvi cvi cvi cvi

If this frm Is lesi. p'te of offeet etate ,,data end,,
x oft 10 01 2 6 x fore

JuIl 66.
 ppendix 3.

The determination of the real roots of a polynomial having real coefficients.

The method used in this work (chaptér 5.i..) for the calculation of the

roots of the polynomial

Pn(x) in the interval f, x / g

procedure ,polrt,. state4 below. The procedure is

is given by the ALGOL
based on the fact that a function may only have one root in an interval where
inter-
it is either continuously increasing or decreasing. The limits of the
vals where the function is either increasing or decreasing are the roots of
the derivative of the function. A differentiable function has thus, at the

most, one root in any interval which is confined by two adjacent roots of the
derivative of the function. This rule enables a systematic search for the
roots as illustrated by Fig. 28. Let us consider the polynomials

P1(x), Pn(x),

where Pn(x) is the polynomial under consi4eration, while the rest are its

derivatives. P1(x) is thus the n-1 derivative of Pn(x). Since P1(x) is a po-.
lynornial of the order 1. it may have one or no roots in the interval f x.i g.

If P1(x) has a root, it divides the interval into two parts, in each of which
a root of P2(x) is searched for. If P1(x) has no root, a single root of P2(x)
is searched Thr over the whole interval. This process is continued for in-

creasing orders of polynomial until the originalj polynomial Pn(x) is reached.

procedure polrt(a.n.f,rt.rirt.tOlX);
value n,f.g,tolx;
integer n,nrt;
real fg,tolx;
array a,rt;
begin
comment polrt determines the roots of polynomial Pri(x) in the Interval
fxg.
a-the cofficients of the polynomial are stored in a[O] to a[n].
rt-the calculated roots are stored in rt[1] to rt[nrt].
nrt-number of roots In the interval.
tolx-the desired accuracy
integer j,r,st,nevnrt;
real x,xl,x2,p,pl,p2.q..dX.p0lY
array deriv[O:n] ,newrt[O:n+1];
 -79-

nrt:0;
rt[o]:=f; rt[i]:=g;
tolx: -toix/2;

for j:=1 step i. until ndo

begin

calculation of the derivative, which is a polynomial of the order j:

for t:=j step -i. until O do
begin
r:=i;
for s:=t+n-j step -1 until t+1 do r:=rxs;
derivi t] : =rxa t+n-j];
end. t;

newnrt: =0;
comment The number of roots in the actual polynomial. which is of the
order j. vili be counted in newnrt. The roots of this polynomial vili be
stored in newrt[i] to nevrt[newnrt]. The roots of the derivative of the
actual polynomial, which is a polynomial of the order j-i. are stored in
rt[l) to rt[nrt);
x:=rt[O]; p:=0;
for t:=j step -i until O do p:9xx+deriv[t];
for s:0 step i until nrt do
begin
xi:=rtts]; pl:=p;
x2:=rts+i]; p2:=0;
for t:=j step -i. until O do p2:-p2xx2+deriv[t];
p: =p2;
if pi.xp2LO then
begin
coent Calculation of the root found between rt[s] and rt [s+i]. The
statements below constitute the body of the ALGOL procedure . .bisec-
tion.. devised by Peter Naur;
dx:=(x2-xl)xsign(pi)/2;
x:=(xi.+x2)/2;
for dx:=dx/2 while abs(dx)'>tolx do
begin
poly: =0;
for t:=j step -i until O do poiy:=polyxx+deriv[t];
x:=(if poiy>o then dx else -dx)+x;
end;
newnrt: =newnrt+i.;
newrt{nevnrt]:x;
end sign(pl)fsign(p2);
end for s;
Preparations for the next step:
nrt:nevnrt;
for t:=i step i until nrt do rt[t]:=newrt[t];
[nrt+i] : =g;

end proc.polrt;
 -80..

Example Calculation of the roots of

y (x-1)(x-2)(x-3) in the intervot O z 3.5
OR. - on intervol where one root may be found
OR.

(x)-..-(6x-12)

P (x) .7 :i( 32_ 12x.11)

2 dx 4

P(x)y(x-6x2.l1x-6)

Fig. 28. Calculation of the roots of a polynomial. The process begins with

the first order polynomial (straight line) shown in the uppermost diagraxn.

This polynomial is derived from the original expression by successive dif-

ferentiation.
 :.
Apper.di . .. . . . . .
.

Calculation of a chain of po1ynom1a1ssee chapter 4.2.11.).

procedure polynomial chain (Nko,Ne1, type , rfix, limit , en, nr points ,

TP,ab,ord,veight,subscr,rnaelm); .

integer Nko,N elm;

type,nrfix,limit,nrpoints,con,TP,ab,ord,Veight,SubsCr,maelm
comment The procedure generates the total matrix for calculation of the
coefficients of a chain of polynomials connected i4th common ordinate,
tangent or curvature and forced through a number of fixed points.
Nko=number of rovs+1 in the matrix.
Nelmnumber of polynomils in the chain.
type[1 :Nelm] order of the polynomials.
nrfix(1 :Nelm) number of fix points.
lixnit[O:Nelm] limits between the polynomials.
con[1 :Nelm] connection between the polynomials. The value 0,1,2 indi-
cate respectively common ordinate, tangent and curvature.
nr points[1 :Nelm] number of points measured on the curve,
TP[1 :Nelm] origins of the abscissas of the polynomials.
ab,ord[1 :Nelm,1 :np] coordinates of points lifted from the. curves.
weight[1 :Nelm,1 :np] weight of the points, i.e. the numbers ci as ex-
plained in 4.2.4.1.
subscr[1 :Nelm,1 :if J addresses of the fixed points in the arrays ab,ord..
maelm[1 :Nko-1,1 :Nko] the matrix which is generated;
begin
integer k,j, i,T,act,r,rov;
real tp,a;
array Stnr[1 :Nelm];
for i:1 step i until Nko-1 do
? j:-i step i until Nko do maelrn(i,j]:0;
Stnr[i ] :-1;
comment The sequence of the coefficients in the row is:
i,ai,a2,a3,cf1,cf2,cp,ct,cc,bO,b1,b2,
where ai and bj are polynomial coefficients, cf,cp,ct,cc are Lagrange
multipliers. These multipliers are assigned to the different conditions:
cf: fixed point,
cp: corrmon ordinate,
Ct: common tangent and
cc: common curvature.
Stnr[i) is the position in the row of the first element of polynomial
number i. Now t'ne rows are generated;
for i:=i step i until Nelm-1 do
Fir[i+i J :.Stnr[ij+type(i]+nrfix[i]+con[i)+2;
row:l;
comment The rows which stem from differentiation with regard to the
polynomial coefficients;
for i:=1 step i until NeJ.in do
begin
tp:TP[i];
for T:O step i until type[i) do
begin connt The terms containing the polynomial coefficients;
- for k:=O p i until type[i] do
? j:1 step i until nr pointTi] do
elrn[row,Stnr[iJ+kJ :=maelm[row,StnTi)+k]+
(abfi,j)-tp)if(T+k)xweight[i,j];
for j:l step i until nr points[i] do
maelm[row,Nko] :maelm[row,Nko]+ord[Tj ]x
(ab[i,j J_tp)4rxweight[i,j];
act :Stnr[ i]+type[i];
 _82 -

comment The terms containing Lagrange multipliers for fixed points;

for r:1
step i unti]. nrfix[i] do
begin
act :act+1;
j :=subscr[i,r];
rnaelm[row,act):-(ab[i,j]_tp)if.T;
e rid;
a:=limit[i]-tp;
comment The terms containing Lagrange multipliers for connections
with the adjacent element to the left;
if 1elrn then
Tr r:O,1,2 do
if con[i]> r then
begin
act :act+i;
if a+O then rrm.elm[row,act] :-(T4r_x,< (r_1 )XT/2 )xaif(T-r);
end;
comment The terms containing Lagrange multipliers for connections
with the adjacent element to the right;
1f 1>1 then
begin
act :-stnr[i]-con[i]_2;
a:-limit[i-i ]_TP[i_1];
for r:-O,l,2 do
TTcon[i-i]> Tthen
begin
act :=act+1;
if a+O then nm.elmfrow,act] :-_(T,r_xx(r_l )xT/2)xs(T-r);
end;
end;
row :-rowi-1;
end for T;
end for i;
ent The rows which stem from differentiation vith regard to the
Lagrange multipliers. These rows only contain terms with the polyno-
mial coefficients;
for i:1 step until Neim do
i

begin
tp:TP[i];
comment Differentiation with regard to Lagrange multipliers for
fixed points;
for r:=1 step i until nrflx[i]
do
begin
J :=subscr[1,r);
for k:=O step i until typefi) do
maelm[row,Stnr[iJ+kJ:(ab[i,j]_tp)4c;
maelm[row,Nko] :ordfi,j];
row :-row1;
end;
comment Differentiation with regard to Lagrange multipliers for
connections;
if i>1 then
begin
for r:=O,1,2 do
 if con[i.i]> r then
begin
for k:=r stp i until type(i-i] do
n.elm[rov,Stzir[il Jk] :=(limit[i_1 )_TP(i_i )),f(k_r)x
(k4r_(r_1)xk/2);
for k:=r step i until type(i] do
maelm[row,Stnr[iJ+kj:-(limit[T1 ]-tp)4(k-r)x(k,fr-rx(r-1 )xk/2);
row:r0w+i;
end;
end;
en?or i;
procedure polynomial. chain;
Resum. . .- . .
: :
:

Fremkomsterz a! elektronlske regriemaskinér og eifferstyi'ede bearbejdnlngs-

maskiner haie mullggjoe t en udstiakt automatisering a! sklbsbygnlngsprocessen.
Ind.førelsen a! dezme teknik er i1dJ.erti.d betinget aÍ at skibets overfladè
defineres matematlsk. i modstn1ng ti]. den hidtidige frezugangsnaade. hvor
overt' laden er defineret grafisk. Maalet med dette arbejde bar vret at udvik-
le en metode ti]. fremstilling s.f en matematisk definition for en skibsflade,

som er givet ved en konstruktionsilnietegning. Konstruktionslinietegningen..

etragtes stadigt Som det bedste hjlpemid.el ti]. konstruktion.af nye skibs-
linier, idet man paa en overskuelig mE'.ade kan arbejde sig frein ti]. et kompro-
mis mellem d.c forskellige krav, der buyer stillet.
Tidligere arbejder indenfor dette felt kan opdeles i metoder, der gr
brug af enten dybgangsfunktioner eher snitkurver. I den frste gruppe defi-
neres parametrene i vandhinieudtrykket som funktioner af dybgangen. Snitkur-

vemetoderne er en niatematisk analogi tu de grafiske metoder, som hidtil liar

vret anvendt. Ved disse metod.er tilpasses en ,trkstok!unktion.. ti]. et an-
ta]. vand.linler og spanter i en iterativ process. som fortsttes indtil de to
f lader. der er reproesenteret ved hhv. spanter og vand.linier. falder sanimen.
Yderligere har man ved nogle af de tid.ligere metoder transformeret sklbsf la-

den over i.en flade som lettere kan beskrives matematisk. Ai' de tid.l-igere me-
toder ser det ud ti]., at kun snitkurvemetoderne er udvikiet tu en grad, der

muliggr en nØjagtig beskrive].se ai' en stor klasse af skibsformer. Der er

imid.iertid visse vanskeligheder med at opnaa tilstrkke1ige jvne flader med
disse metoder. LØsnirig a! fladedefinitionsprobleniet ved hjzlp a! dybgangs-
funktioner, snitkurver og transformationer indebrer den komplikation. at

problemet oin1 hvorledes disse hjlpemidlex' skai anvendes, buyer indfrt.

I det foreliggendé arbeJde tilpasses rnatematiske udtryk direkte til

fladerne og ti]. de forskellige kontur- og grmnse}oirver. Fladerne og kurverne

opdeles i de dele, de er saminensat a!, hvorefter keglesnit og polyiomer ti].-
passes ti]. de forskeilige dele. Polynomer anvendes i de fleste tilflde mens
keglesriit indl'øres. naar fladen eher kurven danner en stor vinkel med ab-
scisseplanen hhv. -aksen.
Opdelirig af fladen og kurverne i de dele, af hvilket de bestaar. udfres
manuelt og er baseret paa en visuel analyse s.f hinietegningen. Grnserne mel-
lem de förskellige dele vil som regel vere sanimenfaldende med de kurver paa

skibsoverfiaden, hvor der er en d.iskontinuitet i fladens anden og hjere

afledede (se Fig. 14)
 Koefficienterne. i de udtryk. der definerer skibet1. beregnes deis paa
grund.lag at fastiagte data og deis udfra koordinater, soin maales paa kon-
stru.ktionsiinietegnlngen. Da de ma.lte koordinater er behoeftet med en vis
us±kkerhed, beregnes koefficienterne saa1edes at fastholdte maal ikke andres
0g saadan at man tsar den ti1nrmeise ti]. de maalte koordinater. der er
bedst i de mindste kvadraters betythting.
Kurverne beregnes saaiedes at hver gruppe at sa.ienhngende polynomer
beregnes for sig. hvorefter de enkeite poiynomkder forbindes med kegiesnits-
buer. Aile koefficienterne i en poiynomkd.e buyer beregnet samtid.igt ved
iøsning a! normailignïngerne. Normalligningssystemet buyer udvidet med et
anta]. ligniriger. der sikrér at de stiliede betingeiser buyer overholdt.
Disse betirigeiser omfatter f. eks. kravet orn, at kurven skai gaa genriern et
puhkt, eher at to nabopoiynomer skai have fies ord.inat og tangent. Udvi-
delsen af normaiiigningssysternet med betingeisesligningerne udÍ'res ved brug
at Lagranges muitiphikatorer. i

Et fiadepoiynom P(x.z) giver skibets halvbred.de y sorn funktion at at-

standen x fra midtskib og dybgangen z, d.v.s.

y'P(x.z)

Po].ynomet P(x.z) beregnes soin en linear kobination at et st at ortogonale

polynomer. Disse polynomer beregnes saaledes, at de er ortogonale over den
punktmmrigde, hvis koordinater er maalt psa tegningen ti]. brug ved fladens be-
regning. Randbetingeiser paatvinges fladepolynomer ved at indfre et antal
punkter, der tilfredsstiller bétingelserne, og ved at til1gge disse punkter
en stor vgt.
Da skibe her meget sammensatte overflader, er en stor dzìtwnngde nødven-
dig for at give en detaijeret specifikation at formen. Den manuelle òpstil-
ling af disse indgangsdata ud,gør derfor en vmsentlig dei at arbeJdet ved
fremstilling al' en matematisk skibsdeflriition. Der biev derfor udsrbejdet
programmer til kontrol at de manuelt freinstillede indgangsdata1 Ligeledes
blev der udarbejdet programmer for at checke orn den beregnede skibsflade er
brugbar. I dette program sammenlignès de halvbredder, der er maalt paa teg-
ningen med de vmrdier. der faas fra de beregnede udtryk. Ligeledes kontrol-
leres for et anta]. udvalgte snitkurver, 0m opdehingen i konkave og konvekse
omraader er i overenssternmelse med konstruktørens Ønsker. Sorn yderligere kon-
trol udtegnes et spanterids for den maternatiske skibsflade paa den automati-
ske kurvetegner, der er koblet ti]. regnesiaskinen. Aile programmerne med und-
tagelse at proceduren tu beregning at fiadepolynomer er udirbejdet i ALGOL.
 -86-.

Programmerne her voeret anvendt med godt resultat psa alle norniale skibstyper.
samt psa et entai specialskibe.
Den direkte metode. der er acvendt i datte arbejde. har resulteret i en
f remgarigsxnaade. der er forholdsvis let at forstaa og fØ].ge. Behovet for reg-
nemaskinetid og -lager er moderat. saavel ved fremstilling s.f den matematiske
skibsd.efinition. som ved derme definitions arivendelse i andre prograier. Den
ud.arbejdede metode her saaledes vist sig egnet soin en rutineprocesS i skibs-
bygninsindustriefl.