2019 G12 Mathematics EM - 0 PDF

12
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only shall we be left behind others but may be
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Muhammad Ali Jinnah.-"'"'
Founder of Pakistan
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CALCULUS AND ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
MATHEMATICS
12
l
I
PUNJAB CURRICULUM AND

TEXTBOOK BOARD, LAHORE
All rights are reserved with Punjab Curriculum & Textbook Board, Lahore
Prepared by: Punjab Curriculum & Textbook Board, Lahore
Approved by: Federal Ministry of Education Curriculum Wing, Islamabad.
Vide Letter No. F. 1-6 / 2003 dated June 06,2003.
CONTENTS
Unit Description Page
1 Functions and Limits 1
2 Differentiation 41
3 Integration 119
4 Introduction to Analytic Geometry 179
5 Linear Inequalities and Linear programming 229
6 Conic section 249
7 Vectors 325
1:l Answers 367
Authors: • Prof. Muhammad Amin Chaudhary • Prof. Muhammad Sharif Ghaury

• Prof. Muhammad Khalid ·Saleem e Mazhar Hayat
Editor: • Mazhar Hayat

Supervision: • Mazhar Hayat
Senior Artist: Aisha Waheed
Director (Manuscripts): Mrs. Nisar Qamar
Published by : Altaf Raheem Printer Lahore

Printed by : Ahmad Tayyeb Printer Lahore.
Date of Printing Edition Impression Copies Price
July 2019 1st 28 4400 166.00
Unit 1: Functions and Limits 1
I Unit 1 I Functions and Limits

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Functions are important tools by whlch we describe the real world in
mathematical terms. They are used to explain the relationship between variable
quantities and hence play a central role in the study of calculus.
1.1.1 Concept of Function
The term function was recognized by a German Mathematician Leibniz
(1646-1716) to describe the dependence of one quantity on another. The following
examples illustrates how this term is used:
(i) The area "A" of a square depends on one of its sides "x" by the
formula A = x 2 , so we say that A is a function of x.
(ii) The volume "V" of a sphere depends on its radius " r" by the formula
V = _±_7r r 3 , so we say that Vis a function of r.

3
A function is a rule or correspondence, relating to two sets in such a way that
each element in the first set corresponds to one and only one element in the second
set.
Thus in, (i) above, a square of a given side bas only one area.
And in, (ii) above, a sphere of a given radius has only one volume.
Now we have a formal definition:
1.1.2 Definition (Function-Domain-·Range)
A Function/from a set X to a set Y is a rule or a correspondence that assigns
to each element x in X a unique element y in Y. The set X is called the domain off
The set of corresponding elements yin Y is called the range off ·
Unless" stated to the contrary, we shall assume hereafter that the sets X and Y
consist of real numbers.
1.1.3 Notation and Value of a Function
If a variable y depends on a variable x in such a way that each value_of x
determines exactly one value of y, then we say that ''y is a function of x".
Swiss mathematician Euler (1707-1783) invented a symbolic way to write the
statement "y is a function of x" as y = f (x), which is read as "y is equal to f of x".
2 Calculus and Analytic Geometry
Note: Functions are often denoted by the letters such asf, g, h, F, G, Hand so on.
A function can be considered as
a computing machine f that takes an input x, Function
operates on it in some way, and produces Inputx
f Outputj{x)
exactly one output f (x). This output Computing Machine
f(x) is called the value of/atx or image of x underf. The outputf(x) is denoted by a
single letter, say y, and we write y = f (x).
The variable x is called the independent variable off, and t 1" , ..triable y is
called the dependent variable off. For now onward we shall on Iv con sider the
function in which the variables are real numbers and we say that f is a real valued
function of real numbers.
Example 1: Givenf(x) = x 3 - 2x 2 + 4x -1 , find

(i) f(O) (ii) f(l)
(iii) f(-2) (iv) f(l + x) (v) f(l/ x), x *0
Solution: f(x) = x -2x + 4x-1
3 2
CD ! (O) = o- o+ o-1 = -1
(i) /(1) = (1) 3 -2(1) 2 +4(1)-1=1-2+4-1=2
(ii) /(-2)= (-2) 3 -2(-2) 2 + 4(-2)-1 = -8-8-8-1 = -25
(iii) /(1 + x) _= (1 + x) 3 -2(1+x) 2 +4(1 + x)-1
2
= 1+3x + 3x + x 3 - 2 - 4x - 2x 2 + 4 + 4x -1
= x 3 +x 2 +3x+2
3 4
(iv) J(Ilx)=(11x) -2(11x)2+4(11x)-l=-;---;-+ -1, x;t:O
x x x
Example 2: Let f(x) = x 2 • Find the domain and range off.
Solution: f(x) is defined for every real number x.
Further for every real number x, f(x) = x 2 is a non-negative real number. So
Domain/= Set of all real numbers.
Range f = Set of all non-negative real numbers.
Example 3: Let f(x) = x . Find the domain and range off
x 2 -4
Solution: At x =2 and x =-2, f (x) =
x is not defined. So
x 2 -4
Domain!= Set of all real numbers except -2 and 2
Range f = Set of all real numbers.
Example 4: Let f(x) = ~x 2 -9. Find the domain and range off
Solution: We see that if xis in the interval -3 < x < 3, a square root of a negative
number is obtained. Hence no real number y =~x 2 - 9 exists. So
Domainf = {xE R: lxl ~ 3 }=(-00 ,-3]u [3,+oo)}
Rangef = set of all positive real numbers= [0,+oo)
1.1.4 Graphs of Algebraic Functions
If f is a real-valued function of real numbers, then the graph off in the xy-plane is
defined to be the graph of the equation y = f (x) .
The graph of a function! is the set of points {(x, y)I y = f(x), xis in the domain off}
in the Cartesian plane for which (x, y) is an ordered pair off The graph provides a
visual technique for determining whether the set of points represents a function or not. If
a vertical line intersects a graph at more than one point, it is not the graph of a function.
Explanation is given in the figure.
y y y
(a) a function (b) a function (c) not a function (d) not a function
Method to draw the graph:

To draw the graph of y = f(x), we give arbitrary values of our choice to x and find
the corresponding values of y. In this way we get ordered pairs (xp y 1 ), (x 2 , y 2 ),
(x3 , y 3 ) etc. These ordered pairs represent points of the graph in the Cartesian plane. We
locate these points and join them together to get the graph of the function.
Example 5: Find the doniain and range of the function f(x) = x 2 + 1 and draw its graph.
2
Solution: Here y = f(x) = x +1
We see that f(x) = x 2 +1 is defined for every real number. Further, for every real
number x, y = f(x) = x 2 +1 is a non-negative real number. Hence
Domain f = set of all real numbers
and Range f =set of all non-negative real numbers except the points 0 ~ y < 1.
For graph of f (x) = x 2 + 1, we assign some values to x from its domain and
find the corresponding values in the range fas shown in the table: y
2
I y= ~(x) I ~~ 1- ~ I i I ~ I ~ I ~ I :o I
Plotting the points (x,y) and joining them with a smooth
curve, we get the graph of the function f(x) = x 2 +I, which is
shown in the figure. _ .............-+-_.__...__.... x
.:.2 2
1.1.5 Graph of Functions Defined Piece-Wise.
When the functionfis defined by two rules, we draw the graphs of two functions as
explained in the following example:
Example 6: Find the domain and range of the function defined by:
x when 0 ~ x ~ 1
f(x) = [ Also draw its graph.
x -1 when 1 < x ~ 2
Solution: Here domain f = [O, 1] u (1, 2] = [O, 2]. This function is composed of the
following two functions:
(i) f(x)=x when O~x::;;1 (ii) f(x)=x-1,when l<x::;;2
I
.9
Plotting the points (x, y) and .8
joining them we get two straight .7
.6
lines as shown in the figure. .s Graph of
.4
This is the graph of the given .3
f(x)=x-1
function. .2
.I
0 · J. 2 · 3 · 4 · 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 I.I 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 I

1.2 TYPES OF FUNCTIONS

Some important types of functions are given below:
1.2.1 Algebraic Functions

Algebraic functions are those functions which are defined by algebraic
expressions. We classify algebraic functions as follows:
(i) Polynomial Function

A function P of the form
for all X Where the COefficient an, an-I, an~ 2 , •••• , a 2 , a1 , a0 are real numbers and the
exponents are non-negative integers, is called a polynomial function.
The domain and range of P(x) are, in general, subsets of real numbers.
If an # 0, _then P(x) is called a polynomial function of degree n and an is the

leading coefficient of P(x).
For example, P(x) = 2x 4 - 3x 3 + 2x- I

is a polynomial function of degree 4 with leading coefficient 2.
(ii) Linear Function
If the degree of a polynomial function is I, then it is called a linear function.
A linear function is of the form: f (x) =ax+ b, (a# 0), a, b real numbers.
For example f (x) = 3x + 4 or y = 3x + 4 is a linear function. Its domain and
range are the set of real numbers.
(iii) Identity Function
For any set X, a function I: X ~ X of the form /(x) = ~ "i/ xe X, is called
an identity function. Its domain and range is the set X itself. In particular, if X =R ,
then I (x) = x , for all x e R , is the identity function.
(iv) Constant Function
Let X and Y be sets of real numbers. A function C : X ~ Y defined by
C(x) =a "i/ x e X, a e Y and fixed, is called a constant function.
For example, C: R ~ R defined by C(x) = 2 "i/ x e R is a constant function.
(v) Rational Function
A function R(x) of the form P(x), where both P(x) and Q (x) are
Q(x) .
polynomial functions and Q (x) t:. 0, is called a rational function.
The domain of a rational function R(x) is the set of all real numbers x for which
Q(x) t:. 0.
1.2.2 Trigonometric Functions

We denote and define trigonometric fanctions as follows:
(i) y = sin x, Domain = R, Range -1 $ y $ 1 .
(ii) y = cos x, Domain = R, Range -1 $ y $ 1
(iii) y = tanx,Domain = {x:xE Rand xt:.(2n+1)7r, n aninteger},Range=R

2
(iv) y = cot x, Domain = {x: XE Rand x t:.n7r, nan integer}, Range= R
(v) y = sec x, Domain = {x: XE R and x t:.(2n + 1) 7r, nan integer},

2
Range= y ;::: 1, y $ -1
(vi) y = csc x, Domain,= {x: XE Rand x t:.n7r, n aninteger},Range= y;::: 1, y $ -1
1.2.3 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

We denote and define inverse trigonometricfanctions as follows:
(i) . -I
y= sm .
x~x=smy,w
here --$y$-,-
7r 7r 1 $x$l
2 2
y= cos- x ~ x =cosy, where 0 $ y $ 7r,-1 $ x $ l
1
(ii)
(1·1·1·) y = tan -1 x ~ x = tan y , where - -n < y < -n -oo < x < oo

2 2'
1.2.4 Exponential Function
A function, in which the variable appears as exponent (power), is called an
exponential function. The functions, y = eax, y =ex, y = 2x = e"n 2 , etc are
exponential functions of x.
1.2.5 Logarithmic Function
If x = a Y , then y = log a x, where a> 0, a t:. 1
is called Logarithmic Function of x.
(i) If a _= 10, then we have log 10 x (written as lg x) which is known aS the

common logarithm of x.
(ii) If a= e, then we have log e x (written as In x) which is known as the natural
logarithm of x.
1.2.6 Hyperbolic Functions

(i) sinh x =_!_(e x - e-x) is called hyperbolic sine function. Its domain and
2
range are the set of all real numbers.
(ii) cash x =_!_(ex + e-x ) is called hyperbolic cosine function. Its domain is
2
the set of all real numbers and the range is the set of all numbers in the
interval [1, + oo).
(iii)" The remaining four hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of the
hyperbolic sine and the hyperbolic cosine function as follows:
sinhx ex -e-x 1 2
tan h x= =--- sechx= =---
cosh x ex + e-x cosh x ex + e-x
coshx ex +e-x 1 2
coth x= =--- cschx=--=---
. sinhx e x -e-x sinhx ex - e-x
The hyperbolic functions have same properties that -resemble to those of
trigonometric functions.
1.2.7 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
The inverse hyperbolic functions are expressed in terms of natural logarithms
and we shall study them in higher classes.
(i) sinh- 1 x = ln(x+Jx 2 +l), for allx (iv) coth-' x =2-zn( x+ 1 } I~< I
2 x-1
di)
2
cosh-1 x = ln(x+Jx -1), x;:::l (v) _, [I
sech x = In -:; + ~)
x ,0 < x ~ 1
(iii) 1 (1
tanh-1 x = -ln -+-
2
x , x <1
1-x
J II . 1
(v1) csch- x =Zn ~+ (1 ~J
lxl ,x :;t 0
1.2.8 Explicit Function ·

If y is easily expressed in terms of the independent variable x, then y is called
an explicit function of x. For example
(i) y = x 2 + 2x -1 (ii) y = ..Jx-1 are explicit functions of X. ·

Symbolically it can be written as y =f(x).
1.2.9 Implicit Function
If x and y are so mixed up and y cannot be expressed in terms of the independent
variable x, then y is called an implicit function of x. For example,
2
9
(i) x 2 + xy + y 2 =2 (ii) .xy - y+ =1 are implicit functions of x
xy
andy.
Symbolically it is written as f (x, y) = 0 .
1.2.10 Parametric Functions
Sometimes, a curve is described by expressing both x and y as function of a
third variable "f' or "()" which is called a parameter. The equations of the type
x = f (t) and y = g(t) are called the parametric equations of the curve.
The functions of the form:
2
(i) x = at c·) x = acos() . ) x = asece
(IV
y =at m y = b sin () .
y =a t an ()
are called parametric functions. Here the variable tor 8 is called parameter.
1.2.11 Even Function
A function f is said to be an even if f ( - x) = f ( x) , for every number x in the
domain off.
For example: f(x) = x 2 and f(x) =cos x are even functions of x. Here ·
2 2
f(-x) = (-x) = x = f(x) and f(-x) = cos(-x) =cos x = f(x)
1.2.12 Odd Function
A function f is said to be an odd if f ( - x) = - f ( x) , for every number x in the
3
domain off For example, f(x) = x and f (x) = sinx are odd functions of x. Here
3 3
f(-x)=(-x) =x =-f(x) and f(-x)=sin(-x)=-sinx=-f(x)
Note : In both the cases, for each x in the domain of f,-x must also be in the domain of f
Example 1: Show that .the parametric equations x =a cost and y =a sin t

represent the equation of the circle x
2
+ y 2 =a 2
Solution: The parametric equations are
x= a cost (i)
y = a sin t (ii)
We eliminate the parameter "t" from equations (i) and (ii).
2 2
By squaring we get, x =a cos 2 t
2
y =a sin t
2 2
By adding we get, x
2
+ y 2 = a 2 cos2 t + a 2 sin2 t
= a 2 (cos 2 t + sin 2 t)
..• x 2 + y 2 = a2 , which is equation of the circle .
Example 2: Prove the identities
2 2
(i) cosh 2 x- sinh 2 x=1 (ii) cosh x + sinh x = cosh 2x
ex -e-x
Solution: We know that sinh x = - - - (1)
2
ex+ e-x
and coshx=--- (2)
2
Squaring (1) and (2) we have
e2x+e-2x_2 2 e2x +e-2x +2
sinh 2 x = - - - - - - and cosh x =- - - - -
4 4
2 2 e2x +e-2x + 2 e2x + e-2x....:. 2
Now (i) cosh x - sinh x::: - - - - -
4 4
e2x +e-2x +2-e2x -e-2x +2 4
= 4
=4
2
cosh 2 x - sinh x =1
e2x +e-2x +2 e2x +e-2x -2
and (ii) cosh 2 x+sinh 2 x = + -----
4 4
e2x +e-2x +2+e2x +e-2x -2
=-----------
4
1o Calculus and Analytic Geometry
2e2x + 2e-2x e2x + e-2x

= =---
4 2
.. cosh 2 x + sinh 2 x = cosh 2x
Example 3: Determine whether the following functions are even or odd:
(a) f(x)=3x 4 -2x 2 +7 (b) f(x)= x;:l (c) f(x)=sinx+cosx
Solution:
(a) = 3(-x) 4 -2(-x) 2 +7 = 3x4 -2x 2 +7 = f(x)
f(-x)
Thus f (x) = 3x 4 - 2x 2 +7 is even.
(b) f(-x)= 3(~x) =-(+ 'L-J(x)

(-x) +1 x +I)
Thus f (x) = ;x . is odd.
x +1
(c) f(-x) = sin(-x) + cos(-x) =-sinx + cosx:F ±f(x)
Thus f (x) =sin x +cos x is neither even nor odd.
EXERCISE 1.1
1. Given that: (a) f(x) = x 2 -x (b) f(x)=.Jx+4
Find (i) f (-2) (ii) f (0) (iii) f (x -1) (iv) f (x 2 + 4)
2. Find f(a + h)- f(a) and simplify where,
h
(i) f(x)=6x-9 (iii) f(x)= sinx
(iv) f (x) = x 3 + 2x 2 -1 (v) f (x) = cos x
3. Express the following:
(a) The perimeter P of square as a function of its area A.
(b) The area A of a circle as a function of its circumference C.
(c) The volume V of a cube as a function of the area A of its base.
4. Find the domain and the range of the function g defined below,
and sketch of graph of g:
(i) g(x)=2x-5 (ii) g(x)=~x 2 -4
(iii) g(x) = .J x + 1 (iv) g(x) =Ix- 3J
6x+7 , x ~ -2
(v) g(x) ={ (vi) (x) = {x -1, x<3
4-3 , -2<x g 2x+l, 3 ~ x
.
x 2 -3x+ 2 x 2 -16
(vii) g(x) = , x:;t:-1 (viii) x =
g () , x:;t:4
x+l x-4
5. Given f(x) = x 3 -ax 2 +bx+l
If f(2)=-3 and f(-1)=0.Findthevaluesofaandb.
6. A stone falls from a height of 60m on the ground, the height h after x second
is approximately given by h(x) = 40-10x 2
(i) \.\ hat is the height of the stone when:
(a) x = 1 sec? (b) x = 1.5 sec? (c) x ·= 1.7 sec?
(ii) When does the stone strike the ground?
7. Show that the parametric equations:
2
(i) x = at , y = 2at represent the equation of parabola y2 = 4ax
2 2
(ii) x = a cos(}, y = b sin(} represent the equation of ellipse ~ + L = 1
a2 b2
2 2
(iii) x = a sec , y = b tan (} represent the equation of hyperbola ~ - L2 = 1
a b
8. Prove the identities:
(i) sin h 2x = 2 sinhx coshx (ii) sec h 2 x=1- tan h 2 x
2 2
(iii) csc h x =cot h x-l
9. Determine whether the given function/ is even or odd.
(i) f (x) =x3 + x (ii) f (x) = (x + 2) 2
(iii) f(x)=x.Jx 2 +5 (iv) f(x)=x-l,x:;t:-1

x+l
2 3
(v) f(x)=x 3 +6 (vi) f(x)= x -x
x 2 +1
1.3 COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS AND INVERSE OF
A FUNCTION
Letfbe a function from set X to set Y and g be a function from set Y to set Z. The
composition off and g is a function, denoted by gof , from X to Zand is defined by
(gof)(x) = g(f (x)) =gf (x) , for all x E X
1.3.1 Composition of Functions
Explanation Remember That:
Consider two real valued functions/and g defined by Briefly we write
2
f(x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) =x gof as gf
2
then gof(x) = g(f(x)) = g(2x + 3) = (2x + 3) .
--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,
The arrow diagram of two gf
consecutive mappings,ffollowed by g,
denoted by gf is shown in the figure.
Thus a single composite function
gf (x) is equivalent to two successive x y z
functionsffollowed by g.
Example 1: Let the real valued functionsfand g be defined by

f(x)=2x+l and g(x)=x 2 -1
2 2
Obtain the expressions for (i) fg(x) (ii) gf(x) (iii) f (x) (iv) g (x)
Solution:
2
(i) fg(x) = f (g(x)) = f (x 2 -1) = 2(x 2 -1) + 1 = 2x -1
2 2
(ii) gf(x) = g(f(x)) = g(2x+l) = (2x+l) -I'= 4x +4x
(iii) f 2 (x) = f (f (x)) = f (2x + 1) = 2(2x + 1) + 1 = 4x + 3
(iv) g 2 (x) = (g(gx)) = g(x 2 -1) = (x 2 -1) 2 -1 = x 4 - 2x 2

We observe from (i) and (ii) that fg(x) * gf (x)
Note:
1. It is important to note that, in general, gf (x) -:t. fg(x), because gf (x) means that
f is applied first then followed by g, whereas fg(x) means that 8 is applied first
then followed by f
2 3
2. We usually write ff as f and ff! as f and so on.
1.3.2 Inverse of a Function

Letfbe a one-one function from X onto Y. The inverse function off, denoted
by 1-1 , is a function from Y onto X and is defined by: . .
x=f.- 1 (y), 't/ yE Y if and only if y=f(x), 't/ xE X.
Illustration by arrow diagram

x y
The inverse function reverses the f
correspondence of the original function, so
that
l - 1 ( y ) = x , when l(x) =y
and l(x) =y , whenl - 1 (y) =x Domain I Range I
Range I -' Domain I -'
We can find the composition of the
functions land l -1 as follows:
(l- 1ol)(x) = l- 1(l(x)) = l - 1 (y) = x
and (lol- 1)(y) = l(l- 1(y)) = l(x) = Y
We note that l - 1ol and lol - 1 ~e identity mappings on the domain and range of
f and l- 1 respectively.
1.3.3 Algebraic Method to Find the Inverse Function
The inverse function can be found by using the algebraic method as explained in
the following example:
Example 2: Let l :R ~ R be the function defined by
~~~~~~~~~~-
1
l (x) = 2x + 1. Find l- (x) Remember that:
The change of name of
Solution: We find the inverse oflas follows: variable in the definition of
Write l(x)=2x+l=y function does not change
that · function where the
So that y is the image of x underf domain and range coincide.
Now solve this equation for x as follows:
y = 2x+l
2x = y-1
y-1
x=--
2
l- 1 (y)=_!_(y-1) [·:x=l-'(y)]
2
To find l- 1(x), replace y by x.
1
.. l- 1 (x) =-(x-1)
2
14 ( 'llculus and Analytic Geometry
iii;;;iiili;;;iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii--
Verification:
1(r1<xl) ~ 1( ~ (x-1) )= 2[ ~ (x-1)] +I~ 1
and l-1 (J(x)) = l-1 (2x+1) = _!_(2x+ 1-1) = x

2
Example3: Without finding the inverse, state the domain and range of l- 1 , where
l(x) = 2+-Jx-1
Solution: We see that l is not defined when x < 1.
Domain l = [1, + oo)
As x varies over the interval [l, + oo), the value of -J x - 1 varies over the interval
[O, + oo). So the value of l (x) = 2 + ~ varies over the interval [2, + oo).
Therefore range l = [2,+oo)
By definition of inverse function l- 1 , we have
domain l- 1 =range l = [2,+ oo)
and range l -1 = domain f = [1, + oo)
EXERCISE 1.2
1. The real valued functions land g are defined below. Find
(a) fog (x) (b) gof(x) (c) lal(x) (d) gog(x )
3
(i) f(x) = 2x+l g(x) = - ' x:;t: 1
x-l
1
(ii) f(x}=-Jx+l g(x) = - ,x:;t:O
x2
1
(iii) f(x)= ~ , x:;t:l g(x) = (x2 + 1)2
x-l
2
(iv) f(x) = 3x 4 -2x 2 ; g(x) = ,.Jx , x :;t: 0
2. For the real valued function, f defined below, find
(a) f - 1 (x) (b) f- 1 (-1) and verify f(f- 1 (x))=f- 1 (f(x))=x
(i) f(x) = -2x+8 (ii) f (~) = 3x 3 + 7
(iii) f(x)=(-x+9) 3 (iv) f(x) = 2x+l x>l
x-1
Unit 1: Functions and Umits 15
3. Without finding the inver-;e, state the domain and range of 1- 1 •

1
(i) f (x) = ,J x + 2 (iii) f (x) =- - , x :;t -3
x+3
x-1
(ii) f(x) = --, x :;t 4 (iv) f(x).=(x-5) 2 , x:2'.5
x-4
1.4 LIMIT OF A FUNCTION AND THEOREMS ON
LIMITS
The concept of limit of a function is the basis on which the structure of calculus
rests. Before the definition of the limit of a function, it is essential to have a clear
understanding of the meaning of the following phrases:
1.4.1 Meaning of the Phrase "x approaches zero"
Suppose a variable x assumes in succession a series of values as
i.e., 1, ..!.., -.;.-. ~. 4• ....,-1-, ...

1 1 1 1
I, - , - , - , - ' ...
2 4 8 16 2 2 2 2 in
We notice that xis becoming smaller and smaller as n increases and can be made as
small as we please by taking n sufficiently large. This unending decrease of x is
symbolically written as x ---7 0 and is read as "x approaches zero" or "x tends to zero".
Note: The symbol x ---7 0 is quite different from x =0
(i) x ---7 0 means that x is very close to zero but not actually zero.
(ii) x = 0 means that xis actually zero.
1.4.2 Meaning of the Phrase "x approaches infinity"

Suppose a variable x assumes in succession a series of values as
2 3
1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, ... i.e., 1, 10, 10 ,10 , •••• ,lOn ,...
It is clear that x is becoming larger and larger as n increases and can be made as
large as we please by taking n sufficiently large. This unending increase of x is
symbolically written as "x ---7 oo "and is read as "x approaches infinity" or "x tends to be
infinity''.
1.4.3 Meaning of the Phrase "x approaches a"
Symbolically it is written as "x ---7 a " which means that x is sufficiently close
to but different from the number a, from both the left and right sides of a i.e; x - a
becomes smaller and smaller as we please but x - a 0 . *
1.4.4 Concept of Limit of a Function

(i) By finding the area of circumscribing regular polygon
Consider a circle of unit radius which circumscribes a square (4-sided regular
polygon) as shown in figure (1 ).
The side of square is .Ji and its area is 2 square unit. It is clear that the area
of inscribed 4-sided polygon is less than the area of the circum-circle.
(Fig. I) 4-S ided Polygon (Fig.2) 8-Sided Polygon (Fig.3) 16-S ided Polygon
Bisecting the arcs between the vertices of the square, we get a inscribed
8-sided polygon as shown in figure 2. Its area is 2.Ji square units which is closer to
the area of circum-circle. A further similar bisection of the arcs gives an inscribed
16-sided polygon as shown in figure (3) with area 3.061 square units which is more
closer to the area of circum-circle.
It follows that as 'n', the number of sides of inscribed polygon increases,
the area of polygon increases and becoming nearer to 3.142 whi~h is the area of circle
of unit radius i.e., n:r 2 = n:(l) 2 = n:""' 3.142.
We express this situation by stating that the limiting value of the area of the
inscribed polygon is the area of the circle as n approaches infinity. i.e.,
Area of inscribed polygon ~ Area of circle
as n ~ oo
Thus are'.l of circle of unit radius= n: = 3.142 (approx.)
(ii) Numerical Approach
Consider the function f (x) = x 3
The domain of ft..x) is the set of all real numbers.
Let us find the limit of f (x) = x 3 as x approaches 2.
The table of values of f (x) for different values of x as x approaches 2 from

left and right is as follows:
from left of 2 - - - - - - - - 2 - - - - - - - - - from right of 2
x 1 1.5 1.8 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999 2.0001 2.001 2.01 2.1 2.2 2.5 3
f(x) =x3 1 I 3.375 5.832 6.859 7.8806 7.988 7.9988 8.0012 8.012 8.1206 9.261 l0.648 15.625 27
The table shows that, as x gets closer and closer to 2 (sufficiently close to 2),
from both sides, f (x) gets closer and closer to 8.
We say that 8 is the limit of f (x) when x approaches 2 and is written as:
f(x)-) 8 as x -7 2 or Lim(x
x-t2
3
) =8
1.4.5 Limit of a Function
Let a function f (x) be defined in an open interval near the number "a"
(need not at a). H, as x approaches "a" from both left and right side of ·"a", f (x)
approaches a specific number "L" then "L", is called the limit of f (x) as
x approaches a.
Symbolically it is written as: .

Lim
x-ta
f (x) =L read as "limit of j(x), as x -7 a, is L".
It is neither desirable nor practicable to find the limit of a function by

numerical approach. We must be able to evaluate a limit in some mechanical way.
The theorems on limits will serve this purpose. Their proofs will be discussed in
higher classes.
1.4.6 Theorems on Limits of Functions
Letfand g be two functions, for which Lim f(x)
x-ta
=L and Lim g(x) = M, then
x~a
Theorem 1: The limit of the sum of two functions is equal to the sum of their
limits.
Lim [f(x) + g(x)]=Lim f(x) + Limg(x)
x-t a x -ta x-t a
= L+ M
For example, Lim(x + 5) = Limx + Lim5=1+5 = 6.
x-tl x-tl x-tl
Theorem 2: The limit of the difference of two functions is equal to the difference of
their limits.
Lim[f (x) - g(x)] =Lim f (x) - Lim g(x) = L- M
x~a x~a x~a
For example, Lim(x-5) = Umx-Lim5 = 3-5 =-2

x~3 x~3 x~3
Theorem 3: If k is any real number, then

Lim[kf(x)] = k Lim f(x) =kl
x~a x~a
For example, Lim(3x) = 3 Lim(x) = 3(2) = 6

x~2 x~2
Theorem 4: The limit of the product of the functions is equal to the product of their
limits.
Lim lf(x)g(x)] =[Lim f (x)][ Lim g(x)] = LM
x~u x~a x~a
For example: ~!!:i1 (2x)(x + 4) =[ ~~"7 (2x) J [~~11( (x + 4) J= (2)(5) = 10

Theorem 5: The limit of the quotient_ofthe functions is equal to the quotient of their
limits provided the limit of the denominator is non-zero.
Lim(f(x)
x~a g(x)
)= f}:Jf(x)
Limg(x) M
=~. g(x) -I= 0, M *0
x~a
3x+4) Lim( 3 x+ 4 ) 6+4 IO

For example: Lim - - = x~ 2 = -- = - =2
.H2 ( x+3 Lim(x+3) 2+3 5
x~2
Theorem 6: Limitof [/(x)]", where n is an integer

Lim[J(x)]n=(Limf(x))n = Ln
x~a x~a
For example: Lim(2x-3) 3 =(Lim(2x-3))3=(5) 3 =125

x~4 x~4
We conclude from the theorems on limits that timits are evaluated by merely
substituting the number that x approaches into the function.
Example 1: If P(x) =a 11
11
x + a 11 _ 1x
11
-
1
+ .... + a 1x + a 0 is a polynomial function of
degree n, then show that Lim P(x)
X~C
= P(c)
Solution: Using the theorems on limits, we have
Lim P(x) =Lim (a 11 x + a 11 _ 1x"-1 + .... + a 1 x + a 0
11
)
x~c x~c
= an X-) C X-)C
1
Lim xn + an-t Lim x"- + .... + a 1 Lim x + Lim ao
X -) C X -) C
:. Lim P(x)
X -) C
= P(c)
1.5 LIMITS OF IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS

If, by substituting the number that x app~oaches into the function, we get ( %}
then we evaluate the limit as follows:
We simplify the given function by using algebraic technique of making
factors if possible and cancel the common factors. The method is explained in the
following important limits.
n n
1.5.1 Lim -x --a - , w here n is

- = na "i . an integer
. and a> 0
x-+a x-a
Case 1: Suppose n is a positive integer.
By substituting x ~a, we get ( ~ Jform. So we make factors as follows:
xn -a" ( x-a )(x_n-1 n-2 2 n-3

+ _.... n-1)
. _
un ____,_ _+ax
_ _ _+a__x __ _ _+a
____,_
:. Lim--- L
x-)a x-a x-)a x-a
=Lim (xn-I + ax 11- 2 + a 2 xn-3 + .... + a"- 1) (polynomial function)
X-)Q .
= an-I + a.an-2 + a2 .an-3 + .... + an-1

= an-1 + an-1 + an-1 + .... + an-1 (n terms)
= na n-1
Case II: Suppose n is a negative integer (say n = -m)_, where m is a positive
integer .
. xn -an x-m -a-m
Now---
x-a x-a
20 ('rrfculus and Analytic Geometry
= -=-!_(x'
x'"a'"
"x-a
-a'" I,
)
(a:;tO)
-_ --1
- . (ma m-1) , (By case 1)
am am
-m-1
=-ma , (n =-m)
xn -an
:. Lim = nan-l
x~a x-a
1.5.2 Lim -Jx+a -Fa= _i_

x-+O X 2.Ja
By substituting x : 0, we have ( ~ )form, so rationalizing the numerator.
.. Lim~ -fa =Lim (.{;+;-fa\(~ +fa\
x~o x x~O X ) -Jx+a +fa)
. x+a-a
= Ltm
+fa)
---===------=,,__
x~O x(-Jx+a
. - - -x- - -
= Lun
x~o x(,Jx+a +fa)
. 1
= Lim --===---=
x~O -Jx+a +Fa
1 1
= =
Fa+Fa 2Fa
Example 1: Evaluate
.) L. xi -1 . x-3
(i tm 2 (ii) Lim---
x~I X -X x~3 Fx-..J3
Solution:
.) L. x2 -1
(I tm 2
x~I X -X
(~ J form (By making factors)
2
. x -1
- = im
L" (x-l)(x+l) = Li"m x+ l = l+l = 2
.. L zm-
2
x~l X -X x~I x(x-1) x~l X 1
(ii) Lim x- 3 [_2._ lform (By making factors of x - 3)

x~3 Fx-J3 0)
L" x-3 L" (.,Jx +J3)(.,Jx -J3)
:. x.:71J Fx - J3 =x~"J .Jx -J3
=Lim
x~3
CFx +J3)
= J3+J3
= 2J3
1.5.3 Limit at Infinity
We have studied the limits of the functions f (x), f (x)g(x) and f (x),
g(x)
when x ~ c (a number).
Let us see what happens to the limit of the function f(x) if c is +oo or-oo
(limits at infinity) i.e., when x ~ +oo and x ~ -oo.
(a) Limit as x ~ +oo
1
Let f(x)=-,when (xi=O).
x
This function has the property that the value of f (x) can be made as close as
as we please to zero when the number x is sufficiently large. We express this
phenomenon by writing Lim ..!_ = 0
x~oo X
(b) Limit as x ~ - oo. This type of limits are handled in the same way as limits as
x~+oo.
1
1.e., Lim - = 0, where x :;t: 0
x~-oo X
The following theorem is useful for evaluating limit at infinity.

Theorem: Let p be a positive rational number. If xP is defined, then
Lfm !!:..._ = 0 and Lim !!:..._ = 0 ,where a is any real number.
x~+oo Xp x~-oo Xp
6 -5 -5
For example, Lim - =0 , Lim 1 Lim ----vz = 0
= x->--
x3
x->±= x->-- . '\/ x x
And . 1
L im-= 1
L"im--= 0
x->+= Vx x->+= xl/5
1.5.4 Method for Evaluating-the Limits at Infinity

In this case we first divide each term of both the numerator and the denominator by
the highest power of x that appears in the denominator and then use the above
theorem.
5x 4 -10x 2 +1
Example 2: Evaluate Lim - -3 - -2- -
x->+= - 3x + 10x + 50
Solution: Dividing up and down by x 3 , we get

4 2 3 oo-0+0
. 5x -10x +1 L" 5x-IO!x+llx
L im = im = =oo
x->+= - 3x 3 + 10x 2 + 50 x->+~ - 3+10 Ix+ 50 I x 3 -3+0+0
. 4x 4 -5x 3
Example3: Evaluate Lim
H-= 3x 5 + 2x 2 + 1
Solution: Since x < 0, so dividing up and down by (-x) 5 = -x 5 , we get
4 3 2
. 4x -5x
L im = L"im - -4/x+5/x
- - -3- - -
5
= O+O =O
x+= 3x 5 + 2x 2 + 1 H-- - 3 - 2 I x -1 I x -3-0-0
Example 4: Evaluate
. 2-3x . 2-3x
(i) L im --=== (ii) L im --::::===
H-= ~3+4x
2
H+= ~3+4x 2
Solution: (i) Here [;i = \x\ = -x as x< 0.

:. Dividing up and down by -x, we get
. 2-3x . -2/ x-3 0+3 3
Lim =Lim = =
.H-- ~3+4x 2 x+~ ~3/ x +4
2
.Jo+4 2
(ii) Here [;i = \x\ = x as x > 0.

:. Dividing up and down by x, we get
. 2-3x - 0-3 -3
Lim = L"im -r====
2/x-3
--
x->+~ ~3 + 4x 2 x->+- 2 ~3/ x + 4 .Jo+4 2
1.5.5 Lim (1+ !_

x-H"" ll)'f =e.
By the Binomial theorem, we have
(1 J" ~ 1
+: + n ( : } n(n ~
2 It)' + n(n - l~~n -2)(~ J + ...
= 1+1 +_!_(1-_!_)+ _!_(1-_!_)(1-3-)+ ...

2! n 3! n n
1 2 3
when n ~ oo , - , - , - , . . . all tend to zero.
n n n
:. . ( 1+-
Lim l)n= 1+1+-+-+-+-+
1 1 1 1 ...
x~~ n 2! 3! 4! 5!
= 1+1+0.5 + 0.166667 + 0.0416667 + ... = 2.718281...
As approximate value of e is=:= 2.718281.
: . Lim 1+ -1
x ~-
( n
J" = e .
Deduction Lim (1 + x )1/x =e
x~O
we know that Lim (1 + __!_) n =e (i)

x~~ n
Put n = _! then ln = x in (i)

x'
when x ~ 0, n ~ oo
As . Lim (1 + _! )n =e
n ~~ n
I
Lim (I+ x) 7 = e
x ~o
ax -1
1.5.6 Lim =loge a
x~O X
Put a x -I= y (i)
then a "' =1 + y
From (i) when x -7 0, y -7 0
. a x -l . y 1
. . L1m - - = Lim - - - - =Lim-----
x->O x y->0 log a (1 + y) y->o ; log a (1 + y)
. 1 1
= Lim - - - - , - = = loge a ·: Lim(l + y); = eJ
y->O loga (1 + y)lfy log a e ( y-?0
Deduction Lim
x->0
(ex - 1 J= loge e= 1.
X
-1 =log e a
a "" -
We know that Lim - J (1)
x->0 ( X
Put a= e in (1), we have

e x -1
Lim - - = loge e = 1
x->0 X
Important Results to Remember
(i) Lim (e x)= oo,

x->+<><>
(ii) Lim (e x )= Lim (
x --+-oo x--+-oo
:x)= 0,
e
(iii) Lim (E:_)= 0, where a is any real number.

x->±oo X
Example 5: Express each limit in terms of the number 'e'

3 )2n l
(a) Lim 1+- .(b) Lim (l+2h)h
x->+<><> ( n h->0
Solution:
(a) Observe the resemblance of the limit with Lim (1 + _!_

x->~ n
Y
J
=e
6 put m = n/3 J
(1 + ~)n n =Lim (1 + _]_)
2 111
:. Lim
x -++-oo x--Hoo [m ]
=e 6
when n _, oo,
[ m _,co
l
(b) Observe the resemblance of the limit with Lim (1 + x):r
X---l-0
= e,
2
:. Lim (1+2h)"hl = Lim [ (1+2h) 2Ih ] (put m = 2h, when h --7 0, m --7 0)
h-->0 h-->0
= Lim
m-+0
[c1 + m)f.i ] = e 2
1.5. 7 The Sandwitch Theorem
Letf, g and h be functions such that f (x) ~ g(x) ~ h(x) for all numbers x in
some open interval containing "c", except possibly at c itself.
If Lim f(x)
x-+c
=L and Lim h(x)
x-+c
= L, then Lim g(x)
x-+c
=L
Many limit problems arise that cannot be directly evaluated by algebraic
techniques. They require geometric arguments, We evaluate an important theorem.
1.5.8 If() is Measured in Radian, then Lim sin()= 1

e--.o .()
roof: To evaluate this limit, we apply a new technique. Take a positive acute e
.:entral angle of a circle with radius r =l. As shown in the figure, OAB represents a
sector of the circle.
Given joA/ = /oBj = 1 (radii of unit circle)
D
In rt
·
~OCB' sine= ',OB
Be,' =JBCJ (·:I OB I= 1)
In rt AOAD 'tan e J,:,' = IADI (-: IOA I=I)

In terms of (),the areas are expressed as: O r= 1
Produce OB to D so thatAD 1- OA. Draw BC 1- OA.

Join AB.
(i) Area of ~OAB = _!_ IOAllBCI = _!_ (l)(sin ()) = _!_sin()

2 2 2
(ii) Area of sector OAB =-1 r 2 () = -(1)(
1 () ) = -1()
(·: r = 1)
2 2 2
1 . 1 1
and (iii) Area of ~OAD =
2 2
-IOAllADI
= -(l)(tan e) = - tan e
2
From the figure we see that
Area of ~OAB <Area of sector OAB < Area of ~OAD
1 () 1 .
=> - sin () < - < - tan ()
2 2 2
As sin 8 is positive, so on division by _!_ sine , we get
2
(o<B<~J
() 1
1<--<--
sine cose
sinB sin()
i.e. , I>-->cosB or cos()<--< 1
e e
when () ~ 0, cos () ~ 1
Since sin() is sandwitched between 1 and a quantity approaching 1 itself.

()
So, by the sandwitch theorem, it must also approach 1. i.e., Lim sin()= 1
e.....o ()
Note: The same result holds for - n I 2 < e < 0.
. sin7B
Example 6: Evaluate: L zm - - e..... o . e
Solution: Observe the resemblance of the limit with Lim sin B = 1
e.....o ()
Let x = 7 () so that () = x /7
when e ~ 0 ' we have x ~ 0
. sin7() L" sinx . sinx
L zm - - = zm - - = 7 Lzm - - = (7)(1) = 7
O~ O () x ~O x/7 x ~O X
Example7: Evaluate: Lim l - cos ()

e.....o ()
Solution:
1- cos
---=---
e 1- cos e 1+ cos e
ll l
() () 1+ cos8
2
-- 1- cos2 8 - sin 8 . 8 [sin 8
- szn 1
8(l+cos8) - 8(I+cos 8) - -8- l+cos ()
L.
o_:n:f
[ 1 - cos
e
el =
L. . e
o:~ szn
L. sine
o_:~ -e- Lo:n;:
· [ 1
1+ cos e
l
= (0)(1)(-1-l
1+1
=0
EXERCISE 1.3
1. Evaluate each limit by using theorems of limits:
(i) Lim (2x+4) (ii) Lim (3x 2 - 2x + 4) (iii) Lim .Jx 2 + x + 4
x~3 x~l x~3
2x 3 +5x
(iv) Lim x.Jx 2 -4 (v) Lim (.Jx 3 +1 -.Jx 2 + 5) (vi) Lim
x~2 x~2 x~--2 3x-2
2. Evaluate each limit by using algebraic techniques.
(i) Lim
x 3 -x
(ii) Lim (3x' + 4x J (iii) Lim 2
x 3 -8
x~--1
x+l x~O X2 +X x~ 2 x +x-6
(iv) Lim
x~I
x 3 -3x 2 +3x-1
x 3 -x
(v) Lim ( x' +x'
x~--1 x2 -1 .
J (vi)
2x 2 -32
Lim4 3
x~ x -4x
2
..Jx-J2 .Jx+h -..Jx x" - .a"

(vii) Lim (viii) Lim (ix) Lim m m
x~2 x-2 h~O h x~a X -a
3. Evaluate the following limits:

. 0
L" sin7x L:i m
smx 1-cos8
(i) im-- (ii) -- (iii) Lim
x~o
x x~O x o~o sin8
L.i msin- x- L.i msinax . x
(iv) (v) -- (vi) Lim--
n-x
B--H: x~o sin bx x~O tanx
. 28
1-cos2x I-cos x L.i m
sm- -
(vii) Lim (viii) Lim . 2 (ix)
x~o x2 x~O sm x o~o 8
secx-cosx I-cos p8 tan 8- sin8
(x) Lim (xi) Lim (xii) Lim
x~O x o~o I-cosq8 o~o sin 3 8
4. Express each limit in terms of e:
(i) Lim 1+-

n~+~ n ( Ir (ii) Lim (1 +-'-)'
n~+oo n
n
(iii)
n~+~
( 'J
Lim I - -
n
(iv) Lim
n-Hoo
(1+-3n1)n (v) Lim
l l -H<»
(1 + 4n )n (vi) Lim (1+3xY
n-->0
2
l I
2
(vii) Lim (1+2x ) x' (viii) Lim (I-2h)h (ix) . ( -x- ) '
L im
<-->0 h-->0 x--> .. ll + X
elfx -1 elfx -1
(x) Lim Lim
,_,o I/ ,X <0 (xi) x-+0 I/ ,x > 0
e '+1 e ·' +1
1.6 CONTINUOUS AND DISCONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

1.6.1 One-Sided Limits
In defining Lim f (x), we restricted x to an open interval containing c i.e., we
x --+c
studied the behavior of f on both sides of c. However, in some cases it is necessary to

investigate one-sided limits i.e. , the left hand limit and the right hand limit.
(i) The Left Hand Limit
Li"! f (x) =Li read as the limit of f (x) is equal to Las x approaches c from
the left i.e., for all x sufficiently close to c, but less than c, the value of f(x) can be
made as close as we please to L.
(ii) The Right Hand Limit
Lim
\-+ c"'"
f(x) = M is read as the limit of f(x) is equal to M as x approaches c
from the right i.e., for all x sufficiently close to c, but greater than c, the value of
f(x) can be made as close as we please to M.
Note: The rules for calculating the left-hand and the right-hand limits are the same
as we studied to calculate limits in the preceding section.
1.6.2 Criterion for Existence of Limit of a Function
Lim f (x) = L if and only if Lim _ f(x) = Lim + f(x) = L.
.• -+c x~c x~c
Example 1: Determine whether Lim f (x) and Lim f (x) exist, when
.• -+2 x -+i
2x+1 if
Osxs2
f(x) = 7 -xx if 2sxs4
{
if 4sxs6
Solution:
(i)Lim f(x)=Lim (2x+1)=4+ 1 =5 (ii) Lim f(x)= Lim (7-x)=7-4=3
x->2- x ->2 x ->4- x ->4
Lim f ( x) = Lim (7 - x) = 7 - 2 = 5 Lim f ( x) = Lim ( x) = 4

x->2+ x->2 x ->4+ x->4
Since Lim f(x) =Lim f(x) = 5 Since Lim f(x) -:f. Lim f(x)
x --+2- x --+2+ x -+4- x -+4 +
:=:} Lim f (x) exists and is equal to 5. Therefore Lim f (x) does not exist.
x ->2 x->4
We have seen that sometimes Lim f(x) = f(c) and sometimes it does not and
x-+c
also sometimes f (c) is not even defined whereas Lim f (x) exists.
x ->c
1.6.3 Continuity of a Function at a Number

(a) Continuous Function
A function f is said to be continuous at a number "c" if and only if the
following three conditions are satisfied:
(i) f(c) is defined. (ii) Lim f(x) exists. (iii) Lim f(x) = f (c)
x-+c x-+c
(b) Discontinuous Function

If one or more of these three conditions fail to hold at "c", then the functionf
is said to be discontinuous at "c".
x 2 -1
Example 2: Consider the function f(x) = - -
x-1
Solution: Here f (1) is not defined
:=:} f(x) is discontinuous at 1.
2
Further Lim f(x) =Lim x -l =Lim ( x + 1 ) = 2 (finite)
x-+l x->1 X -1 x->1
Thereforef(x) is continuous at any other number x t:-1

Example 3: For f(x) = 3x 2 -5x+4, discuss continuity offatx = 1
2
Solution: Limf(x) =Lim (3x -5x+4)=3-5+4=2 ..
x->l x ->1
and f(1)=3-5+4=2
:=:} Lim f(x)
x -+1
=f(l)
f (x) is ~ontinuous at x =1
Example 4: Discuss the continuity of the function f (x) and g(x) at x = 3.

2
x - 9 if x :;t: 3 x2 - 9
(a) f(x)= x-3 (b) g(x)= if xt:3.
{ 6 if x=3 ~~~-x_-_3~~~~~~~~
y
Solution: (a) Given f(3) = 6
: . the function f is defined at x = 3. (4, 7)
2 (3, 6)
9
Now Lim f(x) =Lim x - (2. 5)
x -->3 x-->3 X - 3
=Lim (x+3)(x-3)
(0, 3)
x -->3 x-3
=Lim (x+3) = 6
x -->3
As Lim f(x) =6 = f (3)

x -->3 0 3
:. f (x) is continuous at x =3 Fig (i)
It is noted that there is no break in the graph. (See figure (i))
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
y
2
x -9
(b) g(x) = - - if x t: 3
x-3
As g(x) is not defined at x =3
~ g(x) is discontinuous at x = 3
(see figure (ii)) I

I
I
I
I
It is noted that there is a break in the .I
I
graph at x =3 0 3
x
Fig (ii)
Example 5: Discuss continuity off at 3, when

1
x ifx<3
f(x)= - '
{ 2x+ 1 , if 3 ~ x
Solution: A sketch of the graph off is

shown in the figure (iii).
We see that there is a break in the graph at the point when x = 3 .
y
Now f (3) = 2(3) +I = 7
Condition (i) is satisfied.
Lim f(x)= Lim (x-1)=3-1=2

x->r x->T
Lim f(x)= Lim (2x+l)=6+1=7

x-+3+ x-+3+
Lim f(x) "# Lim f(x)

x->T _._.3+
i.e., condition (ii) is not satisfied

3
:. Lim f(x) does not exist
x ->3
Hence f(x) is not continuous at x =3 Fig (iii)
EXERCISE 1.4
1. Determine the left hand limit and the right hand limit and then, find limit of the
following functions atx-)- c:
x 2 -9
(i) f(x)=2x 2 +x-5, c=l (ii) f(x)=--, c=-3
x-3
(iii) f(x) = jx-5j, c = 5
2. Discuss the continuity of f (x) at x = c:
2x+5 if x ~ 2
(i) f(x)= { . , c==2
4x+ 1 if x > 2
3x-lif x < 1
(ii) f (x) = 4 if x == 1 , c = 1
{
2x if x > 1
3x if x$-2
2
3. If f(x)= x -l if-2<x<2
{
3 if x~2
Discuss continuity at x = 2 and x = -2.

x+2 , x~-1
4. If f(x) ={ , find "c" so that Lim f (x) exists.
c+2 , x>-1 x-->-1
5. Find the values m and n, so that given function! is continuous at x = 3.

if x < 3
mx if x < 3
(i) f(x)={ : if x =3 (ii) f(x) ={ X 2 .f >
I X _ 3
-2x+9 if x > 3
6. If f(x)={~~;+-7. x;e2
k , x=2
Find value of k so thatf is continuous at x = 2.

1.7 Graphs
We now learn the method to draw the graphs of the Explicit Functions like
y=f(x),wheref(x)=a\ ex, logax, and logex.
1.7.1 Graph of the Exponential Function /(x) =ax

Let us draw the graph of y = 2x, here a= 2.
We prepare the following table for different values of x and f (x) near the origin:
x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
y=f(x)=2x 0.0625 0.125 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8 16
Plotting the points (.x, y) and joining them with smooth curve as shown in the
figure, we get the graph of y = 2 x • Y
From the graph of 2x, the characteristics of ~ :

1
- I- -s _.--~-t +--\
the graph of y =ax are observed as follows: Graph of" -+- _ .i- ~ -\
y=f(x)=2' I I I
=- +1- ~--4
1
If a> l, (i) ax is always +ve for allreal values of x. -r- =~:- _,

r-Lt \
L
(ii) ax increases as x increases. r J t-L I ~ ~

-
(iii) ax= 1whenx=0 _1 _ __i ~ _l _ J_ :_

1
t-t1
(iv)ax-?Oasx-7-oo I1 I x
-4 -3 -2 -.I 0 ,1 2 3 4
- -
-i1 - I
~
t - -
' - L
-+ _lt--~-
__ I
:
_
1 --
,
__L
I
~
1.7.2 Graph of the Exponential Function f (x) =ex

y
As the approximate value of 'e' is 2. 718 Graph of

I' =f(<) =e'
The graph of e' has the same characteristics and

properties as that of ax when a> 1 (discussed above).
We prepare the table of some values of x and
f (x) near the origin as follows:
,.,
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 I .)
y=f(x)=ex 0.05 0.135 0.36 1 2.718 7.38 20.07 .

I
Plotting the points (x, y) and 30111mg them with smooth curve as shown,
we get the graph of y = e'.
1.7.3 Graph of Common Logarithmic Functionf(x) =lg x.
J'
If x = lQ Y, then y =lg x
4 I
Now for all real values of y,1 OY > 0 ~ x > 0 ;~
This means lg x exists only when x > 0 1J
I
r
I I
x
~ Domain of the lg x is +ve real numbers. 4 6 8 ~o
; r
-I
-2 Graph of
rI
I I.
-3 y = /(x) = lgx
Note: lg x is undefined at x =0 . --4
For graph of/(x) =lg x, we find the values of lg x from the common logarithmic
table for various values of x > 0
Table of some of the corresponding values of x and f(x) is as under:
x -70 0.1 1 2 4 6 8 10 -7 +oo

y=f(x)=lgx -7-oo -1 0 0.30 0.60 0.77 0.90 1 -7 +oo
Plotting the points (x, y) and joining them with a smooth curve we get the graph as
shown in the figure.
1.7.4 Graphs of Natural Logarithmic Function f (x) = In x:

y
= lnx
A
The graph of f(x) has similar .

.
-- -
properties as that of the graph of f (x) = lg x. ~
e--~
I
By using the table of natural logarithm for 0 / x
various values of x, we can get the graph of .I

.,_ lJ1'1.ph4 ;r- -
y =In x as shown in the figure. -~
) }\x)= •/.D...K.
-
~
I I
1.7.5 Graphs of Implicit Functions

(a) Graph of the circle of the form x 2 + y 2 = a 2
Example 1: Graph the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4 (1)
Solution: The graph of the equation x 2 + y 2 = 4 is a circle of radius 2, centered
at the origin and hence there are vertical lines that cut the graph more than once. This
can also been seen algebraically by solving (1) for yin terms of x.
y =±-J4-x 2
The equation does not define y as a function of x.

For example, if x = I, then y =±J3.
Hence, (l,J3) and (l,-J3) are two points on the circle and vertical line passes
through these two points.
We can regard the circle as the union of two semi-circles.
y = .J4- x2 and y = --J 4- x2
Each of which defines y as a function of x.
y y y
__.---,"c_o........
2) (I, .../3 l (-1, '13) 0, 2)
(!, '13)
(--./3, I} (-./3, I) (-.../3 ,I) (-./3 ,I)
x'--~---+----+---+X x'-----t----- x x' x
0 t-2,0) 0 (2, 0) (-2,0) 0 (2, 0)
y' (-.../3 ,-1) (-./3, -I} (--./3. -1) (-./3' -I}
(I, --./3)
(0,-2)
y' y'
Graph ofy = ..../4-x 2 Graph ofy = -..../4-x 2 Graph of x 2 + y 2 = 4
We observe that if we replace (x, y) in tum by (-x, y), (x,-y) and (-x,-y),
there is no change in the given equation. Hence, the graph is symmetric with respect
to the y-axis, x-axis and the origin.
x =0 implies y
2
=4 => y = ±2
x = 1 implies y = 3
2
=> y = ± .J3
x =2 implies y 2 = 0 => y =0
By assigning values of x, we find the values of y. So we prepare a table for some
values of x and y satisfying equation (1).
Plotting the points (x, y)and connecting them with a smooth curve as shown in the
figure, we get the graph of a circle.
y
x2 y2
(b) The graph of ellipse of the form - 2
+- 2 = 1 (0, 3)
a b
x2 y2
Example 2: Graph - 2 + - 2 = 1 i.e., 9x 2 + 4 y 2 = 36
2 3
Solution: We observe that if we replace (x, y) in tum x'----------x
<- >
2• 0 (2,0)
by (-x, y), (x,-y) and (-x,-y), there is no change in

the given equation. Hence, the graph is symmetric
with respect to the y-axis, x-axis and the origin. (0,-3)
y'
y =0 implies x
2
=4 => x =±2
x2 y2
Graphof-+-=1
x =0 implies y
2
=9 => y =± 3 22 32
Therefore, x-intercepts are 2 and -2 and y-intercepts are 3 and -3.

By assigning values of x, we find the values of y. So, we prepare a table for some
values of x and y satisfying equation (1) .
x 0 1 2 -1 -2
y ±3 ±ff 0 ±ff 0
Plotting the points (x, y), connecting these points with a smooth curve as shown in
the figure, we get the graph of an ellipse.
1.7.6 Graph of Parametric Equations

(a) Graph the curve that has the parametric equations
Example 3: Graph x = t2 , y =t , -2 ~ t ~ 2 (3)
Solution: For the choice of t in [-2, 2], we y
prepare a table for some values of x and y satisfying

the given equation.
t -2 -1 0 I 2
x 4 1 0 1 4
Graph of x = t 2, y = t
y -2 -1 0 1 2
We plot the points (x, y), connecting these points with a smooth curve shown
in figure, we obtain the graph of a parabola with equation y2 = x.
Unit 1: Functions an.d Limits 37
1. 7. 7 Graphs of Discontinuous Functions
Example 4: Graph the function defined by y = {:-I when 0 $ x $ 1

when 1 < x $ 2
Solution: The domain of the function is 0 $ x $ 2
For 0 $ x $ 1 , the graph of the function is that of y =x

and for 1 < x $ 2 , the graph of the function is that of y = x -1
We prepare the table for some values of x and y in 0 $ x $ 2 satisfying the
equations y =x and y =x-1
x 0 0.5 0.8 1.5 1.8 2
y 0 0.5 0.8 1 0.5 0.8 1
.9
.8 Graph of
.7 f(x) = x
.6 Graph of
.5 f(x) =x-1
.4
.3
.2
.I
0 .I .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 I I.I 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2
Plot the points (x, y). Connecting these points we get two straight lines, which
is the graph of a discontinuous function.
x 2 -9
Example 5: Graph the function defined by y = , x:;t3
x-3
Solution: The domain of the function consists of all real numbers except 3.
When x =3, both the numerator and denominator are zero, and __Q_ is undefined.
0
x 2 -9 (x-3)(x+3) .
Simplifying we get y =- - = = x + 3 provided x :;; 3 . We prepare a
x-3 x-3
table for different values of x and y satisfying the equation y = x + 3 and x * 3 .
7
y
(4, 7)
(3, 6)
Plot the points (x, y) and joining these
(2, 5) I
points we get the graph of the function which is a I
I
straight line except the point (3, 6), I
I
I
(0, 3) I
The graph is shown in the figure. This is a I
I
broken straight line with a break at the point (3, 6). I
I
I
I
0 3
1.7.8 Graphical Solution of the Equations

Example 6: Graph (i) cos x =x · (ii) sinx = x (iii) tan x = x
We solve the equation cos x =x and leave the other two equations as an
exercise for the students.
Solution: To find the solution of the equation cos x = x,
we draw the graphs of the two functions
y = x and y =cos x ; - 7r $; x :-:;; 7r
Scale for graphs
Along x-axis, length of side of small square = ~radian

6
Along y-axis, length of side of small square = 0.1 unit
Two points (0, 0) and ( ~ ,1) lie on the line y = x

Unit l: Functions and Limits 39
We prepare a table for some values of x and y in the interval - 7r ~ x ~ n satisfying

the equation y = cos x .
x -n -sy; -2113' -ri -~ -% 0 % ;{ ii 2;{ s3 7r
y=cosx -1 -.87 -.5 0 - .5 .87 1 .87 .5 0 -.5 -.87 -1
x' --+----<-----+------<-----+--1--+----+-_._-+-----+--_._. x
-180' -150' -120'
-.4
-.5
-.6
-.7
-.8
- .9
-1
y'
The graph shows that the equations y = x and y =cos x intersect at only
43
where x = n radian= 0.73
180
43
Check:cos( rr l=cos43° =0.73
180 )
Note: Since the scales along the two ax.es are different so the line y =xis not equally
inclined to both the axes.
EXERCISE 1.5
1. Draw the graphs of the following equations:
xi y2
(i) xi+ Yi= 9 (ii) -+-=1
16 4
(iii) y = e2x (iv) Y = 3x
2. Graph the curves that has the parametric equations given below
-3 ~ t ~ 3
2
(i) x=t ' y = t ' where "t" is a parameter
(ii) x = t -1 ' y = 2t -1 ' -1 < t < 5 where "t" is a parameter
(iii) x = sece' y =lane where "O"is a parameter
3. Draw the graphs of the functions defined below and find whether they are
continuous.
x-1 if x<3
(i) y = 2x + 1 if x~3
(ii)
x+3 if x:;t:3
(iii)
y= 2 if x =3
x 2 -16
(iv) y= 'x:;t:4
x-4
4. Find the graphical solution of the following equations:

(i) x= sin2x
x
(ii) -=cosx
2
(iii) 2x = tanx
Unit 2: Differentiation 41
Differentiation
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The ancient Greeks knew the concepts of area, volume and centroids etc.
which are related to integral calculus. Later on, in the seventeenth century, Sir Isaac
Newton, an English mathematician (1642 - 1727) and Gottfried Whilhelm Leibniz, a
German mathematician, (1646 - 1716) considered the problem of instantaneous rates
of change. They reached independently to the invention of differential calculus. After
the development of calculus, mathematics became a powerful tool for dealing with
rates of change and describing the physical universe.
Dependent and Independent Variables
In differential calculus, we mainly deal with the rate of change of a dependent
variable with respect to one or more independent variables. Now, we first explain the
terms dependent and independent variables.
We usually write y =f(x) wheref(x) is the value off at x E D1 (the domain of
the functionf). Let us consider the functional relation y = f(x) = x2 + 1 (A)
For different values of x E ~· f(x) or the expression x + 1 assumes different
2
values. For example; if x = 1, 1.5, 2 etc., then

f(l) = (1) + 1 = 2, f(l.5) = (l.5) + 1 = 2.25 + 1 = 3.25
2 2
f(2) = (2) + 1 = 4 + 1 = 5
2
We see that for the change 1.5 - 1 = 0.5 in the value of x, the corresponding
·hange in the value of y or f(x) is given by
f(l.5) - f(l) = 3.25 - 2 = 1.25
It is obvious that the change in the value of the expression i + 1 (or f(x)) depends
upon the change in the value of the variable x. As x behaves independently, so we call
it the independent variable. But the behaviour of y or f(x) depends on the variable x,
sr' ve call it the dependent variable.
The change in the value of x (positive or negative) is called the increment of x
and is denoted by the symbol 8x (read as delta x). The corresponding change in the
dependent variable y or f(x) for the change & in the value of x is denoted by 8y or
8f = f(x + 8x) - f(x). Usually the small changes in the values of the variables are
taken as increments of variables.
Note: In this chapter we shall discuss functions of the formy= f(x) wherex E D1 and
is called an ii:idependent variable while y is called the dependent variable.
42 Calcul11s and Analytic Geometry
2.1.1 Average Rate Of Change

Suppose a particle (or an object) is moving in a straight line and its positions
(from some fixed point) after times t and t 1 are given by s(t) and s(t 1), then the
distance traveled in the time interval t 1 - t where t 1 > t is s(t 1) - s(t).
s(t 1) - s(t)
and the difference quotient t, - t
(i)
represents the average rate of change of distance over the time interval t 1 - t.
If t 1 - t is not small, then the average rate of change does not represent an
accurate rate of change near t. We can elaborate this idea by a moving particle in a
straight line whose position in metres after t seconds is given by
s(t) = t2 + t
We construct a table for different values oft as under:
Interval Average rate of change (i.e., average speed)
s{52 - s{32 {25 + 52 - {9 + 32 30-12
t = 3 secs to t = 5 secs 5-3 = 2 = 2 =9
s{42 - s{32 {16 + 42-12 20-12

t = 3 secs to t = 4 secs 4-3 = 1 = 1 = 8
(49 7J 15
t = 3 secs to t = 3.5 secs s(3.52 - s{32 4+2-12 4
3.5-3 = 0.5 = -0.5 = 7.5
We see that none of average rates of change approximates to the actual speed
of the particle after 3 seconds.
Now, we construct a table by talcing small intervals.
Interval Average rate of change
2
{{3.1} + 3.1}- 12 12.71 - 12 - 0.71 - 7 1
t=3secstot=3.1 secs
3.1-3 = 0.1 - 0.1 - .
2
{{3.01} + 3.0l}-12 12.0701-12 - 0.0701 - 7 01
t =3 secs to r = 3.0lsecs = - O.Ql - .
3.01 - 3 O.Ql
2
{{3.001} + {3.001}} - 12 12.007001 - 12 0.007001
t =3 secsto t =3.001 secs = = =7.001
3.001- 3 0.001 0.001
The above table shows that the average rate of change after 3 seconds
approximates to 7 metre/sec, as the length of the interval becomes very very small. In
other words, we can say that the speed of the particle is 7 metre/sec, after 3 seconds.
If t 1= t + Bt
then the difference quoteint (i) becomes
s(t + Bt) - s(t)
Bt
which represents the average rate of change of distance over the interva1 Ot and
Jim s(t + Bt) - s(t) , provided this limit exists, is called the instantaneous
Bt--7 0 Bt
rate of change of distance 's' at time t.
2.1.2 Derivative of a Function
Let f be a real valued function continuous in the interval (x, x ,) ~ Dr (the
domain of/), then
. . f(x 1) - f(x)
difference
. quotient x,-x (i)
represents the average rate of change in the value of/with respect to the change x 1- x
in the value of independent variable x.
If x 1 approaches to x, then
lim f(x,) - f(x)
Xl--7X X1 -X
provided this limit exists, is called the instantaneous rate of change off with respect
to x at x and is written as/'(x).
If x 1 = x + & i.e., x 1 -x = &, then the expression (i) can be expressed as
f(x + &) - f(x)
(ii)
&
and
lim f(x + &) - f(x)
(iii)
&--70 &
provided the limit exists, is defined to be the derivative of f (or differential
coefficient of/)with respect to x at x and is denoted by f '(x) (read as ''.{-prime of x").
The domain of/' consists of all x for which the limit exists. If x E D1 andf '(x ) exists,
then f is said to be differentiable at x. The process of finding f' is called
difTerentiation.
Notation for Derivative

Several notations are used for derivatives. We have used the functional
syrnbolf'(x), for the derivative ofjatx. For the function y = f(x).
y + oy = f(x + ox)
where oy is the increment of y (change in the value of y) corresponding to ox,
the change in the value of x, then
~=~+~-JW ~
Dividing both the sides of (iv) by ox, we get
oy f(x + ox) - f(x)
(v)
ox = ox
Taking limit of both the sides of (v) as ox~ 0, we have
oy . f(x + ox) - f(x)
lim - = hm · (vi)
ox~O Sx ox~O ox
. oy ·d d by dy dy
11m s:.. IS enote dx , so ( VI') is
. wntten
. as dx = J'(x).
ox~O w:
dy
Note: The symbol dx is used for the derivative of y with respect to x and here it is
not a quotient of dy and dx. ix is also denoted by y'.
Now we write, in a table the notations for derivative of y = f (x) used by

different mathematicians:
Name of Mathematician Leibniz Newton Lagrange Cauchy
dy df
Notation used for derivative or f(x) J'(x) Df(x)
dx dx
If we replace x + ox by x and x by a, then the expression f(x + ox) - f(x)

becomes f(x) - f(a) and the change ox in the independent variable, in this case, is x - a.
So the expression f(x + fu) - f(x) is written as f(x) - f(a) (vii)
' Sx x-a
Taking the limit of the expression (vii) when x ~a, gives
lim f(x) - f(a)
x~a x-a = f'(a). Here, j'(a)
is called the derivative off at x =a.
2.2 FINDING f '(x) FROM DEFINITION OF DERIVATIVE

Given a functionf, f'(x) if it exists, can be found by the following four steps:
Step I: Findf(x + 8.x)
Step II: Simplify f(x + 8x) -f(x)
Step III: Divide f(x + 8.x) - f(x) by 8x to get f(x + ::)-f(x) and simplify it.
F d lim f(x + 8.x) -f(x)

Step IV: m 8x~O 8x ·
The method of finding derivatives by this process is called differentiation by
definition or by ab-initio or from first principles.
Example 1: Find the derivative of the following functions by definition
(a) f(x) =c (b) f(x) =x 2
Solution: (a) For f(x) =c

(i) f(x + 8.x) =c
(ii) f(x + 8.x) - f(x) = c - c = 0
f(x + 8.x) - f(x) = _Q_ =
(iii) 0
8x 8x
Iim f(x + 8.x) - f(x) _ lim
(iv)
8.x~O 8x - 8x~O
(0) =0
Thus, f'(x) = 0, that is, fx (c) = 0
(b) (i) f(x + 8.x) = (x + 8x)2

(ii) f(x + 8.x) - f(x) = (x + 8x) 2 -x2 = x2 + 2x 8x + (8.x)2 -x2
= 2x 8x + (8x)2 = (2x + 8.x) 8.x.
f (x + 8.x)-f(x) (2x + 8.x) 8x _ 2x ~- i-

(iii) 8x = - 8x - + tu , (8.x 0)
lirn f(x + 8.x) - f(x) = lim (2x + 8.x) = 2x

(iv) 8.x~O 8x
8x~O
i.e., f'(x) = 2x
Calculus and Analytic Geometry
46
Example 2: Find the derivative of ~ at x =a from first pnnciples.

Solution: If f(x)=~ then
(i) f(x + bx) = --Jx + bx and
(ii) f(x + bx) - f(x) = --J x + 8x --fx
(~--{x) (~+-{x) rationalizing the)

= ~x +bx +-{x
( numerator
(x+ 8x)-x
= --Jx +bx+ -{x
8x (I)
i.e., f(x + 8x) - f(x) = --Jx + 8x + -{x
(iii) Dividing both sides of (I) by 8.t, we have
f(x + bx) - f(x) _ & _ -~1 (·: s: + O

-~ , uXr )
Ox - 8x ( \JX + & +-{x) - \JX +Bx +-{x
(iv) Taking limit of both the sides as 8x ~ 0, we have
limf(x +bx) - f(x) = lim ( 1 l
8x~O 8x 8x~O "'1x+8x+-{x}
' J 1
i.e., .f (x) = -{x +-{x = 2
-{x ' (x > 0)
1
and J'(a) = 2\/a
or
Putting x =a in f(x) =-{x, gives f(a) = Ja
So, f(x) - f(a) = -{x - Ja
Using alternative form for the definition of a derivative, we have
f(x)-f(a)
=
-JX-Ja
x-a x-a
(-{x--{;i) <-fx+-{;r)
= (rationalizing the numerator)
(x - a) (-{x +-{;i)
x-a l
= (x _ a)(-{x + j{i) = -{x + Ja ' (x ¥=a) (II)
Taking limit of both the sides of (II) as x -7 a, gives

. f(x) - f(a) L. 1 1
l Im - Im -
x-7a x-a - x-7a -{x+-{;z - -{;z+-{;z
• I 1
1.e., f (a) = 2-{;z .
Example 3: If y = ~ , then find : at x = -1 by ab-initio method.
1
Solution: Here, y = i2 ' so (i)
1
Y + 8v
J
-- (x + 8x)2 (ii)
Subtracting (i) from (ii), we get

1 _ _!_ _ i2 - (x + 8x) 2
8y = (x + &)2 i2 - i2 (x + fu)2
(x + (x + 8x)) (x- (x + 8x))
= r(x + 8x) 2 .
(2x + 8x) (- 8x) - &(2x + 8x)

= r(x + 8x)2 = r(x + fu) 2
(iii)
Dividing both sides of (iii) by 8x, we have

8y - &(2x + 8x) - (2x + 8x)
(8i=O)
fu = r(x + 8x)2 . 8x = r(x + &)2
Taking limit as 8x -7 0, gives
. fu L. -(2x+8x)
L Im O Jffi r(
= &-70 s:: ..)2
Ox-70 x x+w.
-(2x)
= rcr) (Using quotient theorem of limits)
dy -2 dy 1· -2 -2 = 2.
i.e., =7 and
dx dx x=-l = (-1)3 = -1
dy 1. . dy
Note: The v al ue o f dx atx = - is wntten as dx
I x=-I
2
Example 4: Find the derivative of x3 and also calculate the value of derivative at
x=8.
2
Solution: Let, f(x) = x 3 . Then
2
f(x + fu) = (x + 8x) 3
and
2 2 4 2 2 4
1 1 ( (x+8.x)3 -x3) [ (x+8x)3 + (x+ 8x)3 . x3 + x3]
f(x + fu) - f(x) = (x + 8x)3 .- x 3 = 1 1 1 1
(x + fu) 3 + (x + fu) 3 . x3 + x3
2 2
[ (x + fu)3]3 - ( x3)3 (x + fu) 2 -x2
= 4 2 2 4 = 4 2 2 4
(x + 8x)3 + (x + fu)3 . x3 + x3 (x + &)3 + (x + 8.x)3 . x3 + x3
1.e., ft..x +Bx) - ft..x) = 48x(2.x +
3 3
2 4 0x1 (i)
(x + 8x) + (x + 8x) . x3 + x3
Dividing both the sides of (i) by 8.x, we get
t f{x + 8.x)- f{x) 2x + 8x
fu = 4 22 4 (ii)
(x + 8x)3 + (x + fu)3 . x3 + x3
Taking limit of both sides of (ii) as 8x ~ 0, we get
2x 2x 2
f'(x) = 1 1 1 1 = -4 = - I
x3 + x3 . x3 + x3 3x3 3x3
2 1
and j'(8) = I - -
3. (8)3 - 3 .
Example S: Find the derivative of x 3 + 2x + 3.

Solution: Let, y = x3 + 2x :- 3, then
(i) y + By = (x + fu) 3 + 2(x + fu) + 3
and (ii) By = [(x + fu) 3 + 2(x + fu) + 3] - [r + 2x + 3]
= [(x + fu) 3 -x3] + 2[(x + fu)-x] + (3- 3)
= [(x + fu) - x][(x + fu) 2 + (x + 8x) x + x2] + 28.x
By _ 8.x[(x + fu) 2 + (x + fu) x + x2] + 2fu
(iii) fu - fu
= 2
(x + fu) + (x + fu) x + x2 + 2
8y . 1
(iv) Lim 8.x = Lim 2
[(x + 8.x) + (x + 8x) x + x + 2]
8x ---7 0 8.x ---7 0
= (x) 2 + (x) x + x 1 + 2
. dy 3 2
i.e., dx (x + 2x + 3) = 3x + 2
2.2.1 Derivation of xn where n E Z.

' (a) We find the derivative of xn when n is positive integer.
!.
(a) Let y = xn. Then
y + 8y = (x + 8xY
and = (x + 8.x)" -xn
8y
Using the binomial theorem, we have
8y = [xn + nx"-1. 8.x + n(~i. 1) xn-1 (8.x)1 + ... + (8.x)"J - x"
i.e., 8y = 8.x [ nxn-I + n(n1_2_- 1) xn- 1. 8x + ... + (8.xY- 1J (i)
Dividing both sides of (i) by 8.x, gives

8y
s: = nxn-1+ n(n-1)"
12 xn-1. 8.x + ... + (fuy•-1 (ii)
ux -
Note that each term on the right hand side of (ii) involves 8.x except the first
term, so taking the limit as 8.x ---7 0, we get : = nx"-1
d
As y =x", so dx (~) = n. x"-1•
Note: If n = 0, then the formula ix (x") = nx"- 1 reduces to ix (x 0) = Ox 0 - 1 = 0 i.e.,
ix (1) = 0 which is correct by example 1 part (a).
(b) Let y =~where n is a negative integer.

Let n = - m (m is a positive integer). Then
y = x
-m
= xm
.l. (i)
1
and Y +8vJ -- (x+ 8xr (ii)
Subtracting (i) from (ii), gives

ov - 1 1 - x"' - (x +ox)'"
.T - (x + Ox)'" x"' - .x'" (x + ox)'"
IS: •• m(m-1) n2 S:~2 s:_.m)
x"'-(x"'+mx"'- Ut+ l.2- .x'- (Ut) + ... +(Ut)
= x"' (x + fu)'"
(expanding (x + fu)'" by binomial theorem)
-&(m.x'"-1 + m(~ 1) x"'-2 Ox+ ... + co.xr-1)
= x"'. (x +Ox)'"
§}: -1 ( n_:_ I m(m-1) i-2 m-1)
and Ox = x"' (x + Ox)'" . m.x' + l.2- x" . 0x + ... + (0x)
Taking limit when Ox -7 0, we get
dy -1
d'C = x"' . x"' (m.x'"-1) (all terms containing ox, vanish)
['.' -m=n]
d .
or dx (xn) = ~-1
So, far we have proved that ! [x"] = 1
nx"- , if nE Z
The above rule holds if ne Q - Z
For example -d ( x ~)
3 2 ~-I
=-x 3
=- 2
dx 3 ~
3x 3
The proof of !!-.._ [xn] = nx"-1 when n E Q - Z is left as an exercise.
dx
[ Note that !!-.._ ~n] = nxn-I is called power rule.

dx
EXERCISE 2.1
l
1. Find by definition, the derivatives w.r.t 'x' of the following functions defined
as:
1 1 1
(i) 2x2 + 1 (ii) 2- .,Jx (iii) (iv) (v)
.,Jx x3 x-a
2
(vi) x(x- 3) (vii) (viii) (x + 4) 113 (ix) x
3/2
(x) x
512
x4
(xi) xm, m EN (xii) -1,.mEN (xiii) x4-0 (xiv) [ 100

xm
2. Find dy from first principles if

dx
1
(i) ~x+ 2 . ' (ii)
~x +a
2.2.2 Differentiation of Expressions of the Types

1
(ax+b)"and , .n=l,2,3, .. ·.
(ax+br
1
We find the derivatives of (ax + b)" and from the first principles
(ax+b)"
when ne N.
Example 6: Find from definition the differential coefficient of (ax + b)" w.r.t. 'x'
when n is a positive integer.
Solution. Let y = (ax+ b)", (n is a positive integer)
Then y+oy = [a(x+Bx)+b]" = [(ax+b)+aox]"
Using the binomial theorem we have
y +Oy =(ax+ b)" +(;}ax+ b)-' (a&)+ (:)(ax+ b)-' (a&)'+···+ (a&)'
Oy = (y +liy)-y = (;}ax+ b)-' (a&)+ (: )<ax+bi-'.a'(&)' +···+a•(&)"
ru:[(; }ax+b)-'. a+(: )<ax+br'.a'&+··-+a" (&)-~
=
So, : = (; )<ax+b)-' a+(: }ax+ b)-'. a'&+··· +a"(&)-'

Taking limit when Ox~ Q we rave
1Im
.
o.x~o
~
s::
ox=
Im
1·ox~O [(n)
1
(ax+b)
n-1
.a+ (n)
2
. n-2
(ax+b)
2 n
.a 8x+···+a (Ox)
n-1
J
or 4J!.
dx = ( n)
1 (ax+b)
n-1
.a [All other terms tends to zero when ox ~ 0]
Thus, fx (ax+ b)" = n(ax + b)"- 1

• a
Example 7: Find from first principles, the derivative of (ax: hr w.r.t. 'x', when n is
a positive integer.
Solution. Let y = (ax: br (when n is a positive integer). Then
y+ oy= 1 and
[a(x +Ox)+ b]"
oy -y + oy - Y - i - I
[(ax+ b) + a&x]" (ax+ b)"
or oy = (ax + b r-
(ax + b + a8x r
[(ax+ b) + a8x]" (ax+ b)"
= 1
[(ax+ b) + a8x]" (ax+ b)"
x [(ax+ b) + aox]" - (ax+ b)"] (I)
Using the binomial theorem 1 we simplify the expression

[(ax+ b) +a ox]"- (ax+ b)", that is,
[(ax+ b) +a ox]"- (ax+ b)" = [(ax+ b)" + (7J (ax+ bY- 1
(a ox)
+ (~Jcax + bY- 2
•
2
a (8x)2 + ... +(a ox)"] - (ax+ b)"
=(7Jcax + b)n-I. a ox+ (~Jcax + b)"- 2

•
2
a (ox)2 + ... +an (ox)"
=Ox [( ~ Jcax + b)',_ . a+ ( ~ Jcax + b)n-

1
a Ox+···+ an (Ox)n-1]
2 2
Now (I) becomes
oy = - [(ax+ b) + a~xr (ax+ b)" [( ~ Jcax + bY- 1

• a
+ ( ~ J<ax + b),,_ • a ox+···+ an (oxr-1]

2 2
and oy = 1 [( n l ( b)n-1
ox -[(ax+b)+a&x]"(ax+br 1) ax+ .a
+( ~ J<ax + b)Tt- a2 ox+ ... + an c&xr-

2
•
1
]
Using the product and sum rules of limits when 8x -7 O, we have
·: lim oy = dy and
~ 1
dx = - (ax+ b)" (ax+ b)" •
(n\
1 ) (ax+ b)',_ ·a
1 ch--+o
all other terms containing
ox dx
8x vanish
EXERCISE 2.2
1. Find from first principles, the derivatives of the following expressions w.r.t.
their respective independent variables:
3 2
(i) (ax+ b) (ii) (2x + 3)5 (iii) (3t + 2)-
1 1
(iv) (ax+ b)5 (v) (az - b)1
2.3 THEOREMS ON DIF'FERENTIATION
We have, so, far, proved the following two formula:
d
1. dx (c) = 0 i.e., the derivative of a constant function is 7.el"O.
2. fx (x") = n r power formula (or rule) when n is any rational number.
1
Now we will prove other important formulas (or rules) which are used to
determine derivatives of different functions efficiently. Henceforth, in all subsequent
discussion,f, g, h etc. all denote functions differentiable at x, unless stated otherwise.
3. Derivative of y =cf (x)
Proof: Let y = c f(x). Then
(i) y + Oy = c f(x + Ox) and
(ii) y + Oy-y = c f(x +Ox) - c f(x)
or oy = c [f(x +ox) - f(x)] (factoring out c)
(iii) ()y = c (f(x +Ox) - f(x))
ox l ox
Taking limit when Ox-70
(i) y + Oy = c f(x + fu) and
(ii) y + Oy-y = c f(x + fu) - cj(x)
oy = c[f(x +Ox) -f(x)] (factoring out c)
by_ (/(x + fu) - f(x))
(iii) OX-Cl Ox
Taking limit when &-70
(iv) Lim oy = Lim [c.f(x+&x)-f(x)]=c. Lim f(x+&x)-f(x)
ox-tO ox fu-tO &x . fu-tO &x
A constant factor can be taken out from a limit sign.
Thus, dy = cf'(x),that is.[cf(x)]' =cf'(x)
dx
d d
or dx [cftx)] = c dx lflx)]
Example 1: Calculate fx (3}J

Solution: d( i) = 3 dxd(i)
dx 3x3 x3 (Using Formula 3)
= 3x~ }-i = 4) (Using power rule)

4. Derivative of a sum or a difference of functions
Iff and g are differentiable at x, then f + g, f - g are also differentiable at x and
, , . d d d
[ftx) + g(x)] = f (x) + g'(x), that is, dx [f(x) + g(x)] = dx [f(x)] + dx [g(x)]
,
Also [ftx)- g(x)] =f ,(x)-g'(x), . d
that is, dx [ftx) - g(x)]
d
=dx d
[f(x)] - dx [g(x)]
Proof: Let </J(x) = f(x) + g(x). Then

(i) </J(x + bx) = f(x + bx) + g(x + bx) and
(ii) </J(x + bx)-<jJ(x) = f(x + fu) + g(x +bx) - [f(x) + g(x)]
= [f(x+fu) - f(x)] + [g(x+fu) - g(x)] (rearranging the terms)
. . .) </J(x + bx) - </>(,x) f(x + fu) - f(x) g(x + fu) - g(x)
( 111
fu = fu + fu
Taking the limit when fu~O
. </J(x + fu) - </J(x) L. [J(x + fu) - f(x) g(x + &x) - g(x)J

(iv) L im fu = im &x + &x
fu~O fu~O
. f(x + &x) -f(x) . g(x +Ox) - g(x)

= Lim &x + Lzm &x
fu~O fu~O
(The limit of a sum is the sum of the limits)
1
</J (x) = /(x) + g'(x), that is [f(x) + g(x)]' = /(x) + g'(x)
d d d
or dx [f(x) + g(x)] = dx [f(x)] + dx [g(x)]
The proof for the second part is similar.

Note: Sum or difference formula can be extended to find derivative of more than two
functions.
Example 2: Find the derivative of y = ]__ x 4 + ~ x 3 + __!__ x 2 + 2x + 5 w .r.t. x.

4 3 2
3 4 2 3 1 2
Solution. y =-x +-x +-x +2x+5
4 3 2
Differentiating with respect to x, we have
dy
dx
=_!l:_
dx
[l4 x
4 + ~ x 3 .+ .!. xi+ 2x + 5] - _!l:_
3 2 - dx 4
(l x l) 4 + _!l:_ (~ x 3 + _!l:_ (.!.xi + _!l:_ (2x) + _!l:_ (5)
dx 3
l) dx 2
l) dx dx
(Using formula 4)
3 d 2 d 1 "d d .
= 4 dx(x4 ) +3 dx (x3) +z dx(r) +2dx (x) +O (Usmg formula 3 and 1)
3 2 1
= 4(4x 4 1 3 1
- )+3(3x - ) +z(2X2- 1) +2(1.x 1- 1) (Bypowerformula)
= 3x3 + 2X2 + x + 2
Example 3: Find the derivative of y = (x 2 + 5) (x 3 + 7) with respect to x.
2 3 5 3 2
Solution: y = (x + 5) (x + 7) = x + 5x + 7 x + 35
Differentiating with respect to x, we get
dy =~[x 5 +5x 3 +7x 2 +35]
dx dx
= :Jx (x 5) +5 :Jx (x 3) +7 :Jx (x 2) + :Jx (35) (Using formulas 3 and 4)
= 5x 5- 1 +5 x 3x 3- 1 +7 x 2x 2-1 +O
= 5x 4 +15x 2 +14x
~xample 4: Find the derivative of y = (2fx + 2) (x - Fx) with respect to x.
;olution: y = (2fx + 2)(x-fx)
= 2( Fx + 1).f;(Fx -1) = 2.J;( Fx + 1)(Fx -1)
= 2.J;(x- l) =2(x 312 - x 112 )
Differentiating with.respect to x we have
dy = ~[2 (x312 -x112)]

dx dx
= 2[! (x"')- ! (x'")] ={ ~ x +-• - ~ x+-•J

1 1
T -T 1 3x-1
= 3x -x =3fx--=--
Fx Fx
5. Derivative of a Product. (The Product Rule)

Iff and g are differentiable at x, then Jg is also differentiable at x and
1
[f(x)g(x)] = /(x) g(x) + f(x) g'(x), that is,
! [f(x)g(x)] = [! [f,(x)] J g(x)+ f(x) [! [g(x)] J
Proof: Let ·</J(x) = f(x)g(x). Then
(i) </J(x + 8x) = f(x + 8x) g(x + ~x) and
(ii) </Jt.x + 8x) - </J(x)= f(x + 8x)' g(x + 8x) - f(x)g(x)
Subtracting and addingf(x) g(x + 8x) in step (ii), gives
</J(x + 8x) - </J(x)= f(x + 8x) g(x + 8x) -f(x) g(x + 8x) + f(x) g(x +Bx) ...:j(x)g(x)
'
= [f(x + &) ~f(x)] g(x + 8x) + f(x) [g(x + &) - g(x)]
(iii) </J(x + 8;;- </J(x) = ~(x + 8~ - f(x) J g(x + &) + f(x) [g(x + 8;;- g(x)J
Taking limit when 8x-70
Lim </J(x + &) - </J(x)
(iv)
8x-70 8x
= L.lm [J(x + 8x) - f(x) . g (x + w.
s:__ ) f( ) g(x + 8x) - g(x)]
+ x . s:__
8x-70 8x w.
= Lim f(x + 8x) - f(x) . Lim g(x + &) + Lim f(x). Lim g(x + 8x) - g(x)
8x-70 8x 8x-70 8x-70 8x-70 8x
(Using limit theorems)
1 1
Thus </J (x) =/(x) g(x) + f(x) g (x) [:. Lim g(x + 8x) = g(x)J
Dx-70
or fx [f(x) . g(x)] = fx[f(x)]. g(x) +f(x) [fxg(x~

Example 5: Find derivative of y = (1.[; + 2}(x-Fx) with respect to x.
Solution: y = (1.[; + 2 )(x - .[;)
= 2(/; + 1)~ --rx)
Differentiating with respect to x, we get
dy = 2~[<.r; + l)(x-/;)]
dx dx
!
= 2[( (,/x +I) }x-,/x) +(,/x + 1) ! (x-,/x)]
=2
[(2 I)
1
x
--1
2
+O (x-.Jx)+(.Jx+l)x 1- (2 1
x I)~
--1
2
= 2[ 2~ (x-.JxJ + <.Jx + !)+- 2}i JJ
=2[x-Fx + c.Jx + 1) (~.Jx-1 IJ

2.Jx 2.Jx )
= - 1 ~-.Jx +2x-.Jx +2.Jx-1]

.Jx
3x-1
= Fx.
6. Derivative ofa Quotient (The Quotient Rule)
Iff and g are differentiable at x and g(x)-::/: 0, for any x E D(g)
f . . . (f(x))' /(x)g(x)- fix) g'(x)

then g is d1fferent:Jable at x and ~g(x) = [g(x)]2 '
. AJ[(x)J [~[fix)]Jg(x) - f(x{~[g(x)]J

that is, dx l_g(x) = [g(x)]2
f(x) ,
lroof: Let </J(x) = g(x). Then
f(x +ox)
(i) </J(x + 8x) = gx+vx
( s: ) and
</J(x + &) - </J(x) = f(x + ox) _ f(x) = f(x + 8x) g(x)- f(x)g(x + &)
g(x +ox) g(x) g(x) g(x +ox)
Subtracting and adding fix) g(x) in the numerator of step (ii), gives
</> (x + Ox)_ </J(x) = f(x + &)g(x) - f(x)g(x)- f(x)g(x + &) + f(x)g(x)

g(x)g(x + &)
1
= g(x)g(x +ox) [(f(x + 8x)- f(x)) g(x)-f(x) (g(x +ox)- g(x))]
(iii)
p(x + fu) - p(x) = 1 ff(x + &)- f(x). g(x) -f(x) . g(x + &) - g(x) J
& g(x)g(x+ &) [ & &
Taking limit when & --7 0
. p(x + fu) - p(x)
(iv) 1Im
&--70 &
= lim [ 1 (f(x + &) - f(x). g(x) _ f(x). g(x + &) - g(x))~
x--70 g(x)g(x + &) & l . & LJ
Using limit theorems, we have
</> ' (x) = ( ) 1 ( ) [f ' (x) g(x)-f(x) g ' (x)] ( ·: hm

. ~-- = g(x) )
g(x + w.)
gx .gx &--70
Thus
fu)_J-
( / (x) g(x) - f(x) g '(x) or !l_ (/(x)) _ [1x [f(x)]J g(x) - f(x) [1x [g(x)] J
g(x) - [g(x)] 2 dx \g(x) - [g(x)]2
First Alternative Proof:
f (x) .
</> (x) = g (x) can be wntten as f (x) = </> (x) g(x).
Using the procedure used to prove product rule, quotient rule can be proved.
Second Alternative Proof: We fust prove the reciprocal rule and then use product
rule to prove the quotient rule.
The reciprocal rule. If g is differentiable at x and g(x) -:j:. 0, then i is differentiable at x

and
d
d [ 1 J -J;; [g(x)]
dx g(x) = [g(x)]2 ' (Proof of the reciprocal rule is left as an exercise)
Using the product rule to fix). g!x) , we have
fx [.rcx) · g!x)] = (~ [fix)]} g!x) + f(x) · fx [gfx)]

d d
(b; [fix)] -J;; [g(x)]
= g(x) + f(x) [g(x)]2
!l_ [f(x)J _ [1x[f(x)]J g(x) - f(x) [1x [g(x)] J

i.e., dx g (x) - [g(x)]2
• . dy . ( -{x + 1) (x3 - 1)
12
Example 6. Fmd dx if y = x112 _ , (x i=- l)
1
Solution: Given that
3
'c-fx + 1) cx312 - t) c-fx + 1) [ c-{x) - 0>31
y = 112 =
x - l -{x -1
c-{x+ 1) c-{x-1) (x+ 1 +-{x)
= -{x-1
= c-{x+ 1) (x+ 1 +-{x)
2
= (-{x+I)(-{x+l+x) =(-{x+1) +(-{x+l)x
12 112
= x + 1+2-{x + x-{x + x = x3 + 2x + 2x + 1
41!. d 312 112 d 312 d d 1/2
dx = dx(x +2x+2x + 1) =dx(x )+ dx(2x)+ dx(2x )+ dx(l)
d
= 23 x 1/2 + 2(1) + 2 . 2-{x

1
+0 = 23 'J- cx + 2 + -{x
1
312
." . ( Fx + 1) (x -1) .h
E xample 7 : D iuerentlate 312 112
wit respect to x.
x -x
312
( Fx + 1) (x -1)
Solution: Let y = -----,.----,-----
x312 _ x112
3
_ cFx+o(cfx) -1)
- Fxcx-1)
( Fx + 1) ( Fx -1) (x + Fx + 1) (x -1) (x + Fx + 1)
= =-----==----
Fxcx -1) Fxcx-1)
x+Fx+l
=
Fx
Differentiating with respect to x, we have
dy
dx
=.!!._[x + Fx +
dx Fx
1]
Fx .!!._(x + Fx + 1)-(x + Fx+ 1).!!._(.,Jx)
dx dx
Fx[1++x-T +O )-cx+Fx +1){ ~ x-+J

=
x
Fx[1+ 2~ )-cx+Fx+l) 2~
=
x
Fx[ 2Fx +1 )- x+Fx +1
2/; 2/; 2x + Fx - x - fx -1 x-1
= = =
x fx.2/; 2x312
Example 8: Differentiate 2x3 ~ 3x2 + 5 with respect to x.

+1
2x3- 3x2 + 5
Solution: Let <P (x) = x2 + 1 . Then we take
f(x) = 2x3 - 3x2 + 5 and g(x) = x2 + 1

Now J'(x) = ! [2x3 - 3x2 + 5] = 2(3x2) - 3(2x) + 0 = 6x2 - 6x
I d _2
and g (x) = dx [x + l]= 2x + 0 = 2x
I I
Using the quotient formula: </J

1
(x) = f (x) g(~~(~~~) g (x) , we obtain
!!_ [2x3 - 3x2 + 5]- (6x2- 6x)(x2 + 1) - (2x3 - 3x2 + 5)(2x)

dx x2 + 1 . - (x2 + 1)2
_ 6x4 - 6x3 + 6x2- 6x- (4x4 - 6x3 + lOx)
- (x2 + 1)2
6x4 - 6x3 + 6x2 - 6x - 4x4 + 6x3 - 1Ox
= (x2 + 1)2
4
2x + 6x2- 16x
= (x2 + 1)2
EXERCISE 2.3
Differentiate w.r.t. 'x'
1. x4 + 2x3 +i 2. a+x
3.
a-x
Unit '2: Differentiation 61
(~ -}xJ
2x-3
4.
2x+ 1 5. (x- 5)(3 -x) 6.
(1 + ~) (x -
12
x3 ) (x2 + 1)2 x2 + 1
7. 8. 9.
~
2
x - l x2-3
10.
1C0
.·r.-
. . \fl- x
11.
2x-1
'1x2 + 1
12.
# x
14.
1C0 - {1=-x 15.
xW±"X
~+~ '1a-x
· 1 · 4J.. · .C
16. If y = ~ - . c , show that 2x dx + y = 2\/ x
• \jX
17. 4 2
If y = x + 2x + 2, prove that dx = 4x-\f y - 1
4J.. .r--=::
2.4 THE CHAIN RULE

'The composition fog of functions f and g is the function whose values f(g(x)]
are found for each x in the domain of g for ~hich g(x) is in the domain off. (f [g(x)])
is read as f of g of x). __. -
Theorem: If g is differentiable at the point x and f is differentiable at the point g(x)
then the composition function fog is differentiable at the point x and
1
(fog)'(x)=/[g(x)] . g (x).
The proof of the claim rule is beyond the scope of this book.
If y = (jog) (x) = f (g(x)], then
I I dy
(fog) (x) = f(g(x)] =~
==> dy = /[g(x)] . g' (x) (i)

dx
Let u=g (x) (ii)
Then y= f(u) (iii)
Differentiating (ii) and (iii) w.r.t x and u respectively, we have
du= _E__ [g(x)]= g'(x) :,-i:~ ~ .
dx dx
dy = _.!!:____ [f(u)] = f (u)

1
and
du du
Thus (i) can be written in the following forms
(a) -d ( f(u) ) = f I (u) - du

dx . .... dx ·... .. ..
~
_. · i . : , . . ,..
(b)
dy = dy du
dx du · dx
The proof of the Chain rule is beyond the scope of this book.
Note: 1. Let y = [g(x)]" and u = g(x)

II
dy 11-I
then y = u and (power rule)
du = nu
dy dy du 11-I du
But
dx = du · dx = nu dx
or ! [g(x)]" =n [g(x)]"- 1
• g '(x)
2. Reciprocal rule can be written as
! (g~)) fx =
1
[g(x)]- = -1 . [g(x)r -
1 1
• g '(x)
= (-1) [g(x)r 2
• g'(x)
3
Example 1: Find the derivative of (x + 1)9 with respect to x.
3
Solution: Let y = (x3 + 1)9 and u = x + 1, then y = u9
du dy
Now dx = 3.x2 and du = 9u 8 (Power formula)
4Y_ dy du
Using the formula dx = du . dx, we have
dy s du
dx = 9u -dx
d
or dx (.x3 + 1) 9 = 9(.x3 + 1)8 (3.x2) ( ·: u = x 3+ 1 and du
dx = 3x2)
= 27x2 (x3 + 1)8
Example 2. Differentiate ~\j;;+;;

~ ' (x i- -a) with respect to x.
I
a-x
Solution: Let y =#andu= a+x then y = u2
1 l_1 1 -l
Now 42!.
du = 2 u2 =2u 2,
[_dxd (a - x)J (a + x) - (a - x) [-dxd (a + x)J

and
.: = ![~:~] = (a +x) 2
(0-l)(a+x)-(a-x)(O+l) -a-x-a+x -2a

= (a+x)2 = (a +x)2 =(a +x)2
Using the formula
dy dy du
dx = du . dx , we have
+ xJl x (a + x) 2 (
1[(a-2a+ x) J=1·1 (aa-x :. u = a+ x )
a-x -2a - a-x
d
dx (#)
a x + =
1
2u
--2
I
2
2
(a-xf 2 -a -a
= 1X( )2 = I 3
(a + xf 2 a +x (a - x)2 (a +xi
dy ~+~
Example 3: Find dx if y= _~ _~ • (xf: 0)
11a+x-11a-x
Solution: y-
:.fli±"X + £X
- --.}a+x---Ja-x
Multiplying the numerator and the denominator by --.} a + x ---J a - x , gives
(~+£X) (~-£X)
y-(--.}a +x-:---.}a-x) (--.}a +x-..Ja-x)
2 2
(~) -(~) (a+x)-(a-x) 2x
-(a +x) + (a-x)- 2--.}a -x2 2a- 2--.}a2 -x2
2
= 2(a---.}a2-x2)
x
that is,
y - a-'1a2 -x2
Let f(x) =x and g(x)= a ---.}a2 -x2, then
f'(x) = 1 and g"(x) = 0 ~ f'x (a2 -x2)t = -t (a2 -x2}-1 ~ (a2-x2)
1 x
= - 2--.ja2-x2 x (-2x) = '1a2-x2
dy f"(x) g(x) - f(x) g'(x)
Using the formula dx = [g(x)] 2 , we have
dy
2
1. (a ---Ja - x2) - x . b-
dx = x2) 2
(a - --.}a2 -
a~ -(a2 -x2)-x2 a--.}a 2 -x2- a2
= '1 a2 - x2 (a - Va2 - x2) 2 = -Va2-x2 (a-'1a2-x2)2
-a (a - --J a2 - x2) -a
Example 4: Find 2 if y = ( 1 + 2~)3 • )

= ( 1+2~)3 = [( 1+2~)
3
Solution: y . ) ())]
I
Let u = (1 + 2~) . x 2 (i)
Then y = u 3
(ii)
Differentiating (ii) with respect to u, we have
~~ = 3u = 3 [o + 2~) )]2 = 3 (1 + 2~>2. x
2
Differentiating (i) with respect to x, gives
~ = (0 + 2 . 2:rx }) + (1 + 2~) 2:rx

1+ 2:/X 2:/X + 1 + 2:/X 1 + 4:/X
= 1 + 2~ = 2~ = 2~
Using the formula dy = dy . du, we have
dx du dx
d -
c 3 . x2)l -c 2
= 3( 1 + 2\JX) (1 +~4:/X)'
dx [ (1 + 2\JX) . XX
2
3
= 2 (1 + 2~) 2 ~ (1 + 4~)
3
= 2(1 +2~) 2 (~+4x)
Example 5: If y = (ax + hr where n is a negative integer, find~ using quotient
theorem.
Solution: Let n =- m where m is a positive integer. Then
y=(ax+b)"= (ax+brm = (ax~br (i)
We first find fx (ax+ br. Let u =ax+ b. Then

d ( b)m
dx ax+ = dxd (u m) = dud (u) m du
dx
.
(Usmg chain rule)
= mum-1 x a = m(ax + b)m-1 . a

Now differentiating (i) w.r.t. 'x', we have
d m d bm
!11._ .!!:...[
1 J--;J;;(l).(ax+b) -1.-;J;;(ax+)
dx - dx (ax+ hr - [(ax+ bym] 2
O. (ax+ bf -1. m (ax+ bf_,. a
= (ax+ hr
= (-m(ax+bf- .a)X(ax+bT m = -m(ax+bym-i-im.a
1 2
= (-m) (ax+ bTm-i. a = n(ax +bf_,. a (·: -m = n)

• d dx
ExampIe 6 : Fm dy 'f
i y =x where n =qp , q :t: 0
n
Solution. Given the y =xn where n = ~, q :t:O. Putting n = ~,we have

!!...
y = xq (i)
Talcing qth power of both sides of (i), we get
yq = xp (ii)
Differentiating both sides of (ii) w.r.t. 'x', gives
d d d dy d
dx (yq) = dx (xp) or dy (l). dx = dx (xP) (Using chain rule)
q-1 dy p-1
=> qy dx = px (iii)
Multiplying both sides of (iii) by y, we have
q. yq: = py xp-i or q .xP: = p. x~. xp-i (Using (i) and (ii))

p p
_l
d p - p
= q · xp1 · xq xp-i = q x xq
-+p-1-p
=> dx
= -pq !!.-1
xq = nx n-1
d (x n) = nxn-1.
Th us dx
2.5 DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS

If for each x E D1 , f(x) = y and for each y E Dg, g(y) = x, then f and g are
inverse of each other, that is,
(go f) (x) = g(f(x)) = g(y) = x (i)
and (f o g)(y) = f(g(y)) = f(x) = y (ii)
Using chain rule, we can prove that
f'(x). g'(y) =I
J (x) = g' 1(y)

I
1 ·. · f(x) = y => f'(x) = 2J

= dx
dy
( and g(y) =x => g'(y) =:
2.6 DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION GIVEN IN· THE
FORM OF PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
The equations x =at and y = 2at express x and y as function oft.
2
Here, the variable t is called a parameter and the equations of x and y in terms
oft are called the parametric equations.
Now, we explain the method of finding derivatives of functions given in. the
form of parametric equations by the following examples:
Example 1: Find 2 if x =at2 and y = 2at.

Solution: we use the chain rule to find
dy d
2
Here, dt = dt (2at) = 2a .1 = 2a
dx d 2
and dt = dt (at) = a(2t)= 2at
dy
dy dy dt dt 2a 2a
so,
dx = dy · dx = dx = 2at = y (·: 2at = y)
dt
Eliminating t, we get x = a ( Ja J= a. J~2 = ~: => y2 = 4ax (i)

Differentiating both sides of (i) w.r.t. 'x' we have
d 2 d
dx (y) = dx (4ax)
d 2 dy d dy
dy (y). dx = 4a dx (x} => -2y dx = 4a(1)
dy _ 2a
dx - y
dy
Example 2: Find dx if x = 1 - t2 and y = 3t2 - 2f.
Solution. Given that x = I - t 2 (i) and y = 3t2 - 2t3 (ii)
Differentiating (i) w.r.t. 'x', we get
dx d 2 d di
dt = dt(l-t) = dt(l)-dt(t) = 0-2t = -2t
Differentiating (ii) w.r.t. 'x', we have
dy d 2 ,3 d 2 d 3
dt = dt (3t - 2r ) = dt (3t ) - dt (2t )
= 3(2t)-2(31)= 6t-6t
2
= 6t(l-t)
Applying the formula
dy
dy dy dt dt
dx = dt . dx = dx
. dt
= 6t(l-t) = -3(1 + t) = 3(t-1)

-2t
dy I - i1 2t
Example3: - if x = - - , y- - -
dx - 1+1 -1+1
SoIution:
· a·iven th at
x = 1+
0 -9(i) and
2t
y=1+l (ii)
Differentiating (i) w.r.t. 't', we get
dx !L (] - 1) = di (
d 2 ) 2 ..2 d 2
(1 - t) (1 + t) - (1 - f) . di (1 + t)
dt- dt l+l (l+ll
=(-2t)(l + l)-(1-t2)(2t) 2t(-J -t2-J + 1) = -4t
(1 + ll (1 + lf (1 + lf
Differentiating (ii) w.r.t. 't', we have
d ) 2 d 2
dy !L ( 2t ) - ( di (2t) (1 + t) -2t Xdi (1 + t)
dt = dt T+7 - (1 + t )
= 2(1 + t2)-2t(2t) 2 + 21-41 2 -21 2(1-1)
(1 + lf = (1 + lf = (1 + 1/ = (1 + l/
dy 2(1-1)
dy dy dt dt (1 + 1f 2(1-1) 1-1
dx = dt . dx = dx = 4t = -4t = 2t
dt - (1 + lf
2.7 DIFFERENTIATION OF IMPLICIT RELATIONS
Sometimes, the functional relation is not explicitly expressed in the form y = f(x)
. d
but an equation involving x and y is given. To find Jx
from such an equation, we
differentiate each term.of the equation and use the chain rule where it is required. The
process of finding : in this way, is called implicit differentiation. We explain the
implicit differentiation in the following examples:
Example 1: Find: if x 2 + y 2 =4
Solution: Here, x 2 + y 2 = 4 (i)
Differentiating both sides of (i) w.r.t. 'x', we get
2x+ 2ydy =0
dx
dy dy x
or x+y-=0 =>-=--
dx dx y
Solving (i) for y in terms of x, we have
y =±../4-x2
=> y=~4- x 2 (ii)
or y=~4- x 2 (iii)
dy found above represents the derivative of each of functions defined as in

dx
(ii) and (iii).
From (ii) dy = --=1==-X

2
(-2x) = --,=x==-
dx 2../4-x ../4-x 2
=
x
(·: ~4-x 2 = y)
y
... ) dy 1 -x x
F rom (m - = x(-2x) =-t====- _ - -
/
dx 2v4-x 2 -../4-x 2 y
. d dy .f 2 2
E xamp1e 2: Fm dx, 1 y + x - 4x =5.
Solution: Given that y2 + x 2 - 4x = 5 (i)

Differentiating both sides of (i) w.r.t. 'x'
d [ 2 2 d
dx y + x - 4x] = dx (5)
dy
or 2y dx + 2x-4 =0
dy dy 2(2 -x) 2 -x
2y dx = 4-2x => dx = 2y = y (ii)
Note: Solving (i) for y, we have

l= 5+4x-x
2
=> y = ±'15+4x-x2,
2
Thus y = '15 + 4x -x (iii)
or y = -'15 + 4x -i (iv)
Each of these equations (iii) and (iv) defines a function.
Let y = fi(x) = '15 + 4x -i (v)
and y = fz(x) = -'15 + 4x -x2 (vi)
Differentiation (v) w.r.t. 'x', we get
, 21 (5 + 4x - 2)-1/2 ( ) 2- x
!. (x)
1
= x x 4 -2x = A
\15 + 4x -i
/
2
From (v), '15 + 4x -x
2
= y, so fi'(x) = ;x
1 2 -1/2 2 -x
Also fz'(x) = -2 (5+4x-x) x(4-2x) = Al 2
-\f5+4x-x
A
From (vi) - \15 + 4x -x

I 2
= y, so fz'(x) = 2 Y-x
Thus (ii) represents the derivative of Ji(x) as well as that offz(x).
. d dx
ExampIe 3 : Fm dy 1"f y2 - xy - x 2 + 4 = 0 .
Solution: Given that y2 - xy - x + 4 = 0

2
(i)
Differentiating of both sides of (i) w.r.t. 'x' gives
d 2 2 d
dx [y -xy -x + 4] = dx (0) = 0
or dy - ( 1 . y + x dy)
2y dx dx - 2x + 0 =0
dy dy 2x+y
(2y -x) dx = 2x +. y => dx = 2y-x (ii)
Example 4: Find fx if y3 - 2xy + iy + 3x =0. 2
Solution: Differentiating the both sides of the given equation w.r.t. 'x', we have ·
d 3 2 2 d
dx [y -2.xy + x y + 3x] = dx (0) =0
d d d 2 d
or dx (y1) - dx (2xy2) + dx (x y) + dx (3.x) .= 0
;(y1)-2[1.y2+.x;(y2)] +(2xy+x
2
i) +3=0
Using the chain rule on ; (y 1) and fx (y 2), we have
3y2 i- 2 [l + x ( 2y i)] + 2.xy + x 2

: +3=O
2 dy
(3y -4.xy + x) dx = 2y 2-2xy-3
2
or
dy 2y2 -2.xy -3
=> dx = 3y2 - 4.xy + x 2
Example 5: Differentiate x +
2
;z w.r.t. x -f.
Solution: Let y = x2+ ;1 and u = x - ~ . Then
4 2 2
!h!_ 1 ( 1) 2(x -1) _ 2(x - J)(x + 1)
cJx = 2x + (-2) . XJ =2X- XJ = XJ - XJ
du 1 1 2
x +1
and dx = 1-(-1). x2 = 1 + x2 = ~
!l:J.. - !lJ!. dx - 2(x2 - l)(x2 + 1) x2 = 2(x2 - 1) = 2(x __xl)

Thus, du - dx · du - x1 • x 2+ 1 x
EXERCISE 2.4
1. Find 2 by making suitable substitutions in the following functions defined as:
(i) y = # (ii) y = '1x + ...JX (iii)
2
(iv) y= (3x -2x + 7)6
2. . d dy "f
Fm dx1:
(i) 3x + 4y + 7 = 0 (ii) xy + y2 = 2
2 2
(iii) x - 4.xy - Sy= 0 (iv) 4x + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
(v) x-fl+Y + y~ = 0 (vi) y(x2 -1) = x'\/x2 + 4
3. Find : of the following parametric functions:
1
(i) x = 8 +9 and y = 9+ 1
.. ) _ a(l + () 2bt
(n x - I + ti , y = I + ti
dy I -l 2t
4. Prove that y dx + x = 0 if x = 1 + t2 , y = 1 + t2
5. Differentiate
2 1 4 i+I x-1
(i) x - 2 w.r.t. x
x
(ii) (1 + i)" w.r.t. x2 (iii) x2-1 w·rt· · - -
x +I
2
ax + b ax + b x2 + I 3
(iv) ex + d w.r.t. ax2+ d (v) x2 _ 1 w.r.t. x.
2.8 DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

While finding derivatives of trigonometric functions, we assume that x is
lim sin x lim 1 - cos x
measured in radians. The limit theorems x-XJ -x- = I and x-XJ x =0 ·
are used to find the derivative formulas for sin x and cos x.
We prove from first principles that
! (sin x) = cos x and ! (cos x) = -sin x
Let y = sinx. Then y + ~ = sin (x + Dx)

and ~ = sin (x + Dx) -sinx
_:__( _§!l
~
ox
2
ox~
_:__( _§!']
. §1.
l zm & = lim cos ( x +
&-xl '5x-XJ \·
&
-[ 2}
2
_: __ ( §! l
a ~
= lim cos ( x + ; ) lim &
& \· & -
---70 ---70 2
2 2
= cos x. I lim co' (x + ~)= '°'"

_,_ ( ~\
::l.Il
)
Thus, :
l
(
Ox/2-XJ
and Lim
Ox/2-XJ
&
2
=1
Let y =cos x, then y +Sy= cos (x + &)

and Sy= cos (x +&)-cos x
= cos x cos & - x sin & - cos x
= - sin x sin & - cos x (1 - cos &J
Oy sin & (1 -cos&)
&= (-sinx). ~ -cosxl &
lim ~= lim[(-sinx) sin Jx -cosx(I-cosJx 11

&-XJ at &-+o Jx Jx )J
= lim [(-sinx)sin Jx]-um [cosx(I-cosJx 11)J
Thus, dx
dy
&-+o Jx
= (-sin x). 1 -(cos x)(O)

x-+o Jx
·l: ~~ si"ax& = 1 and)

Lim (1 - cos
&-XJ lix lix)-- 0
d
or dx (cos x) =-sin x.
. d d
Now usmg dx (sinx) = cos x and dx (cos x) =- sin x, we prove that
d d
dx (sec x) = sec x tan x and dx (cot x) = - cosec2 x
d
Proof of dx (sec x) = sec x tan x.
1
Let y = secx = - -
cosx (i)
Differentiating (i) w.r.t. 'x', we have
d
dx (y) =
d [
- -1- =
J [~ (1)]co~x-l. ~ (cosx)~Usi~g
quotient
J
2
dx cos x (cos x) ormula
= O.cosx-1.(-sinx)
cos2 x
= cos1 x sinx
cos x
= secx tanx
d
Thus dx (secx) = secx tanx
d
Proof of dx (cot x) = -cosec2 x
cosx
Let y =cot x =
sinx
(i)
d d [!!:._(cosx)lsinx-cosx!!:._(sinx)
cos x
dx 'j dx
( Using
.
J
dx (y) = - [ - -] = 2
quotzent
dx sin x (sin x ) formula
_ (-sinx)sinx-cosx(cosx)
sin 2 x
- (sin 2 x + cos2 x) 1
= sin2 x
= - -.-2-
sm x
= - cosec2 x
d
Thus d (cot x) = - cosec2 x
Now we write the derivatives of six trigonometric functions:
d d
(1) dx(sinx) = cosx (2) dx(cosx) = -sinx
d d
(3) dx (tan x) = sec2 x (4) dx (cot x) = - cosec2 x
d d
(5) dx (cosec x) = - cosec x cot x (6) dx (sec x) = sec x tan x
Example 1: Find the derivative of tan x from first principles.
Solution: Let y = tan x, then y + 8y = tan (x + 8.x) and
8y = y + 8y -y = tan (x + 8.x) - tan x
sin (x + 8.x) sin x _ sin (x + 8.x) cos x - cos (x + 8.x) sin x
= cos (x + 8.x) cos x - cos (x +&)cos x
= sin(x+&-x) _ sin&
cos (x + 8.x). cos x - cos (x + 8.x) cos x
8y _ 1 sin 8x
8x - cos (x +&)cos x 8x
or
lim 8y lim (: 1 ) lim (sin
&--XJ 8x = &--XJ cos (x + 8.x). cos x · &--XJ &
&)
dv
Th us ::L.
dx =
1 2
(cos x) (cos x) · 1 = sec x
&~cos (x + &)
lim
Lim sin &
= cos x J
( and&~ ~=1
~ 2
d 2
.
Thus dx = sec x or dx (tan x) = see x.
Example 2: Differentiate ab-initio w.r.t. 'x'
(i) cos 2x sin ~
(ii) 2
(iii) cot x
Solution: (i) Let y =cos 2x, then y + 8y = cos 2(x + &)
and 8y = cos (2x + 2&) - cos 2.X
2x + 2& + 2x 2x + 2 & - 2x
= - 2 sin 2 sin 2 = -2 sin (2x + &) sin &
Now.§l'. = -2sin(2x+ &). ~ sin &
&
Thus~ lim
dx = &-4J
[ sin&]
-2 sin (2x +~ &) . ~
lim lim sin &
= -2 &-4J (sin 2x + &) . &-4J ~
· 2x) . 1 =-2 sm
= (- 2 sm · 2x ( Lim --s;-
8x---XJ sin & = 1 )
8x---XJ sin (2x +&)=sin 2x and Lim
(ii) Let y = sin~ , then y + 8y = sin '1 x + &

and 8y = sin'1x + & -sin~
= 2 cos ( :Jx + &2 + :JX) sm. (:Jx + &. -:JX)
2
As ('./~~-+-& + ~) <'1x + &-~) = (x + &) -x = &,
. ('1x + &-·J?1
so
§l = 2
& cos
(:Jx + & +
2
:JX) . sm &
2 )
= 2 cos ~x+ ~ + JX)sin (~x+ ~ -~J

<'1x+ &+~) <'1x+ &-~)
cos
jx+ &+;.IX
2 sin [:ix+~ -~J
= -r===-----:=--
'1 x + & + .~ :Jx +&-;.IX
2
dy lim
cos:Jx +
2
&+ JX) . l1m
[szn. ('1x
-
+ &--JXJj
2 -
Thus dx = &---;() [ ..Jx+ & + ;[x . (~-.,,/X )-.o ~ --JX
· dy
dx =
( cos(~~;{x)
-{x + -{x
l) l= cos~
-[x
(--~--{x
. 2 ~ 0 when
J
2
&~o
2 .
(iii) Let y = cot x, then
y + Sy = cor (x + &)
Sy = cor(x + &) - cor x = [cot (x+&) + cot x] x [cot(x+&) - cot x]
cos (x + &) cos x)
= [cot (x +&)+cot x]. ( . ( s:-__ ) - - . -
szn x + w. szn x
_ [ ( ~--) ] sin x cos (x +&)-cos x sin (x + &)
- cot x + w. + cot x x . (x + w.
sm s:-_.) •
szn x
Sy= (cot(x + &) + cotx). -sin & :·sinxcos(x+&)-cosxsin(x+8x)
8x sin (x + &) sin x & ( = sin(x-(x + &J) =sin(-&)= -sin ar)
Lim dy = Lim (cot(x + &) + cotx. (-l)sin &~
&~O dx &~O sin (x + &) sinx & )
·: Lim cot(x + &J =cot xj
&-+0
dy= (co~x+~otx).(-l).l and
Thus dx sznx smx Lim sin (x + &) = sin x
( &-+0
-2 cot x 2
= . 2 • 1 = - 2 cot x cosec x
szn x
Example 3: Differentiate sin3 x w.r.t. cos2 x
y = sin x and u = cos2 x
3
Solution: Let
dy . 2 d du
Now . dx = 3 szn x cos x an dx =2 cos x (- . )
szn x
Thus
dy dy dx
dx
. 2
= dx · du · = (3 szn xcosx) ·
1
-2 cos x sinx
.. dx -
· du - du
J_J
[ dx
= -23 .
sznx.
2.9 DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC

FUNCTIONS
Here we want to prove that
d . _1 1
x (-1, 1) or -1 < x < 1
dx [ szn x] =-./ l -x2 ,
1. E
d 1
2. dx [Cos-1 x] = x E (-1, 1) or -1 < x < 1
- \}1 -x 2 '
d -1 1
3. dx [Tan x] = l+x 21 XER
d 1 1 ,
4. dx [Cosec- x] = XE[-1, l]~ [-1, 1] = (-oo,-l)u(l,oo)
lxl '\/x 2 -1'
d I 1 ,
5. dx [Sec- x] = XE {1, J]~ [-1, 1] = (-oo ,-l)u(l,oo)
lxl '\/x 2 -1
6. ! [Cot- x]
1
= - 1 ~ x2 x ER
Proof of (1). Let y =sin-1 x (i)
Then x = sin y or x = sin y for y E [-~, ~] (ii)

Differentiating both sides of (ii) w.r.t. 'x', we get
d d dy dy
I = dx (sin y) = dy (sin y) dx = cosy dx
=> ~
dx
1
-- -cosy
-for y E (-!!. !!.)
2, 2
~ , ~ )]
1
= \}1 -sin2 y [-:cosy is positive for ye (-
..4.. . -/ 1
Thus dx(sm x) = \}l -x2 for -1<x<1.
Proof of (2). Let y = . cos -l x (i)

then x = cos y or x = cosy for y E {0, n] (ii)
Differentiating both sides of (ii) w.r.t. 'x', gives
d d dy . dy
1 = dx (cosy) = dy (cosy) dx = - sm y dx
dy 1
=> dx = siny for y E (0, n)
1
= [ ·: sin y is positive for y E (0, n)]
- \} 1 -cos2 y
d 1
Thus dx (cos -l x) - - _ ,-;---] for -l<x< 1
- \Jl-x?
Proof of (3). Let y = tan -I x (i)
then x = tan y or x = tan y for y E (- ~, ~ ) (ii)

Differentiating both sides of (ii) w.r.t. 'x', we have
d d dy 2 dy
I = dx (tan y) = dy (tan y) dx = sec y dx
dy 1
=> dx = sec2 y for
1 1
for x ER
= 1 + tan y = 1 + x 2
2
d -1 1
Thus dx [tan x] = 1 + x2 for XER
Proof of (4). Let y = cosec-l x (i)
Then x = cosec y or x = cosec y for y E [ -~, ~ ] -{O} (ii)
-t~ .;]- {O} is also written as [- ; ,0 [ u] O, ~]

Differentiating both sides of (ii) w.r.t. 'x', we get
!l_ !l_ ~
1 = dx (cosec y) = dy (cosec y) dx
~
= (-cosec y cot y) dx
1
=> cosec y cot y
When y E ( 0, ~ ) , cosec y and cot y are positive.

As cosec y = x, so x is positive in this case
and cot y = '1cosec 2 y -1 = '1x -1 , for allx >1
2
d 1 -]
Thus dx (cosec- x) = x'1x 2 _1 , for x>I
When y E (-¥, 0) , cosec y and cot y are negative.

As cosec y = x, so x is negative in this case
and cot y = -'1cosec 2 y -1 = -'1x2 -1 whenx<-I
d -1
Thus dx [cosec x] = _-1
~ (x <-1)
x( -\.Jx2 -1)
-1
(x <-1)
= (-x) './x 2 -1
Combining both the cases, we can write
d ~ 1
dx [cosec x] = - lxl './x2 -1 for XE ( -1, 1 ]'
Proof of (5) is left as an exercise.

Proof of (6) is similar to that of (4).
Example l:Find : if y =xsin-

1
( ~ )+'./a 2 -x2
Solution: Given th~t y = x sin-1 ( ~) + './a 2 -x2
Differentiating w.r.t. 'x', we have
~ = ! [xsin- >"a' -x'] ![xsin-' =]+!(a' -x' J"

1
=
= 1 . sm. -1 a
X
+ x. ffi. 1
dx
d ( X ) 1
a + 2. 2 2 ~-
(a -x )
I d ( 2
. dx \Q - x
2)
. -1 x 1 1 1
= sm a+x ~2·a + ~I 2
2\Ja -x
2. (-2x)
1-2
a
= sm a+ x · ~\JaI a-x a1 - ~\JaI -x sm

. -1 X
2 2 2
X
2 -
. -I X
-
a
2
Example 2: If y = tan Gtan- show that dy = 4 0 + Y )
1 }) ,
\ dx 4 + x 2)
Solution: Let u =2 tan
-1
2x , then
dy 2
y = tan u => du = sec u = 1 + tan 2 u = 1 + y 2
and : = !( 2 tan-
1
~J= 2 . (I ! )2 · ! (~ J =
2
x2 · ~ = 4: x2
l+ 2 1+4
dy dy du 2 4 4(1 + y2)
Thus dx = du · dx = (1 + Y ) · 4 + x 2 = 4 + x2
EXERCISE 2.5
1. Differentiate the following trigonometric functions from the first principles.
2
(i) sin 2x (ii) tan3x (iii) sin2x+ cos2x (iv) cosx
(v)
~
tan~ x (vi) ,Jtan x (vii) cos/;
2. Differentiate the following w.r.t. the variable involved.

(i) x 2 sec 4x
2
(ii) tan3 () sec ()
(iii) (sin 28- cos 38/ (iv) cos --{x + '1 sin x
3. Find~ if
(i) y = x cosy (ii) x = y sin y
4. Find the derivative w.r.t. "x"
(i) cos~ (ii) sm~

5. Differentiate
· 2 x w.r. t. cos x
4
(I.) ·
sznx w.r.t. cot x szn (1·1·)
dy
6. If tan y(l + tanx) =1- tanx, show that - = -1
dx
7. If y = '\)tan x + '1 tan x + '1 tan x + .. · =, prove that (2y -1) ~~ 2

= sec x.
dy
8. If x = a cos3 8, y = b sin3 8, show that a dx + b tan () =0
9. Find : if x =a(cost+ sin t), y = a(sin t - t cost)
10. Differentiate w .r. t. "x"

-IX
(ii) cot -
-IX
(iii) -1 sm
. -I a
-
(i) cos - a a x
a
(iv) sin-l '11 - x 2 (v) sec

-1 (x2x2_1
+ ]) (vi) cot
-I ( 2X )
1 -x2
(vii) cos-
1
G: ::)
dy y . y -1 x
11. Show that dx = x if x tan -
y
12. If y = tan (p tan-1 x), show that (J + x 2) Y1-p(1 + y2) =0.
2.10 DERIVATIVE OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

A function f defined by
f(x) = ax
if a > 0, a "# 1 and x is any real number.
is called an exponential function.
If a = e, then y =a x becomes y =ex. ex is called the natural
exponential function.
Now we find derivatives of ex and ax from the first principles.
1. Let y = ex, then
y + 8y = ex+& and 8y = y + 8y - y = ex+& - ex = ex . e& - ex
That is, 8y = ex (e& -1) and f. = ex. ( e&a~ 1)

by
Thus J!~ bx
=Lim
&-XJ
ex .( e&-l) =ex lim
& . &-XJ
(e&-1)
&
.. Lim x
( . &-XJe = e)
xl
~ x ( • lim eh - I j
dx =e . I Usmg h-XJ -h- = 1)
d
or dx (~)=ex
2. Let y = ct, then
y +Dy =ax+& and Dy = ct+& -ax = ax. a& -ct = ct (a& - l)
Dividing both sides by &, we have
f = at";'J
Thus ~ = 1:->IJ ,r(& I) = a'. i:->IJ (a"&I) (:· 1:->IJa' =a')
x ( lim ah-l j
=a . (ln a) Using h-XJ - h - = logae = ln a)
d x x
or dx (a ) = a . (in a)
dy
Example 1: Find dx if: (i) y = e~ +I (ii) y = a..fx
Solution: (i) Let u = X2 + 1 , then
du d
(A) and dx = dx (x2 + 1) = 2x
Unit 2: Differentiatwn 81
Differentiating both sides of (A) w.r.t. 'x'. we have

.!!:_ .!!:_ u d u du . .
dx (y) = dx (e) = du (e). dx (Usmg the cham rule)
II du
= e · dx
( d
Using dx (ex) = ex)
l
Thus ~ = ex
2
+I. (h) ( ·.· u; X2 + 1 and ~ = 2xJ
(ii) Let u =-[x Then y = a" (A)
du d 1 1
and dx = dx (x112) = 2 x-112 = 2-[x
Differentiating both. sides of (A) w.r.t. x gives

dy = .!!:_(a") = _!!:._(au) du
dx dx du dx
(·: dy = dy.
dx du dx
du .)
= (~u Zn a) . ~~ (Using ! (ax) = ax In a)
Thus :Jx (a..[;_) = (a..[;_ In a) . 2 }x (-. · u =-{< and : = 2}x)
= in a . a...µ . _1_
2 -rx·
Example 2: Differentiate y = axw.r.t. x, we have
Solution: Here y = ax
Differentiating w.r.t. x, we have

dy = exlna' .!!__ (x in a)
dx dx
= exlna .(in a)
2.11 DERIVATIVE OF THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION

Logarithmic Function:
If a > 0 a -:t. 1 and x = a Y , then the function defined by
y = log; , (x > 0)
is called the logarithm of x to the base a.
The logarithmic functions log~ and log;0 are called natural and common
logarithms respectively. y = log~ is written as y =In x .
d
We first find dx (Zn x) .
Let y = Zn x, Then
y + 8y = Zn (x + &) and
8y = In (x + &) - Zn x = In (~ : &) =Zn ( 1 + ~)
Now Z= ~ Zn ( 1 + ~)
Thus lim 8y
ox~O &
dy =
dx
(-. • ~ ---? 0 when & ~ 0)

1
= -x Zn e lim (1 + zY! = eJ
[ ·: z~O
1
x (": log/= l)
Now we find derivative of the general logarithmic function.
Let y = log;, then
y + 8y = loga (x + &) and
8y = loga (x +&)-log/ = loga (x: &) (1 + ~)

= loga
8y
&
= _!_
&
log
a
(1 + &)
Xx&
= .!_ . ~ log
a
(1 + &)X
&~ [ log 7)
Thus
lim . & XJ
&
a ( 1+
-
1
= -X Loge
a (-. Lim
z--+0
(1 + z} = el
)
or ! [logax] = ~. z: a C.· logae = - 1 a = -1 1- )

1oge na
Example 1: Find if : y = log 10 (ax 2 +bx+ c)

Solution: Let u =d + bx + c. Then
_ u ~ dy_.l 1
Y - 10g10 du - u · In 10
du d
and dx = dx (of+ bx+ c) = a(2x) + b(l) = 2ax + b
dy !!:1_ du
Thus dx = du · dx = ~ · In 10 dx .
du (1 1)
1
= (ax~ + bx + c) In 10 (2ax + b)
d 2 2ax+b
or dx = [log10 (ax +bx+ c) = (ax2 +bx+ c) In 10
Example 2: Differentiate In (x 2 + 2x) w.r.t. 'x'.
Solution: Let y = In (x 2 + 2x), then
dy d 1 d 2 . .
dx = dx [/n(x2 + 2x)] = (x2 + 2x) · dx (x + 2x) (Usmg cham rule)
1 2(x + 1)
= x 2 + 2x · (2x + 2 ) = x 2 + 2x
d 2 2(x + 1)
Thus dx [In (x + 2x)] = x2 + 2x
2.12 LOGARITHMIC DIFFERENTIATION

Algebraic expressions consisting of product, quotient and powers can be often
simplified before differentiation by tal<lng logarithm.
Example 1: Differentiate y = ef<x> w.r.t. x.
Solution: Here y = ef<x> (i)
Taldng logarithm of both sides of (i), we have
In y = f(x).lne
= f(x) (·: lne= 1)
Differentiating w.r.t x, we get
_!_. dy = f'(x)
y dx
-- ~ -- -- --- --~-
84 · Calculus and Analytic Geometry
So dy = y x f'(x) = ef(x) X f'(x)

dx
or A_ (ef(x)) =ef(x) X J'(x)
dx
Example 2: Fm · · ofx~
. ddenvat1ve (X2+i) ·
Solution: Let y
xR+-3
= (X2+i) (i)
Talcing logarithm of both sides, we have
ln y = ln (;X fi;!?) = In (x-{7+3) - ln (x2 + 1)

I
or lny = lnx+2ln(x2+. 3)-ln(x2+1) (ii)
Differentiating both sides of (ii) w.r.t. 'x'
![lny] = ![znx+kln(x2 +3)-ln(x2+ u]

L ef:l.. .l .l _1_ __1_
y dx = x + 2 · x 2 + 3 x 2x - x 2 + ] x 2x
1 x - 2x
=-
x
+ 2- -
x +3
--
- x2 + 1
(x2 + 3) (x2 + 1) + x. x(x2 + 1) -2x. x (x2 + 3)
= x(x 2 + 3) (x 2 + 1)
4 4
x + 4x2 + 3 + x + x2 -2x4 -6x2 3 -x2
= 2
x(x + 1) (x 2 + 1) 2
= x(x + 3) (x 2 + l)
ef:l.. y(3 -x2) xw-;3 3 -x2
Thus dx
= x(x2 + 3)(x2 + l) = x2 + 1 · x(x2 + 3)(x2 + l)
3 -x2
= ...Jx2 + 3 . (x2 + 1)2
Example 3: Differentiate (In xY w.r.t. 'x'
Solution: Let y = (In x)x (i)
Talcing logarithm of both sides of (i), we have
In y = In [(In x/] = x ln (In x)
Differentiate w.r.t. 'x'
y1 ef:l.. 1
dx = 1 . In (In x) + x . In x
d
. dx (In x)
1 1 1
= In (ln x) + x . In x . :X = In (In x) + In x
"'---~---~~-~----------~---~ ---- --- - - - - -

Unit 2: DijferentiatiOn 85
~ = y [in (In x) +I~ x] = (In xf [in (In x) + 1~ x]

2.13 DERIVATIVE OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
The functions defined by:
ex -e -x ex+ e-x
sinhx = 2 , x E R ; cash x = , x E R
2
sinhx ex -e -x
tanhx = cashx - x -x, XER
e +e
are called hyperbolic functions.
The reciprocals of these three functions are defined as:
1 2
cosechx = sinhx = ex -e-:-x, x E R-{O};
1 2
sech x = cash x = ex + e -x , x E R
1 ex+ e-x
coth x = tanh x = x
e -e
-x ' x E R - {OJ
Derivatives of sinh x, cosh x and tanh x are found as explained below:
d (sinh x)
dx = dx 1 (ex -e -x)J = 2
d [2 1 [ ex -e -x ( - 1) ] = 2
1 (ex + e-x) =cosh x
![coshx]= ![t(ex+e-x)J = t[~+e-x.(-1)] = t(ex-e-x)=sinhx
d d [ex -e-x]
dx [tanh x] = dx ex+ e-x -
The following results can easily be proved.

d
d
dx (casech x) = - cath :X cosech x , dx (sech x) = - tanh x sech x
d 2-
dx (coth x) = - cosech x.
Example 1: Find J! ify = sinh 2x

Solution: Let u = 2.x, then
dy
y = sinh u du = cosh u
du d
and dx = dx (2x) = 2.
dy dy du du
Thus dx = du . dx = cos/z u . dx = [cosh (2x)] . 2 = 2 cosh 2x.
d
or dx [sinh 2x] = 2 cosh 2x.
Example 2: Find 2 if y = tanh (x 2)
1:27_ 2
Solution: Let u = :x!, then y = tanh u ==> du = sech u
du d
and dx = dx (x)2 = 2x
dy 1:27_ du du
Thus dx = du . dx = sech2 u . dx = [sech 2 (:x!)] x2x
or :Jx [tanh :x!] = 2x sech2 :x!.

2.14 DERIVATIVES OF THE INVERSE HYPERBOLIC
FUNCTIONS
The inverse hyperbolic functions are defined by:
1. . h-1· x
y = sm if and only if x = sinh y ; x,yE R
2. y = cosh-1x if and only if x = cosh y x E [l, oo), y E (0, oo)
3. y = tanh-1 x if and only if x = tanh y x E ( -1, 1), y E R
4. y =coth-1 x if and only if x = coth y
XE (-1, l]~yER-{0}
h-1 if and only if x = sech y
5. y =sec x
1
. x E (0, 1), y E {0, oo)
6. y = cosech- x if and only if x = cosech y ; x E R - {O}, y ER -{O}
The following two equations can easily be derived:
1
(i) sinh- x =In (x + ~) (ii) cosh-1 x = In (x + '1:x! -1)
Proof of (i).
Let y = sinh- 1 x for x, ye R, then
eY -e-Y
x = sinh y ~
x = ---
2
~ 2xeY =e Y -1
2
or e 2.r - 2xeY - 1 = 0
Solving the above equation for eY, we have
eY
2x ± .J4x 2 +4
2
2x ±2.Jx 2 +1 /2---:
= =x±vx- +l
2
As e>" is positive for yE R, so we discard
x-.Jx 2 +I
Thus e>" = x + .Jx 2 + 1 => y = In (x + .Jx 2 + 1)
=> sinh-1 x = In (x + .Jx 2 + 1 )
Proof of (ii).
Let y = cosh-1 x for x E [l, oo), y E [0, oo), then
x = cosh y ~ x =
e + e-y ~ e2Y - 2xey + 1 = 0 · · · (I)
2
. . 2x ±y4x2 -4 2x ±2p=1
= x ±~ .
2
Solvmg (D gives, e = 2 = 2
e = x -'1x 2 -1 can be written as y =In (x -'1x -1 ).
2
If x = 1, then y = In ( 1 - ~ ) = In (1) = 0 but

ln (x -'1x 2 -1 ) is negative for all x > 1, that is,
for each x E (1, oo), y ~ (0, oo), so we discard this value of eY.
Thus e = x + '1x 2 -1 which gives y = In (x + ~) , that is,
cosh- 1 x = ln(x+'1x 2 -l).
'" ·: rivative of sinh- 1 x: .
Let y = sm. h-1 x x,yE R
Then x = sinh y
dx
dy
'
= coshy
dy - 1
dx - coshy
.. dy -
. dx - dx
l_)
( dy
dy 1 1 (": cosh y > 0)
or
dx = cosh Y = '1t + sinh2 y
88 Calculus and Analytic Geomet1y
dy d . -I 1
dx = dx (smh x) = -{1J (XE R)
Derivative of cosh-1 x:
Let y = cos h-1 x ; XE [l, oo), y E [0, oo)
Then x = cosh y
dx dy 1
.. dy - _!_J
and dy = sinh y => dx = sinhy . dx-dx
[ dy
dy 1 1
or (·: sinhy > 0, asy > 0)
dx = sinhy ='.f cosh 2 y -1
dy d -1 1
Thus dx = dx (cosh x) = './x2 _ 1 (x > 1)
As cosh- 1 x = In (x + './x2 -1) , so
-d [cosh- 1 x] - 1 (1 + 2x ) - 1 · ~ +x - 1
dx - x + './x2 -1 2'./x2 -1 - x + './x2 -1 './x2 -1 - ~
Derivative of tanh - t x:
Let y=tanh-1 x; XE(-1,1),yER
dx dy 1
Then x = tanh y and dy = sech2 y =>
dx = sech2 y lx)
( ',': = dy
dy 1 1
dx = 1 - tanh2 y = 1 - x2
d 1
Thus dx (tanh-1 x) = ~ -1 < x < 1 or lxl < 1
1-r
The following differentiation formulae can be easily proved.
d -1 1 1
dx {coth x) =
1
-x2 -0r - x2 _ 1 Ix I > 1
d 1 1
dx(sech- x)= · O<x<I
- x'./1-x 2 '
d
dx (cosech- x)
1
= x--./11+ x 2 ; x>O
or ! (cosech- 1 x) = 1
x ER- {O}
Example 1: Find dx if y = sinh-1 (ax + b)
Solution: Let u = ax+ b, then
dy 1
y = sinh-1 u du = --J 1 + u2
dy dy du 1 du
dx = du · dx = --J 1 + u2 · dx. .
Th us dx . h-1 (ax + b )
d [ sm = _/ 1 .a du d
=a)
1
( ·.. dx = dx (ax+ b)
vl +(ax+ bf
Example 2: Find : if y = cash-I (sec x)
Solution: Let u = sec x, then
dy 1
y = cash-I u du - . ,.-y--:;
'JU - 1
du d
and dx = dx (sec x) = sec x tan x
dy dy du · 1 du
Thus dx = du . dx = '1 u2 - 1 . dx
1 1
= _/ 2
(secxtanx) = tanx (secxtanx) = secx
\JSeC X - 1
d
or dx [cash-I (sec x)) = sec x.
EXERCISE 2.6
l. Find f' (x) if
1
(i) f(x) = e-fx- t (ii) f(x) = x 3 ex, (x :t; 0) (iii) f(x) = ex (I+ Zn x)
x eax - e-tU:
(iv) f(x)
e
= e-x + 1 (v) (vi) f(x) = eax +e -tU:
(vii) f(x) = '1zn(e2x + e-2x)

2. . d dy
Fm •t
dx 1
x
(i) y = x2 Zn~ (ii) y = x~ (iii) Y = Znx
(iV) y = x2 Zn -x1 (v) y ~In~ (vi) y = Zn (x + '1x2 + i)
(vii) y = Zn (9 - x2) (viii) y = e-2x sin 2x (ix) y = e-x (x3 + zx2 + 1)
(x) Y = X esinx (XI.) y = 5e3x-4 (xii) y = (x+ ll
~(x+l)
(xiii) y = (ln x)1r x1
(xiv) Y = (x3 + 1)312
. d dy .f
3. Flil dx I
(i) y = cosh 2x (ii) y = sinh 3x

(iii) y = tanh-1 (sinx), -¥<x<¥ (iv) y = sinh- 1 (x3)
(v) y = (ln tanh x) (vi) y = sinh- 1 ( ~ J
2.15 SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION (OR HIGHER
DERIVATIVES)
Sometimes, it is useful to find the differential coefficient of a derived function.
If we denote f' as the first derivative off, then (f')' is the derivative off' and is called
the second derivative off For convenience we write it as f".
Similarly (f ")', the derivative off.", is called the third derivative off and is
written asf"'.
In general, for n ~ 4, the nth derivative off is written asfCn>.
Here we state different notations used for derivatives of higher orders.
1st derivative 2nd derivative 3rd derivative nth derivative

y' y" y"' yCn)
dy d2y d3y dny
dx dx2 dx3 dxn
YI Y2 Y3 Yn
Dy D2y D3y Dny
f'(x) f"(x) f"'(x) /n)(x)

df d2f dJ dnf
dx dX2- dx3 dxn
Example 1: Find higher derivatives of the polynomial

1 4 1 3 1 2
!(x) = 12 x - 6x + 4 x + 2x + 7
' 1 1 1 1 1 1
Solution: f (x) = 12 (4x3)-6 (3x2) + 4 (2x) + 2 + 0 = 3 x3 -2 .x2 + 2 x + 2
1 1 1 2 1
f"(x)= 3(3x2)-2(2x)+2(1)+0 = x -x+ 2
f"'(x) = 2x-1
tv (x) = 2
All other higher derivatives are zero.
3
Example 2: Find d ; if y =Zn
dx
(x + ,Jx 2
+ a2 )
Solution: Given that y = Zn (x + '1x 2 + a 2 ) (i)

Differentiating both sides of (i) w.r.t. 'x', we have
dy 1 .!£. . .y 2 2
dx = x + '\fx2 + a2 dx (x + x +a )
= 1
x+'\fx 2 +a 2 ·
[i + 1x2x
2'\/x2 +a 2
J
= ~!2
1
2x
l\jx + a +2 x)
2
~!2
2
x+ '.JX +a '.JX +a
dy 1
That is, - - -;::::== (ii)
dx - \}x2 + a2
Differentiating (ii) w.r.t. 'x', we have
d2y d 1
dx2 = dx [(x2 + a2)-112] =- 2 (x2 + a2)-3/2 x 2x
2
dy x
or dx2 =- (x2 + a2)312 (iii)
Differentiating (iii) w.r.t. 'x', we get
d3y 1 . (x2 + a2)312 - x. ~ (x2 + a2)112. 2x
dx3 = [(x2 + a2)312]2
(x2 + a2)112 [(x2 + a2) - 3x2] a 2 - 2x2
= (x2 + a2)3 = (x-2 + a2)512
d3y 2x2-a2
dx3 = (x2 + a2)s12
dz
Example 3: Find J 2
if/+ 3ax + x3 = 0
Solution: Given that y3 + 3ax2 + x 3 = O (i)
Differentiating both sides of (i) w.r.t. 'x' gives
..1_3 2
dx [y + 3ax + x ]
3
= .!£.
dx (0) = 0
dy 2
3y2 dx + 3a(2x) + 3x = 0 =>
2
dy 2ax+x
=>
dx = y2 (ii)
Differentiating both sides of (ii) w.r.t. 'x', we have
d2y . !!-__ [ 2ax + x2] _ 2

(2a + 2x) y - (2ax + x )2y dx)
2 ( ~\
dx2 = (-1) dx y2 - (y2)2
2ax + x-?J
2(a + x) l- (2ax + x).
2
2y x(- y2
= y4
2 2
2 (2ax + x ) (2ax + x )]
2 [ (a+ x) y + y
= y4
2 [(a+ x) y3 + (2ax + x 2)2l
= )'4. y
2
2 [(a+ x).(-3ax - x 3 ) + x2(2a + x) 2] 2 3)
= s (·: y3 =-ax
3 -x
y
2 2 2
2x [-(a+ x) (3a + x) + (4a + x + 4ax)]
= ys
2 2
2x [- (3a + 4ax + x2) + 4a2 + x2 + 4ax]
= ys
2x2 La2 ] - 2a2x2
= yS = YS
Example 4: If x =a( 8- sin 8), y = a(l +cos 8). Then
d2
Show that y2 -{- + a =0
dx
Solution: Given that x = a ( 8 +sin 8) (i)
and y = a ( 1 + cos 8) (ii)
Differentiating (i) and (ii) w.r.t. '8', we get
dx
d = a(l +cos 8) (iii)
8
dy -
and d - a(- sin 0) (iv)
8
dy
dy dy d8 d8
Using dx = d8. dx = dx' we have
d8
-a sin 8 sin 8
= a (l +cos 8) = 1 +cos()
. dy sin()
That 1s , dx = 1 +cos () (v)
Differentiating (v) w.r.t. 'x'
2
dy d ( sin() ) . d ( sin() ) d(}
2
dx = dx l-
1 + cos (} = - d() 1 + cos (} l x dx
= _cos 8(1+cos9)- sin 8(- sin 9) d(}
(1 + cos 8)2 dx
d2y = cos () + cos2 () + sin2 () d()
dx2 (1 +.COS 8)2 . dx
= - (11++cos() ~ = a(l +cos(}))

1
x (-.·
cos 8) 2 a( 1 + cos fJ)
= - .! 1 2 -
a · (1 + cos fJ) -
- .! _L
a · (~ J · (·. 1 + cos () = ra)
1 a2 a
= a x 7 = -y2
d2y .
or -a y2 dx2 +a = 0.
Example 5: Find the first four derivatives of cos (ax+ b).
Solution: Let y = cos (ax+ b), then
d d
YI= dx [cos(ax+b)] = -sin(ax+b). dx (ax+b)
=- sin (ax+ b) x (a+ 0) =- a sin (ax+ b)
Y2 = - a! [sin (ax+ b)] = (-a) [cos(ax + b) x (a+ O)]

= - a2 cos (ax+ b)
y3 !
= - a 2 [cos(ax + b)] = (-a2) [- sin(ax + b) x (a+ 0)
= a3 sin (a~+ b)
y4 !
= a3 [sin(ax + b)] = a 3 x [cos (ax+ b)] x a = a4 cos (ax+ b)
d3
Example 6: If y =a-ax , than show that : , + a 3y = 0
SI ,
o ubon: dy = dx
As y = a -ax, so dx d(-ax)
e = e-ax . dx
d( - ax) = e-ax • (-a)
dy -ax
That is dx = - ay (·: e = y)
Now fx
d2y
[:J = ! [-ay] => ~ =-_a: = (-a) (-ay) (-: : .=- ayJ
or
dx
= a2y
-2 (i)
dx
!!_ [ d y
2
J !!_ 2
dxz = dx [a y] =>
3
dY
dx3 = a
2 dy
dx = a 2 (- ay) = - a3 y
d3y
3
Thus dx3 + a y = 0.
•
Example 7: If y = sin- 1 ~,then show thaty2 = x(a 2 -x 2 t2 . 3
x
Solution: y = Sln. -l a ' so
Y1 =z =~[sin-I~]= kl' m X:fx

1 1 a 1
= -'1 a2 - x2
= -;::::::;:=====- . _a = (a2 _ x2)-112
H . a
EXERCISE 2.7
1. Findy2 if
(i) y = 2x5 - 3x4 + 4x3 + x - 2 (ii) y = (2x + 5)3/2 ... )

(lll -c 1
y ='JX +~
2. Find Y2 if
( 1") y=x2 .e-x (ii) y = In (~: ~ J

3. Find Y2 if
(i) x2 + y2 = a2 (ii) x3 -y3 = a3
(iii) x = a cos e, = a sine
y (iv) x = ar, y = bt4 •
(v) x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2.fy + c = 0
4. Find Y4 if
(i) y = sin 3x (ii) y = cos3 x (iii) in (x
2
- 9)
5. If x = sin 0, y = sin m0, show that (1 - x2) y 2 - xy 1+ m2y =0

x d2y dy
6. If y =e sin x, show that dx2 - 2 dx + 2 y ~ 0
ax d2y dy
7. If y = e sin bx, show that dx2 - 2a dx + (a2 + b2)y = 0
8. If y = (cos- 1x)2 , prove that (1 - x2) Y2 - xy1 - 2 =0.
d 2y dy
9. If y = a cos (In x) + b sin (In x), prove that x 2
dx2 + x dx +·y = 0.
2.16 SERIES EXPANSIONS OF FUNCTIONS
3 4
A series of the form ao + a1x + aix2 + a3x + a4 x + ··· + anX' + ···is called a
power series expansion of a functionf(x), where ao, ai, a1, ··.,an,··· are constants and
x is a variable.
We determine the coefficient ao, ai, a1, · . ., an. · ·· to specify power series by
finding successive derivatives .of the power series and evaluating them at x = 0. That
IS,
2 3 4 5
f(x) = ao + a1x + a1x + aµ + a¥ + asX + ··· + anX' + ··· .f(O) = ao
f'(x) = a1 + 2a2x + 3aµ 2 + 4a¥3 + 5asX4 + ·· · + nanXn-I + .'.· f '(0) =a1
2 2
f" (x) = 2a2 + 6aµ + 12a¥ + 20asX3 + ··· + n(n-J)anX'- + ··· j"(O) = 2a2
J:"(x) = 6a3 + 24a¥ + 60aµ 2 + ······ j"'(O) = 6a3 .
4 4
/ J(x) = 24a4 + 120aµ ········· / )(0) = 24a4
4
. , ["(O) f"'(O) / J(O)
So we have ao =f(O), a1 = f (0), a1 = 2! , a3 = 3! , a!I - 4!
. (n)
L.JSll .
Following the above pattern, we can write an = n!
Thus substituting these values in the power series, we have
, .L1Ql L1!!l 3 / 4J(O) 4 /nJ(O)
f(x) = f(O) + f (0) x + 2! x2 + 3! x + 4! x + ··· + n! X' + ···
This expansion of fl..x) is called the ~aclaurin series expansion.
The above expansion is also named as Maclaurin's Theorem and can be
stated as:
Iff(x) is expanded in ascending powers of x as an infinite series then,
4
. f "(O) f"'(O) / J(O) /nJ(O)
3
f(x)=f(O)+f'(O)x+ 21x2+31x +"41x4+ ···+--;i- X'+ .. :
Note that a function f can be expanded in the Maclaurin series if the functions
is defined in the interval containing 0 and its derivatives exist at x = 0.
The expansion is only valid if it is convergent.
Example 1: Expand/(x) = !
1 x in the Maclaurin series.
Solution: f is defined at x = 0 that is,f(O) = 1. Now we find successive derivatives of
f and their values at x = 0.
f'(x) = (-1) (1 +x)-2 and f'(O) = -1
f"(x) = (-1) (-2) (1 + xF3 andf "(O) = (-1) 2 ll_
f'"(x) = (-1)(-2)(-3) (1 + x)-4 and f"'(O) = (-1)3 LL
f( 4 )(x) = (-1)(-2) (-3)(-;4) (1 + xr5 and f( 4 )(x) = (-1>4 Li_
Following the pattern, we can write f (n)(O) = (-1 t [_!!__
Now substituting f(O) = l, f'(O) = -1, f"(O) = (-1)2 ll_
f"'(O) = (-1)3 LLJ(4)(0) = (-1/ Li_,··· f(n)(O) = (-l)n [_!!__in the formula.
4
, f "(0) f "'(O) / J(O)
f(x) = f(O) + f (0) x + ll_ x2 + LL x3 + Li_ x4 + · · ·
J(n)(O) n
+ 1 ,.. x + · · · we have
t.!!_ '
1 211.. 2 3~ 3 41!.. 4
1 +x =l+(-l)x+(-1) ll_ x +(-1) l1_ r+(-1) Li_ x
(-lt l!!..
+···+ l!!.. ~+···
= 1 - x + x2 - x3 + x 4
+ · · · + (-1 t ~ + ···
1 . -
Thus, the Maclaurin series for 1 + x is the geometric series with the first term
1 and common ratio - x.
Note: Applying the formula S = ~ r , we have

1
1 1
1- X + X2 - X3 + ··· = 1 -(-x) - -1 -+-X
Example 2: Find the Macfatirin series for sin x
Solution: Let f(x) = sinx, thenf(O) = sinO = 0.
f'(x) =cos x andf'(O) =cos 0 = l;f"(x) = -sinx andf"(O) = -sinO = O;
f"'(x) = - cos x and f"'(O) = - cos 0 =-1; j<4 ) (x) =- (- sinx) = sinx
and f <4) (0) = sin (0) = 0.
1<5l(x) =cos x and 1<5>(0) =cos 0 1,j<6l (x) sinx = . =-
6 7
and/ (O)=O;fC ) =-cosxand f (7)(0)=-1
)
Putting these values in the formula

f "(O) f"'(O) 3 /(4 )(0) 4 f( 5)(0) 5
f(x)=f(O)+f'(O)x+--x 2+ x + x + x + ... ,wehave
. ll ~ l1 ~
. 0 0 2 -1 3 0 4 1 5 0 6 -1 7
Smx = + l.x+ -x + - x + -x + - x +-x +-x + .... ,
~ . .~ l1 . ~ [§ l1
x3 xs x1
=x-- + - - - + ..... .
~ ~ l1
Example 3: Expand ax in the Maclaurin series.
Solution: Letf(x) =ax, then .
3
J'(x) = ax lna,f"(x) =ax(/nal, f'"(x)=ax (/na) ,
(4) ) x 4 (n) x n
f (x =a (Ina) , ... , f (x)=a (Ina).4
Putting x = 0 lnf(x),f'(x),f" (x),f"' (x),f( )(x), .. .f(n)(x), we get
0
f(O) ·= a =1,f'(O) =a0 In a= Ina, J"(O)=(lnai, f"'(O)= (In ai,
(4) 4 · (n) n
! (0) =(Ina) , ... ,f (O)=(lna).
Substituting these values in the formula
f(x) = f(O) + f'(O)x + f"(O) x 2 + f"'(O) x3 + ... .+ f(n)(O) xn + ... , we have
. ll ~ ~
2 3
x · (In a) (In a) 3 (In at n
a = 1 + (In a). x + x2 + x + ... + x + ...
ll ~ . ~
Note: If we put a =e in the above expansion, we get
x2 x3 xn
e2 = 1 + x + - + - + ... + - + ... , (":In e = 1)
ll ~ ~
Replacing x by 1, we have
1 1 1
e=l+l+-+-+ ... +-
. ll ~ ~
Example4: Expand(l +xf in the Maclaurin series

Solution: Let/ (x)=(l+xf. then
2
f'(x) =n(l +x)n-1, J"(x) = n(n-1)(1 +x)n- ,
f"'(x) = n(n- l)(n-2)(1 +xt3, f 4>(x) = n(n-l)(n-2)(n-3)(1 +x)n-4
Putting x = 0, we get .
f' (O) = (1+O)n=1, J'(O)=n(l
2
=n +or'
J''(O) = n(n-1)(1 +O)n- =n(n-1)
n-3
J'"(O) = n(n- l)(n-2)(1 +O) =n(n-l)(n-2)
/<4>(0)= n(n-l)(n-2)(n-3)(1 +ot-4=n(n-l)(n-2)(n-3)

Substituting these values in the formula
f(x) = /(0) +f'(O)x +· -/"(O)
-x 2
+
/"'(O)
x 3 + ... we have
~ 11
n_ 1 n(n-1) 2 n(n-l)(n-2) 3
(1+x ) - +n.x + x + x + ...
~ 11
2.17 TAILOR SERIES EXPANSIONS OF FUNCTIONS:
If f is defined in the interval containing 'a' and its derivatives of all orders
exist at x =a, then we can expand f (x) as
f(x) = f(a) + f'(a)(x-a)+ f"(a) (x-a) 2 + f"'(a) (x-a) 3
~ 11
4
f ( )(a) 4
f(n)(a)
+ (x-a) + ... + (x-at + ...
L1 . l!!
Let f(x) = a0 +a 1(x-a)+ a 2 (x-a) 2 + a 3(.x-a) 3 + aix-a)4 + ... ·
+ anCx-a)"+ ...
Obviously f(a) =a0 (": puttingx=a,allotherterrnsvanish)
1
f'(x) = a 1 +2£li (x-a) + 3a3 (x-af +4a4 (x-a/ + ... +nan (x-a),,__ + .. .
2
f" (x) = 2a2 + 6a3 (x- a)+ I2a4 (x- af + ... .+ n(n - I)an (x - af- + .. .
f"' (x) = 6a3 + 24a4 (x- a) + ...
Putting x =a, we getf' (a)= a,; f"(a) = 2a2 => a2 = f'~a); f"'(a) = 6a3
f"'(a)
a3 =
11
j<n>(a)
Following the above pattern, wehave a =- -
n l?J
Substituting the values of a0 , a" a 2 , a 3, ... , we get
f(x) = f(a) + f'(a)(x- a)+ f"(a) (x-a) 2 + f"'(a) (x-a) 3 + ...
~ 11
f(n)(a),. n
+ (x-a) + ... (A)
l!!
This expansion is the Taylor series for fat x = a. The expansion is only valid' if it is
convergent.
Ifa = 0, then the above expansion becomes
f(x) = /(0) + f'(O)x+ f"(O) xi+ f"'(O) x3 + ... + /(n)(O) xn + ...
. ~ ~ l!!
which is the Maclaurin series for/atx= 0.
Replacingx by x +hand a by x, the expansion in (A) can be written as
f(x+ h) = f(x) + f'(x)h+ f"(x) h 2 + f"'(x) h 3+ ... + /n)(x) hn + ... (B)
~ ll ~
The expansions in (B) is termed as Taylor's Theorem and can be stated as: If
x and hare two independent quantities andf(x + h) can be expanded in ascending power
of has an infinite series, then
f(x+ h) = f(x) + f'(x)h+ f"(x) hz + f"'(x) h3 + ... + f(n)(x) hn + ...
ll ll ~
Example 1: Find the Taylor series expansion of In (I + x) at x = 2.
Solution: Let/ (x) =In (I + x); then/ (2) =In (1 + 2) =In 3
Finding he successive derivatives of In (I + x) and evaluating them at x = 2
1
f'(x) = - and /'(2) = _1_= !
l+x 1+2 3
1
f"(x) = (-l)(l+xr2 and J"(2) = -c1 + 2r2 =
9
f"'(x) = (-1)(-2)(1+xf 3
and J"'(2) = 11. o+ 2r3 = 11
27
j< 4>(x)= (-1)(-2)(-3)(1+xr4 = (-1) 3 [l(l+x)--4 and f 4

>{2)=-[l
81
The Taylor series expansions of 'f' at x = a is
f(x) = f(a) + f'(a).(x-a) + f"(a) (x-a) 2 + f"'(a) (x-a) 3+ ...
ll ~
Now substituting the relative values, we have
1 ll ll
In (l+x) =In 3 + !(x-2)+ -9 (x-2) + 27 (x+2) + -81 (x-2) 4 + ...
2 3
3 ll . ll l1
2 3 4
x-2 (x-2) (x-2) (x-2)
= In 3 + - - 2 + 3 4 + ...
1.3 . 2.3 3.3 4.3
Example 2: Use the Taylor series expansion to find the value of sin 31°.
Solution: We take a=30° = -1t
6
Let f(x) =sin x, then 1(7t)

6
=sin 7t = .!.
6 2
Now taking the successive derivative of sin x and evaluating them at
.
7t6 ,we have
f'(x) =cos x and !'(~) ·=cos~ =~
f"(x) = -sinx and f" ( ~) = - sin ~ = ~l

. f"'(x) = -cosx and /"'(~)=-cos~= - ~ .
4
f< >(x) = -(-sinx) = sinx and /
(4) (1t) . 1t = I
- =sm-
6 6 2
Thus the Taylor series expansion at a= 1t is
6
1 J3
sinx k+ ~ (x-: )+ J (x-i)' +-~ (x-: )' +· ·
=
k+ ~ (x-:h~ (x-i)' +-2: (x-:J +· ·

=
For x =31° ,x--

1t = (31° - 30°) = 1° :::=:.017455
6
J3 . 1(.017455 )2 -J3(·
. 31° : :=: -1 + -(.017455)--
sm - .017455 )3
2 2 4 12
: :=: .5 + .015116-0.000076 : :=: .5150
2 3
Example3: Prove that e x+h =ex { I+ h + -h + ·-
h + ...}
~ ~
Solution: ·
Letf(x + h) =ex+\ then/(x) =ex ... (i)
By successive derivatives of (i) w.r.t 'x', we have
f'(x) =ex~ f"(x) =ex, f'"(x) =«!etc.
By Taylor's Theorem we have
h2 h3
f (x+h) = f(x)+hf'(x)+ ~ f"(x) + ~ f'"(x) + ...
Putting the relative values, we get
2 3
e
x+h xhx h x h x •
=e+ e + ~e+~e+ ...
2 3
h h
=ex [ 1 + h +-+-+ . ]
~ ~ ...
EXERCISE 2.8
1. Apply the Maclaurin series expansion to prove that:
2 3 4
(1.) ln (1 +x) = x- x + x - x .+ ..... .
2 3 4
2 4 6
x x x
(ii) cos x = 1- - +. - - - + ..... .
. ~ ~ ~
2 3
~ x x x
(iii) "lfl T A = 1+- - - + - + ..... .
2 8 16
2 3
x x x
(iv) e =l+x+[l + lJ+ ..... .
2 3
2x 4x 8x
(v) e = 1 + 2x + ~ + lJ + ......
2. Show that:
h2 h3
cos(x+h)=cosx-hsinx- ~ cosx+ sinx+ ..... . lJ
and evaluate cos 61 °.
2 2 3 3
2. Show that 2x+h =2x {1 +(In 2)h + (In~ 2
h + (In ) h + ... }
2 lJ
2.18 GEOMETRICAL INTERPRETATION OF A DERIVATIVE
Let AB be the arc of the graph off - - - - - - - - - - - - -
\
defined by the equationy=f(x). y
LetP(x,f(x)) and Q (x + f>x,f(x +ox)) be two B
neighbouring points on the arc AB where x,

x+oxeD1 .
The line PQ is secant of the curve and
it makes LXSQ with the positive direction of
the x-axis. (Seethe figure 2.21.1)
0
Drawing the ordinates PM, QN and
FIGURE 2.21.l
perpendicularPRtoNQ, we have
1 02 Calculus and Analytic Geometry
RQ =NQ-NR =NQ-MP= f(x+ '&x)-f(x)

and PR =MN = ON-OM=x+ '&x-x= '&x
Thus tan m LXSQ= tan m LRPQ
RQ f(x + '&x)- f(x)
= PR = '&x
Revolving the secant line PQ towards P, some of its successive
positions PQ 1, PQ2 , PQ3, ••• are shown in the figure 2.21.2. Points Qi (i = 1, 2, 3, .... )
are getting closer and closer to the point P and PRi i.e; '&xi (i = 1, 2, 3, ... ) are
approaching zero. y
In other words
we can say that the
revolving secant line
approaches the tangent
line PT as its limiting
position at P while ox
approaches zero, that is,
FIGURE 2.21.2
tanmLXSQ-~ tanmLXTP when '&x ~ 0

f(x+8x) - f(x)
or -~ tan mLXTP as '&x ~o.
'&x
. f(x + &) - f(x) L V'T''P
so L zm = t an m ..11. .L
Bx ~o &
or f'(x) =tan mLXTP

Thus the slope of the tangent line to the graph of 'f' at (x,f(x)) isf(x).
Example 1: Discuss the tangent line to the graph of the function x at x I I = O,
Solution: Let f(x) =Ix I
f(O) =I 01 = 0 and,
f(O+fu)=I 0 + '&x I= j 8x I,
so /(0+8~)- /(O) = Iox I - o
and f(O + 8x)- /(0)
=-lox-I
8x Bx
Thus f' (0) = Lim j & I

8x ~o 8x
I
Because j 8x = 8x when 8x > 0
and j 8x I= - 8x when 8x < 0,
so we consider one - sided limits
Lim j 8xj . 8x
= L im -= 1
8x ~o+ 8x 8x ~o+ 8x
Lim j &j -8x
= Lim - =-1
and 8x ~o- 8x 8x ~o- Bx
y
The right hand and left hand
limits are not equal, therefore, the
I
Lim j <>x does not exist.
& ~o &
This means that f' (0), the
derivative of f at x = 0 does not 0
exist and there is no tangent line FIGURE 2.21.3

to the graph of f at x = 0 (see the
figure 2.21.3).
2
Example 2: Find the equations of the tangents to the curve x _.:._ y2 - 6y = 0 at the
point whose abscissa is 4.
2
Solution: Given that x -y2-6y=O (i)
We first find the y-coordinates of the points at which the equations of the
tangents are to be found. Putting x = 4 is (i) gives
~
2
16 - y2 - 6y = 0 y + 6y - 16 = 0
-6 ± ~36 + 64 -6 ± .JiOo -6 ± 10 .
or Y = 2 2
= 2 ,
that lS
-6-10 -16
y= -6+10 =.i=2
2 2
or y =
2
=2 =-8
Thus the points are (4, 2) and (4, - 8).
Differentiating (i) w.r.t. 'x' wehave
2x - 2y dy --:- 6 dy = 0 ~ 2 dy (y + 3) = 2x ~ dy = x
dx dx dx dx y+3
- -~--- __
..-...___..
104 Calculus·and Analytic Geometry
4
Theslope of the tangent to (i) at (4, 2) = - - = i
2+3 s
Therefore the equation of the tangent to (i) at (4, 2) is
4
y-2=-(x-4) => Sy-10=4x-I6
s
or Sy= 4x - 6
4 4
The slope of the tangent to (i) at (4, - 8) = =
-8 + 3 s
Therefore the equation of the tangent to (i) at (4, - 8) is
4
y - (-8) =-s(x-4)
or Sy+ 40 = -4x + 16 4x +Sy+ 24 =0

2.19 INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS
Let/ be defined on an interval (a, b) and let x 1 , x 2 E (a, b) . Then
(i) f is increasing on the interval (a, b) if f(x 2) > f(x 1) whenever x2 > x 1
(ii) f is decreasing on the interval (a, b) if f(x 2) < f(x 1) whenever x2 > x 1
a X1 X2 b a X1 X2 b
f(x,;) > f(x 1) ifx2 > x 1 f(x 2) <f(x 1) ifx2 > x 1
We see that a differentiable function/ is increasing on (a, b) if tangent lines to

its graph at all points (x,f(x)) where x E (a, b) have positive slopes, that is,
f' (x) > . 0 for all x such that a < x < b
and f is decreasing on (a, b) if tangent lines to its graph at all points (x,f(x))
where x E (a, b) , have negative slopes, that is,
f'(x) < Oforallxsuchthata < x < b
Now we state the above observation in the following theorem.
Theorem:
Let/ be a differentiable function on the open interval (a, b). Then
(i) f is increasing on (a, b) if f ' (x) > 0 for each x E(a, b)
(ii) /is decreasing on (a, b)if f'(x) < OforeachxE(a, b)
2
Let f(x) = x , then ·
f(x2)-f(x 1) = x~ -x~ =(x2 -x 1)(x2 +x 1)
If xuX2 E(-oo,O)andx2 > x 1,then
f(x2)-f(x 1) < O(·: x 2- x 1 >0andx2 +x 1 <0)
~ f(x2) <f(x1)
=> f is decreasing on the interval (- oo, 0).
If x 1 ,x2 E(O,oo)andx2 >x 1 , then
f(x2)- f(x 1) > 0
~ f(x2) >f(x1)
~ f is increasing on the interval (O,oo).
Here f' (x) = 2x and/' (x) < 0 for all x E(- oo, 0) , therefore,
f is decreasing on the interval (- oo, 0)
Also f'(x) > 0 for all x E (0, oo ), so/ is increasing on the interval (0, oo).
From the above theorem we can conclude that
1. f' (x 1) < 0 ~ f is decreasing at x 1
2. /'(x 1) =O ~ f is· neither increasing nor decreasing at x 1
3. /'(x 1) > 0 ~ f is increasing at x 1
Now we illustrate the ideas discussed so far considering the function f defined as
2 (I)
f(x)=4x-x
To draw the graph off, we form a table of some ordered pairs which belong to f
Ir~(x) I ~; I : I : I : I : I : I ~5 I
The graph off is show in the figure 2.22.1

y
(5, -5)
(-1, -5)
FIGURE 2.22.1
y'
From the graph off, it is obvious that y rises from 0 to 4 as x increases from 0
to 2 and y falls from 4 to 0 as x increases from 2 to 4.
In other words, we can say that the function f defined as in (I) is increasing in
the interval 0 < x < 2 and is decreasing in the interval 2 < x < 4.
The slope of the tangent to the graph off at any point in the interval 0 < x < 2,
in which the function f is increasing is positive because it makes an acute angle with the
positive direction ofx-axis. (See the tangent line to the graph off at (1, 3)).
But the slope of the tangent line to the graph off at any point in the interval
2 < x < 4 in which the functionfis decreasing is negative as if makes an obtuse angle
with the positive direction of x-axis. (See the tangent line to the graph off at (3, 3)).
As we know that-the slope of the tangent line to the graph off at (x,f(x)) is
f' (x), so the derivative of the function/, i.e.,f'(x) is positive in the interval in, which/is
increasing andf'(x) is negative in the interval in which f "is decreasing.
The function funder consideration is actually increasing at each x for which
f'(x)>O.
i.e., 4-2x>O :::::} - 2x > -4
Thus it is increasing in the interval (- oo, 2). Similarly we can show that it is
decreasing in the interval (2, oo).
Now we give an analytical approach to the above discussion.
Let f be an increasing function in some interval in which it is differentiable. Let
x and x + 8x be two, points in that interval such that x+ ox> x.
As the function f, is increasing in the interval, it conveys the fact that[(x +ox) >f (x).
I
Consequentlywehave,f(x+8x)-f(x)>Oand(x+Ox)-x > 0, that is,

f(x+Sx) - f(x)> 0 and 8x > 0
f(x+8x)- f(x) >
or 0
8x
The above difference quotient becomes one-sided limit
f(x+8x)- f(x)
Lim
8x --)-Q+ 8x
As f is differentiable, so f '(x) exists and one sided limit must equal to f '(x).
Thusf'(x)>O
2
Example 1: Determine the values ofx for which f defined as f (x) =x + 2x - 3 is
(i) increasing (ii) decreasing.
· (iii) find the point where the function is neither increasing nor decreasing.
\,,
"
2
Solution: The table of some ordered pairs satisfying f(x) = x + 2x- 3 is given
below:
1r ~(x) I ; I ~ I =: I ~ I : I ~ 3 I: I
The graph off is shown in the figure 2.22.2.
f'(x)=2x+2
(i) Theconditionf'(x) > 0 => 2x+2 > 0
=> 2x > -2 x
which gives x > - 1, so the function f
defined asf(x) = x 2 + 2x - 3 is increasing
in the interval (-1, oo).
(ii) Andtheconditionf'(x) < 0 = 2x+2< 0
FIGURE 2.22.2
=> 2x<-2
which gives x < -1, so the function funder consideration in the example 1 is
decreasing in the interval (-oo, -1 ).
(iii) The function is neither increasing nor decreasing where f'(x) = 0, that is,
2x+2 =O => x=-1.
2
If x = -1, thenf(-1) = (-1) + 2(-1)-3 = -4. Thus/is neither increasing nor
decreasing at the point (-1, -4).
Note: Any point where f is neither increasing nor decreasing is called a stationary
point, provided that f(x) = 0 at that point.
Example 2: Determine the intervals in which f is increasing or it is decreasing if

f (x) = x 3 - 6x 2 + 9x Y
2 (I , 4)
Solution: /'(x)=3x -12x+9
2
=3(x -4x+ 3)
=3(x- l)(x-3)
f'(x) > 0
=> x 2 -4x+3 > 0
=> (x- l)(x-3) > 0
y'
(x- l)(x-3) > 0 in the intervals (-oo, 1) and (3, oo).
f(x) < 0 => (x-l)(x-3) < 0
(x-l)(x-3) < 0 ifx>landx<3,thatisl<x<3.
2.20 RELATIVE EXTREMA
Let (c - &x, c + &x) c DJ, (domain of a function/), where &x is small positive
number.
If/ (c) ~/ (x) for all x E (c - &x, c + &x) then the function/ is said to have a
relativemaximaatx=c.
Similarly if f (c) . :;, f (x), for all x E ( c - &x, c + fa), then the function f has
relativeminimaatx=c. y
Both relative maximum and

relative minimum are called in general
relative extrema.
The graph of a function is shown
in the adjoining figure. It has relative
maxima atx = b andx = d. But atx =a and
x = c, it has relative minima . .
Note that the relative maxima at
x =dis not the highest point of the graph. y' .
2.21 CRITICAL VALUESAND CRITICAL POINTS
If c E DJ andf'(c) = 0 or,/'(c) does not exist, then the number cis called a
critical value for f while the point (c,f(c)) on the graph off is named as a critical point.
Note: There are functions which have extrema (maxima or minima) at the points
where their derivatives do not exist. For example, the derivatives of the
function f and <P defined as.
f(x)= lxl y
and <P (x) = [22-x x

+x x _
;oo Graph of lxl ·
\
I
I
do not exist at (0, 0) and (0, 2).respectively.
But f has minima at (0, 0) and ·</J has
maxima at (0, 2). See the adjoining figures .
x'....,....,..,...,..,.............,...po""
co.....
. o>......,.'T"T"1....,..,...+ x
y
I Those critical points on the graph off at

I y'
2-x x>O
which f' = 0 are called stationary points of f. f(x) { 2 +x x~O
Now we discuss relative maxima and
relative minima of the differentiable function f
defined as:
y=f(x)=x3 -3x2 +4 ... (1)
y'
Graph off is drawn with the help of some ordered pairs tabulated as below:
x -3/2 -1 -1/2 0 1/2 1 3/2 2 5/2 3
y -49/8 0 25/8 4 27/8 2 5/8 0 7/8 4
Nowdifferentiating(i)w.r.t. 'x'we get
J' (x)= 3x2-6x= 3x(x-2)
f'(x)=O => 3x(x-2)=0 =>x=O or x=2
Now we consider an interval (-8x, 8x) in the neighbourhood of x = 0. Let
0- Eis a point in the interval (-8x, 0). We see that
f'(O-s) =3(-s)(-s-2) (·: f'(x)=3x(x-2))
=3s(s+2)>0 (·:s>O,s+2>0)
That isf' (x) is positive for all x E (-8x, 0)
Let 0 + E1 is a point in the interval (0, 8x), then we have
f' (0 +s 1) = 3(s 1)(s 1 - 2)
=3s 1 (2-s 1) < 0 (·: 2-E 1 > 0, s 1 > 0), that is
f'(x) is negative for allx E (0, 8x) y
We note that f' (x) > 0 beforex= 0, f'(x) = 0

atx=Oandf'(x) < Oafterx = 0.
The graph of f shows that it has relative
maxima atx = 0. 0 (2,0)
Thus we conclude that a function has

relative maxima at x = c if f' (x) > 0, before
x= c,f'(x)=Oandf'(x) < 0 afterx= c.
Considering an interval (2 - Ox, 2 + 8x) in the neighbourhood of x = 2 we find

· the values of f'(2-s)andf'(2+s)when2-E E (2-bx,2)and2+E E (2, 2+bx)
f'(2-s)=3(2-s)(2-s-2) [·: f'(x)=3x(x-2)]
=3(2-E)(-E)
=-3E(2-E)<0 (·: E > 0, 2 - E > 0)
and f' (2+s)=3(2 +s)(2+s-2)
=3s(2+s) > 0 (": E > 0, 2 +s > 0)
We see that f'(x) < Obeforex= 2, f' (x) =O atx= 2·and f' (x)>O afterx=2:
. It is obvious from the grapli that it has relative minima atx = 2.
Thus we conclude that a function has relative minima at x = c if /' (x) < 0
beforex = c, f'(x) = 0 at x = c and/' (x) > 0 after x = c.
First Derivative Rule:
Let f be differentiable in neighbourhood of c wheref' (c) = 0 .
1. If f' (x) changes sign from positive to negative as x increases through c, then /(c)
is the relative maxima off
2. Iff' (x) changes sign from negative to positive asx increases through c, then f'(c)
is the relative minima off
Note: 1. A stationary point is called a turning point if it is either a maximum point or a
minimum point.
2.If f'(x)>Obeforethepointx=a,f'(x)=Oatx = aandf'(x)> Oafterx =a,
then f does not have a relative maxima. Y
3
See the graph off(x) = x • In this case, we
have
f' (x) = 3x2 , that is,
f' (0-s)= 3(-E)2 = 3E2 > 0
and f' (0+s)=3(E) 2 = 3E2 > 0
The function f is increasing before x = 0
and also it is increasing after x = 0.
Such a point of the function is called the y'
point ofinflexion.
Second Derivative Test:
We have noticed that the first derivative f '(x) of a function changes its sign
from positive to negative at the point where f has relative maxima, that is, f' is a
decreasing function in the neighbouring interval containing the point where f has
relative maxima.
Thus f" (x) is negative at the point wher '/ has a relative maxima.
Butj'(x) of a function/ch,'nges its sien from negative to positive at the point
where f has relative minima, that is, f' is an increasing function in the neighbouring.
interval containing the point where/ has relative minima.
Thus /"(x) is positive at the pointwhue.f has relative minima.
Second Derivative Rule
Let f be differentia1function in a n.ci ~hbourhood ofc where f' (c) = 0 . Then
1. f has relative maxima at c if/" (c) < 0.
2. /hasrelativeminimaat c if f"(c) > 0.
Example 1: Examine the function defined as
f(x) = x' - 6x' -t 9x for extreme values.
Solution: f' (x) = J/ - 1ix +9
= 3(x"-4x+3)=3("t-l)(x-3)
First Method
Ifx= 1 - i::, where i:: is v 0 ry very small positive number, then
(x- l)(x-3 , - (1--1;- l)(l-c: - i) -=-(-s)(-i:-2)=i::(2+i::) > 0
that is, f' (x) > 0beforcx =1 . Forx-:::· l + s, \Ve h:we
(x-J)(x-3)=(1 +i::-1)(1 h::-3)~.=s(-2+i::)=-i::(2-i::)<O
that is, f' (x) < 0 ai1cr x-= i

As f'(x) > Obefore x= I,f'(x)=Oatx-= 1 andf'(x)< Oafterx= 1.
thus f has relative maxima at x = 1 and f( 1) = 1 - 6 + 9 = 4.
Letx = 3 - i::, then
(x - l)(x - 3) = (3 - E- 1 )(3 - z -3) = (2 - E) (-E) = - E(2 - i::) < 0
thatis/'(x) < Obefore x= 3.
Forx=3+i::
(x-l)(x-3)=(3 + £-1)(3+i::-3)=(2+s)(-i::)>O
that is, f'(x) > Oafterx=3.
Asf'(x) < 0 before x=3,f'(x) =OaLr=3and/'(x) > Oafterx=3,
Thus f hasrelativeminimaatx=3,
2
and/(3)=3(3) -12(3) +9=0
SecondMethod: f" (x) = 3(2x-4) = 6(x-2)
f" (1) = 6(1-2) =-6 < O,therefore,
Calculus and Analytic Geometry
f hasrelativemaximaatx= 1 and/(1)=(1)3-6(1)2+9(1).
=1-6+9=4
f" (3) = 6(3 - 2) = 6 > 0, therefore f has relative
minimaatx= 3 and/(3) = 27 -54 + 27 = 0
Example 2: Examine the function defined asf(x) = 1 + x3 for extreme values
Solution: Given that/(x) = 1 + x3
2
Differentiatingw.r.t. 'x', we get ftx) = 3x
2
f'(x)=O => 3x =0 => x=O
f'(x)=6x and /"(0)=6(0)=0
The second derivative does not help in determining the extreme values.
f'(O-s)= 3(0-s}2=3s2 > O
2 2
f'(O+s)=3 (O+s) =3s > O
As the first derivative does not change sign at x = 0, therefore (0, 0) is a point of
inflexion. .
1
Example 3 : Discuss the function defined as f (x) = sin x + r;:; cos 2x for extreme
2v2
values in the interval (0, 27r ).
Solution: Given that f(x) = sinx + ~ (cos 2x) .

2v2
f' (x) =cos x + lr;:; (-2 sin 2x) =cos x - ~sin 2x (i)
2v2 v2
=cos x- }i (2 sinx cos x) =cos x - J2 sin x cos x
=cos x (1- Ji sin x)

Now f'(x)= 0 => cos x(l-{isin x) =0
1t 37t
=> cosx =0 => X=- -
2' 2
1 1t 37t
or 1-Jisinx=O => sinx = J2 => X=- -
2' 2
Differentiating (i) w.r.t. 'x', we have
f"(x) = -sinx - }i (cos 2x) x 2 =-sin x - J2 cos 2x

As /"(7t) =-sin~ -J2cos n = -1- J2 x (-1)= J2 -1>0

2 . 2 t
3 3
and /" ( n) = - sin n - J2 cos 3n = -1 (-1) - J2 ( -1 )= 1 + J2 >0
2 2 .
Thus f(x) has minimum values for x =~- and 3

x = n
2 2
As /" ( ~) = - sin : - J2 cos ~=- ~- J2. 0 = - ~ <0

and
3 3 3
/" ( :) = - sin : - J2 cos ; =- ~- J2. 0 = - ~ <0 .
Thus f ( x) has minimum values for x = ~ and x = 3n
4 4
EXERCISE 2.9
1. Determine the intervals in which/ is increasing or decreasing for the domain
mentioned in each case.
(i) f(x)=sinx XE (-7t, 7t)
(ii). f(x)=cosx XE ( - 7t, ~)
2
2
(iii) f(x)=4-x · • XE(-2,2)
2
(iv) f(x)=x +3x+2 : XE (-4, 1)
2. Find the extreme values for the following functions defined as:
(i) /(x)=l-x 3 (ii) f(x)=i-x-2
(iii) f(x) = 5x2 -6x+ 2 (iv) f(x) = 3x2
2
(v) f(x)=3x -4x+5 (vi) f(x)=2x 3 -2x2 -36x+3
4 2
(vii) f(x)=x -4x (viii) f(x)=(x-2)2(x-1)
(ix) f(x)=5+3x-x 3
3. Find the maximum and minimum values of the function defined by the following
equation occurring in the inte~al [O, 2n]
f(x) =sinx + cosx.
4. Show that y = In x has maximum value at x = e.

x
5. Show that y = xx has maximum value at x = ~.

114 Calculus andAnalytic Geometry
Application of Maxima and Minima

Now we apply the concept of maxima and minima to the practical problems.
We first form the functional relation of the form y = f (x) from the given information
and then find the maximum or minimum value off as required. Here we solve some
examples relating to maxima and minima problems.
Example 1: Find two positive integers whose sum is 9 and the product of one with the
square of the other will be maximum.
Solution: Letx and 9- x be the two required positive integers such that
x(9 - x )2 will be maximum.
Let /(x) = x(9-x)2. Then
f'(x) = 1.(9 -x)2+x.2(9-x)x(-1)
= (9-x)[9~x-2x] =(9-x)(9-3x)=3(9-x)(3-x)
f'(x) = 0 ~ 3(9-x)(3-x)=O ~ x=9 or x=3
In this casex = 9 is not possible because
9 - x = 9- 9 = 0 which is not positive integer.
f"(x)= 3[(-1)(3-x)+ (9-x) x (-1)] = 3[-3 + x-9 + x]
= 3[2x-12] = 6(x-6)
As /"(3) = 6(3 - 6) = 6(-3) = -18 which is negative.
Thusf(x) gives the maximum value if x = 3, so the other positive integer is 6
because 9 - 3 = 6.
Example 2: What are the dimensions of a box of a square base having largest volume if
the sum of one side of the base and its height is 12 cm.
Solution: Let the length of one side of the base (in cm) be x and the height of the box
(in cm) be h, then V = x 2 h
,.
It is given that x+h= 12 ~ h= 12-x
2
Thus V=x (12-x)and
dv 2 2
- = 2x(12 - x) + x (-1) = 24x - 3x = 3x(8 - x)
dx
dv = O ~3x(8 - x) = 0. In this case x cannot be zero,

dx
so 8- x= 0 ~ x = 8.
2
-ddx2v = 24 - 6 x wh"ich is
· negative
· for x =8
Thus Vis maximum if x = 8(cm) and h = 12 -8 = 4(cm)
· Unit 2: Differentiation 115
Example 3: The perimeter of a triangle is 20 centimetres. If one side is of length 8
centimetres, what are lengths ofthe other two sides for maximum area of the triangle?
Solution: Let the length of one unknown side (in cm) be x, then the length of the other
Unknown side (in cm) will be20-x-8=12 -x.
Let y denote the square of the area of the triangle, then we have
20
y = 10(10 - 8)(10-x)(l0-12 + x) (·: s = - = 10 and area
2
of the triangle= Jx(x - a)(s - b)(s - c)
. y= 10.2(10-x)(x-2)=20(-x2 +12x-20)
· dy = 20(-2x + 12)= -40(x-6)
dx
dy = 0 => x=6
dx
d2y
- = ~40(1) = -40
dx2 . .
d ~ is - ve, so x = 6 gives the maximum area of the triangle. The length

2
As
dx
of other unknown side = 12- 6=6(cm)
Thus the lengths of the other two sides are 6 cm and 6 cm.
Example 4: An open.box of rectangular base is to be made from 24 cm by 45cm
cardboard by cutting out square sheets of equal size from each comer and bending the
sides. Find the dimensions of comer squares to obtain a box having largest possible
volume.
Solution: Let x(in cm) be the length of a side of each square sheet to be cut off from each
comer of the cardboard. Then the length and breadth of the resulting box (in cm) will be
45 - · 2x and 24 - 2x respectively. Obviously the height of the box (in cm) will be x.
Thus the volume V of the box (in cubic cm) will be given by
V=x(24-2x)(45-2x)=2x(12-x)(45-2x) .tf.x..,-------.~:x .
2
= 2x( 540 - 69x + 2x ) •
. dV
· and -
dx
= 2[1.(2x 2 -69x + 540) + (4x-69)]
2
...
24-2x
=2(6x -138x+540) •.f ...... 45 - 2x ..........

=12[x2 -23x+90]=12(x-5)(x-18) ~ x~--------""x
-~
-dV = 0 => 12(x-5)(x-18) =0 x=5or .x=I8

dx
=> x=5 [·: ifx=18,then12-x=12-18=-6,thatis,
Vis negative which is not possible]
d 2V
- = 12(2x-23)
dx2
2
d V is negativefor x =5 because12(2 x 5 -23)=12 (-13)
dx 2
Thus V will be maximum if the length of a side of the comer square to be cut off is 5 cm.
2
Example 5: Find the point on the graph of the curve y = 4 - x which is closest to the
point(3,4).
Solution: Let/be distance between a point(x,y) on the curvey=4-x2 and the point
(3,4). Then/= ~(x-3) 2 +(y-4) 2

= ~(x-3) 2 +(4-x 2 -4) 2 (·: (x,y)is on the curve y = 4 -x 2 )
= ~(x-3) 2 +x 4
y
(0, 4)
y'
Now we findx for which l is minimum.

di 1
- = ~
3
2 4
. [(2(x-3)+4x )]
dx 2. (x-3) + x •
= _!_. 2(2x 3 + x - 3)
21 .
=l(2x3 + x-3)
I
= .!.cx-1)(2x 2 + 2x + 3)
I
di 1
- =0 ~ -(x-1)(2x +2x+3)=0 ~ x-1=0 or 2x 2 +2x+3=0.
2
dx I
Unit 2: Differentiation . 117
~ x= 1
2
(·: 2x + 2x + 3 = 0 gives complex roots)
I is positive fqr 1 - E and 1 + E where E is very very small positive real number.
Also 2x 2 + 2x +3 = 2(x 2 +x + _!_)+ 2- = 2(x+l) 2 +2-is positive, for x = 1 - E

4 2 2 2
and x= 1+i>
The sign of -di depends on the factor x -1

dx .
x - 1 is negative for x = 1 - E because x - 1 = 1 - E- 1 = -E .. . .• (i)
x - 1 is positive for x = 1 + E because x - 1 = 1 + E - 1 = E ....• (ii)-
From (i) and(ii), we conclude that di changes sign from-veto+ ve at x = 1

dx .
Thus I has a minimum value at x = 1
Putting x = 1 in y = 4 ·_ x2 , we get they-coordinate of the required point which
is 4- (1)2=3
Hence the required point on the curve is ( 1, 3).
EXERCISE 2.10
1. Find two positive integers whose sum is 30 and their product will be
maximum.
2. Divide 20 into two parts so that the sum oftheir squares will be minimum.
3. Find two positive inte~er~hose. sum is 12 and the product of one with the
square of the other will be"ntaximum. · · .
-,
4. The perimeter of a triangle is 16 centimetres. If one side is of length 6 cm, what
are length of the other sides for maximum area of the triangl~?
S. ' Find the dimensions of a rectangle of largest area having perimeter 120
centimetres.
2
6. Find the lengths of the sides Ma variable rectangle having area 36 cm when its
perimeter is minimum.
7. A box with a square base and open top is to have a volume of 4 cubic dm. Find the
dimensions of the box which will require the least material.
8. Find the dimensions of a rectangular garden having perimeter 80 metres if its area
is to be maxinmm.
9. An open tank of square base of side x afl.d vertical sides is to be constructed to

contain a given quantity of water. Find the depth in terms of x if the expense of
lining the inside of the tank with lead will be least.
10. Find the dimensions ofthe rectangle of maximum area which fits inside the semi-
circle ofradius 8 cm as shown in the figure.
11. Findthepointonthecurve y ~ x2-I thatisclosesttothepoint(3,-1).
12. Find the point on the curve y= x2+ 1 that is closest to thepoint(18, 1).
Unit 3: Integration 119
Integration
3.1 INTRODUCTION
When the derived function (or differential coefficient) of a function is known,
then the aim to find the function itself can be achieved. The technique or method to find
such a function whose derivative is given involves the inverse process of differentiation,
called anti-derivation or integration. We use differentials of variables while applying
method of substitution in integrating process. Before the further study of anti-derivation,
we first discuss the differentials of variables.
3.1.1 Differentials ofVariables
Let/ be a differentiable function in the intervala<x< b, definedasy= f(x) , then
8y = f (x + x) - f (x)
8y f(x+8x)- f'(x)
and lim = lim = f'(x), that is
8x~O 8x 8x~O 8x
dy
= f'(x)
dx
We know that before the limit is reached, By differs from f '(x) by a very
8x
small real number s.
Let By = f'(x) +s where E is very small
8x
or 8y = f'(x )8x + s8x (i)
The term f'(x) 8x being more important than the term s8x, is called the differential ,
of the dependent variable y and is denoted by dy (ot df)
Th~ dy~W8x ·oo
As dx=(x)'8x=(l)8x,so
the differential ofx is denoted by dx and is defined by the relation dx = 8x,
The equation (ii) becomes
dy=f'(x)dx (iii)
Note. Instead of dy, we can write df, that is, df = f'(x) dx where f'(x) being
coefficient of differential is calied differential coefficient
3.1.2 Distinguishing Between dy and ()y

The tangent line is drawn to the
· graph of y = f (x) at P(x, f (x) and MP is
the ordinate of P, that is, MP = f(x) y
(see Fig. 3.1.)
Let Ox be small number, then the
point N is located at x + Ox on the x-axis.
Let the vertical line through N cut the
tangent line at T and the graph off at Q. &
Then thepointQis (x + 8x, f(x+8x), so -~~~--o+--x-u~-~N-(x_+_&_)----1x~
.8 y=dx=PR Figure; 3.1
and oy= RQ = RT+ TQ

=tan rp8x + TQ
where rp is the angle which the tangent PT makes with the positive direction of th~x-axis.
or 8y=f'(x)dx+ TQ (·: tan rp = f'(x))
=> oy=dy+ TQ
We see that 8y is the rise off for a change Ox inx atx where as dy is the rise of the
tangent line atP corresponding to same change 0x inx.
The importance of the differential is obvious from the figure 3.1. As ,8x
approaches 0, the value of dy gets closer and closer to that of 8y , so for small values
of8x,
dy ;::: · 8y
or 8y :::: f'(x)dx [·: dy= f'(x)dx] (iv)

Weknowthat8y = f(x+8x)-f(x)
f(x +Ox)=f(x) + 8y
But 8y :::: dy, ~o
f(x+&x):::: f(x)+oy (v)

or f(x+&x) ::::f(x)+f'(x)dx (vi)
Example 1: Find8yanddyofthe function defined as

f(x)=x 2 , whenx=2anddx=0.01
2
Solution: Asf(x) = x ,sof(x)=2x
2
8x = f(x+8x)-f(x)=(x+8x)2-x
= 2x8x+(8x)2 =2xdx+(dx)2 (·: 8x=dx)
2
Thus/(2+0.01)-/(2) = 2(2)(0.01)+(0.01)
= 0.04+0.0001 = 0.0401, that is
8y= 0.0401 when.x=2and8x=dx=0.01
Also dy = f'(x)dx
= 2(2) x (0.01)=0.04 (·: f'(x)=2x,x=2anddx=O.Ol)
Thus8y-dy = 0.0401- 0.04=0.0001
3.1.3 Finding ;t by Using Differentials

We explain the process in the following example.
Example2: Using differentials find dy when y lnx =Inc

dx x
Solution: Finding differentials of both sides of the given equation, we get
d[ ~- In x] =
d [In c] =0
using d(f±g)=df±dg, we have
0
d[~]-d (lnx) = ~ !(y ~)-~.dx=O
us mg d (Jg) = fdg + gdf, we get
yd ( -1) +-dy--dx=O
1 1
x x x
1 dx )+-dy--dx=
y x ( --2 1 1 1
0 => -dy 1 + -y2 dx
= -dx
x x x x x x
dy = ( x:y }ix
dy x+y
Thus = [·: dy = f' (x)cix]
dx, x
3.1.4 Simple Application ofDifferentials
Use of differentials for approximation is explained in the following examples.
Example 3 : Use d.ifferentials to approximate the value of J0 .
Solution : Let f(x) = Fx
There f(x +ox)= .Jx+8x
As the nearest perfect square root to 17 is 16, so we take x = 16 and 8x = ·c1x, = 1
Then y = /(16) = Jl6 = 4
Using f(x + 8x) ~ f (x) + dy
·~ f(x)+ f' (x)cix,we have
/(16+1) ~ /(16)+ ~ x (1)

2'\/ 16
(·: f' (x) = 21)
~ 1
4+--=4+.!.=4.125
2x4 8
Hence J0 ~ 4.125
Example 4: Use differentials to approximate the value of~
Solution : Let f(x) = Vx then
y = oy = f ( x + 8x) = Vx +Ox = Vx + cix [·: 8x = dx and f' (x) = \ J

3x 3
As the nearest perfect cube root to 8.6 is 8, so We ~ake x = 8 and dx = 0.6, then
f (8) = ~ = 2 and . f' (8) = ~ = -· l_ = _!_
- 3x4 12
3(8) 3
so dy = f' (x)dx = _!_x (0.6) = 0.05
12
Using f (x +ox) = f (x) + dy, we have
/(8 + 0.6) = /(8) + 0.05
= 2+0.05=2.05
But using calculator, we find that~ is approxmately equal to 2.0488.
Example 5: Using differentials, find the approximate value sin 46° of
Solution: Lety=sinx, then
y+oy = sin(x+ox)=sin(x+dx) (·:ox= dx)
7t
We take x = 45° = - and c1x = 1° ::::: 0.01745
4
Hence dy =cos x dx (·: : (sinx) =cos x)
::::: (cos 45°)(0.01745) = }i(0.01745)
::::: 0.7071(0.01745)
::::: 0.01234
Using f(x+8x) ::::: f(x)+dy we have
sin(46°) ~sin 45° + dy ~ 0.7071+0.01234=0.71944
= 0.7194
Using calculator, we find sin46° approximately equal to 0.71934.
Example 6: The side of a cube is measured to be 20 cm with a maximum error of .12 cm in
its measurement. Find the maximum error in the calculated volume of the cube.
Solution: Letx.be the side and V be the volume of the cube, then
3 2
V = x and dV = (3x ) dx
Takingx=20 (cm) anddx=0.12 (cm), we get
dV= [3(20)2] (0.12) = 1200x(0.12)=144 (cubic cm)
The error 144 cubic cm in volume calculation of a cube is either positive or
negative. ·
EXERCISE 3.1
1. . Find 8y and dy in the following cases:
(i) y=x2 -l whenxchangesfrom 3 to 3.02
(ii) y=x2 +2x whenxchangesfrom 2 to 1.8
(i'ii) y= .j; whenx changes from 4 to 4.41
2. Using differentials find dy and dx in the following equations
dx dy
4 2 2
(i) xy +x=4 (ii) (iii) x +y =xy
(iv) . xy-1 nx=c
3. Use differentials to approximate the values of
(i) ef0 (ii) . (31)1/ 5
(iii) cos29° (iv) sin61°
4. Find the approximate increase in the volume of a cube if the length of its each
edge changes from 5 to 5. 02 ..
3.2 INTEGRATIONASANTI-DERIVATIVE
(INVERSE OF DERIVATIVE)
In chapter 2, we have been finding the derived function (differential
coefficient) of a given function. Now we consider the reverse (or inverse) process i.e.,
we find a function when its derivative .is known. In other wotds we can say that if
¢'(x) = f (x), then ¢(x) is called an anti-derivative or an integral off (x). For example,
2
ananti-derivativeoff(x)=3x is ¢(x) = x .because ¢'(x)=
3
~(x 3 )=3x 2 =f(x)
The inverse process of differentiation i.e., .the process of finding such a function
whose derivative is given is called anti-differentiation or integration.
2 2
While finding the derivatives of the expressions such as x +x, x + x + 5,
2
x + x-3 etc., we see thatthe derivative of each of them is 2x+ 1, that is,
d 2 d 2 d 2
-(x +x)=-(x +x+5)=-(x +x+3)=2x+l
dx d"'C dx
Now if/(x) = 2x + 1 (i)
Then <l>(x)= x 2 + x
is not only anti-derivative of (i), but all anti-derivatives off (x) = 2x + 1 are
2
included in x + x + c where c is the arbitrary constant which can be found if further
information is given.
As c is not definite, so <l>(x) + c is called the indefinite integral off (x), that is,
ff(x)dx=<l>(x)+c (ii)
In (ii), f(x) is called integrand and c is named as the constant of integration.
The symbol f.... dx indicates that integrand is to be integrated w.r.t. x.
Note that ~ and f...dx are inverse operations of each other.
3.2.1 Some Standard Formulae for Anti-Derivatives

We give below a list of standard formulae for anti-derivatives which can be
obtained from the corresponding formulae for derivatives:
General Form Simple Form
In fonnulae 1- 7 and l 0 - 14, a -:t- 0
n+I
x
f
11
l. fCax=b) 11 dx= (ax+bf+i +c,(n:t:-1) x dx =--+c,(n :t:-1)
a(n+ l) n+l
2. Jsin(ax+ b)dx=-~cos(ax+b)+c, fsinxdx=-cos x+c

3. Jcos (ax+ b)dx =~sin (ax+ b) + c Jcosxdx = sinx+c
4. Jse/(ax+b)dx=~ tan (ax+b)+c f sec2 x dx =tan x+c
5. Jcosec (ax+b)dx = -~cot(ax+b)+c
2
fcosec x dx =-cot x+c
2
6. Jsec (ax + b) tan (ax + b) dx = ~sec (ax + b) + c f sec x tan x dx=sec x+c
7. Jcosec (ax+ b)cot(ax + b)dx = - ~ cosec(ax + b) + c f cosec x cot x dx = cosec x+c
8. Je dx-_!_
A.x+µ
- 'A
x e +
A.x+µ
'
c ('A* 0)
x
fe dx=e +c
x
9. JaA.x+µ dx--1- aA.x+f' + c. (a> 0 a_,_ l ~ _,_ 0)

- 'A In a · ' ' -r- ' . I\, .....
1
fa dx= -Ina. a
x x
+c,
(a> 0, a* 1)
10. J- 1
-dx
ax+b
= (ax+b) dx
-1
J~dx=lnlxl+c, x:t:O
= ~ lnlax+bl+c,(ax+b-:t-0)
11. Jtan (ax + b) dx = 1In Isec(ax+ b)I + c ftan x dx = In Isec xi + c

=-l. lnlcos(ax+b)l+c =-lnlcos xl+c
a
12. Jcot(ax+ b)dx =~lnjsin (ax+ b)I +c fcot x dx =Zn Isin xi + c

J
13. sec (ax+ b)dx = *lnlsec(ax +b) + tan(ax + b)I +c Jsec x dx =in jsec x+ tan xi + c
J
14. cosec(ax + b)dx=~Znlcosec(ax + b)-cot(ax+ b)I + c Jcosec xdx=ln lcosec x-cotxl+c
These formulae can be verified by showing that the derivative of th~ right hand
side of each with respect to xis equal to the corresponding integrand.
Examples with solution:
3 I
3 - - +I --
2
} -- x x 2 2
2. J Gdx=f x 2 dx=~l = -1 =- Fx +c
\JX- -+ --
2 2
4 1
1 (2x + 3r (2x + 3f3 1
3. J 4 dx = f (2x + 3)--4 dx =
+
= =- +c
(2x+3) 2(-4+1) -6 6(2x+3/
· :d- ( - · l ) =---((2x+3)
l d _,- )
( 3
d>: 6(2x + 3) 6 dx
l
= --(-3)(2x+3) -3 - J
(2) = l
4
J
6 ~x+~
4. Jcos2xdx=~sin 2x+c d(l

- -sin 2x ) =--(sin
( · :dx 1d 1
2x)=-(cos 2x) x 2=cos 2x )
2 2d'r 2
6. Jcosec 2
x dx =-cot x+c d 2 2 )
( ·: dx (-cot x) = -(-cosec x) = cosec x
7. Jsec 5x tan 5x dx = -sec5x

-+c
5 .
d(sec-5x) .S1(sec 5x tan 5x)
( ·: dx - = x 5 = sec 5x tan 5x
)
5
. Unit 3: Integration 127
ax+b
ax+bdx e d e ax+b) 1 ax+ b ax+b )
8. Je =--+c
- a ( ·: dx ( -a- = ;_; (e x a)= e
3Ar
9. f3 Ax
dx=--+c
A.ln3 (
·: -
d
dx (
3 1 ).x ).x
-).x- ) = - ( 3 (/n3)A.)=3 )
A.ln3 A.ln3
1
10. J 1
dx=f(a.x+bf dx=.I_ln(ax+b)+c, (a.x+b>O)
a.x+fJ a
·: -d(l-ln(ax+b)=-.--a=--
1 1 1 )
. ( dx a a ax+b ax+b
1 ,-;----;
11.
f ~
2
x +a
2
dx=ln(x+'\/x- +a-)+c
(
d
·:-(ln(x+~))=
dx <+.,[N
I
(
I+
1
2,p-;J
x2x
)
I
x
\J
x+.,/N ,,p;-,;;
x +a +x
- r.;:-:2 =
I
.JN
J
3.2.2 Theorems on Anti Derivatives
I. The integral of the product of a constant and a function is equal to the product
of the constant and the integral of the function.
In symbols,
Jaf(x) dx =aJf(x) dx, where a is a constant.
II. The integral of the sum (or difference) of two functions is equal to the sum (or
difference) of their integrals.
In symbols,
J
fLl;(x)±.t;(x)] dx= f.Jx) dx ± .t;(x)dx. J
3.2.3 Anti- Derivatives of [/(x)]" /' (x) and [/ (x)] ·•/' (x).
Prove that: (i) f[f(x)" f' (x)dx= [f(x)]"H +c, (n *-1)

n+l
Prove that: (ii) f[f(xf' I' (x)dx=/n f(x) +c, (/ (x) > 0)
Proof:
(i) Since~ ([f(x)J"+') = (n + 1)[/(x)]" f' (x)

128 Calculus and Analytic Ge_p metry
by definition, J(n+ 1)[/(x)f f' (x)dx = [/(x)r+ +c 1

1
1
(n+l)j[f(x)r f' (x)dx = [/(x)r+ + c1 (by theorem I)
or
J[/(x)f /' (x) dx =[/(x)f+l
n+l
+c where c = l ( n "# -1)
n+I
(ii) Since~[/n f(x)] = -1-./' (x)
dx f(x)
By definition, we have
J-1
- . / ' (x) dx
f(x)
= lnf(x) +c (f(x) > 0)
or flf(x)f1 f' (x) dx =lnf(x)+c,

Thus we can prove that
n+l
(i) J
xn dx = .!__ + c,
n+l
(n "#-l)
(ii) J(
ax+ b)
ndx (ax+bf+l
=
a(n + 1)
+c, (a"# 0, n "# -1)
(iii) J_!_dx
x
= lnjxj +c
1 1
(iv)
J- - dx=- lnj(ax+b)j+c,
ax+b a
(a"# 0)
Example 12 : Evaluate
(i) J<x+l)(x-3)dx (ii) Jx~x -I dx 2
(iii) J-x-dx, (x>-2)

x+2 .
(iv) f $x(~
x+I)
dx, (x>O)
Jdi
• 3
(v) sm x +cos x
$' (x>O) (vi) f 2 •
x+l- x cos x sm x
3-cos 2x
(vii)
f l+cos
- - - dx, (cos 2x "#-1)
2x
Solution:
(i) J(x+l)(x-3)dx =J (x -2x-3)dx 2
=Ji dx-2Jxdx-3fldx (By theorems I and II)

3 2 n+l
x x
=--2. --3.x+c
3 2 ( ·: Jxn dx=~
n+l
+cl and
1 3 2
=-x -x -3x+c Ji~= xo ~=T+c2
J. O+l
3
I
(ii) Jx.Jx -1 dx = J(x

2 2
-1)2 x dx
= J[f(x)] x ~ f' (x) dx (If f(x) = x' -1,
=~ J[f (x)]~ f' (x) dx then/' (x) = 2x ~ x = ~ f' (x) J

3
= 1 [/(x)]2 + c = _!.(x2 +1)% =c

2 3 3
2
(iii) f _!_dx=f x+2-2 dx, (x>-2)
x+2 x+2
= J(1- x~ 2 )dx = J J 1
dx-2 (x+2f .ldx=x-2 ln(x+2)+c
(iv) f J;cJ;+1)
1 dx =f 1 _1 dx
J;+1 · J; ·
(x>O)
= f[f(x)r' . 2 f' (x)dx [·: J' (x) = 1

2
if f (x) =Fx +I
=2f [f(x)r1 f' (x) dx l or =2f'(x)]
=2/n f(x)+c = 2/n(J;+l)+c
(v) (x > 0)
Rationalizing the denominator, we have :
f .Jx +dx1 -J; -f rx+i+~

- (.Jx + 1 - J;)(.Jx + 1 + ~
dx
= J.Jx+i +.Jx dx= j[(x+I)t +xt] dx

x+I-x
I I
=J 2
(x +1)2 dx + x dx f
3 3
- - 3 3
(x + 1) 2 x 2 2 -2 2 -2
__.:.__--+- + c = -(x+l) +- x +c
3 3 3 3
2 2
. 3
sznx+cos x dx
(vi)
J 2 •
cos xsznx
So1u tion .. Jszn x +cos

•
2 •
3 dx = J( szn
2
. x
•
+ cos 3 x• ) dx
2
cos xsznx cos xsznx cos xszn x
= J(-1
cos2
+cos x)dx
sin x
= Jsec2 xdx+ Jcot xdx
= tanx+lnlsin xl+c
(vii)
J31+cos
- cos 2x dx,
2x
(cos 2x ":t:.- l)
Solution: J3-cos 2x dx
1+cos 2x
= J4-(I+cos
1+cos 2x
2x) dx
=
J( +
1 cos 2x -
4 1) dx
=J2 cos4 2x dx -Jldx =J2 sec

2
2
x dx -JI dx
= 2 tan x-x+c
EXERCISE 3.2
1. Evaluate the following indefinite integrals
(i) J(3x 2
-2x+1) dx (ii) J(Fx+ JJtx. 1
(x>O)
(iii) Jx(...fx +I) dx, (x > 0) (iv) J(2x+3)2 dx

(v) Jc...fx +1) cJx, 2
(x>O) (vi) J(Fx- JJ dx, (x>O)
(vii) f3~2 dx, (x>O) (viii) fJY(y +1) dy, (y>O)

y
(ix) f(JO -1)2 dB (8 >0) (x) so-ff>' <he. (x>O)
To
2x x
(xi) Je e:e dx
Unit 3: Integration · 131
2. Evaluate
(i) dx [x+a>OJ (ii) Jl-x

2
- - 2 dx,
J .Jx+a +.Jx+b' x+b > 0 l+x
(iii) J d Fx,(x>O,a>O)
x+a+ x ·
(iv)
3
J (a-2x) 2 dx
(v) J(l+~.t)3 dx (vi) fsin (a+b) x dx

e
(vii) JJi - cos 2x dx, (1 - cos 2x > O) (viii) J (In x) x .!.. dx, (x > 0)
x
(ix)
2
J sin x dx (x) J 1 dx ( --<x<-
l+cos x ' 2 2
n n)
(xi) J 2
ax+b dx (xii) J cos 3x sin 2x dx
ax +2bx+c
Jcos 2x-1 dx, (1 +cos 2x 2
(xiv) J tan x dx
(xiii) -:t:. 0)
l+cos 2x
3.3 INTEGRATION BY METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION
Sometimes it is possible to convert an integral into a standard form or to an
easy integral by a suitable change of a variable. Now we evaluate/(x) dx by the
method of substitution. Let x be a function of a variable t, that is
if
x = <f>(t), then dx = </>' (t) dt
Puttingx x = <f>(t), and dx = </>' (t) dt, we have
Jf (x)dx = Jf (</> (t)) </>' (t) dt
Now we explain the procedure with the help of some examples.
a dt
Example 1 : Evaluate ~ ,
f
2"'\/at+b
(at+ b > 0)
Solution: Let at+ b = u. Then

adt=du
Thus
f a dt _ J du .
=.!._Ju 2 du
-I
2.Jat+b - 2~ 2
=~[ :~~+: ]+c=~[ ~ ]+c

I
=u 2
J
+ c = at + b + c
132 Calculus and Analytic G~ometry
Example 2 : Evaluate j Ji;l4+x

2 dx.
2
Solution: Put 4 +x = /
1
=> 2x dx = di or x dx = - dt, therefore
2
112
j 4 + x2
x j 1 ( 1) 1j
dx = Ji 2 dt = 2 I
-1/2 1 1
di = 2·1I2 + c
=Ji +c = ~4+x +c
2
Example3: Evaluate j x.Jx-a dx, (x >a)

Solution: Let x - a= I => x = a+ t
=> . dx=dl
Thus Jx.Jx-a dx = J(a+l)Ji di
= r(at~ +ti) dt =aft~ dt +fti dt
3 5·
-
2
-
2
3 5
2a -
t 2 - 1
=a-+-+ c = -1 2 + -1 2 +c
3 5 3 5
2 2
=2ti ( + ~ ~t )+c = 2(x-a)i ( ~ + ~(x-a)) +c
=2(x-a)
% (5a+3(x-a)) 2 ~
+c =-(x-a) 2(5a+3x-3a)+c
15 15
2 ~2
= -(x-a)
(2a+3x)+c
15
co1Fx
Example4: Evaluate I
.£ dx, (x > 0)
Solution: Put Fx = z,
1
then d(.£) = dz => 1 dx=dz
2vx
1
or - - dx = 2dz
Fx
Thus .£ dx = Jcotvxr . .£
I co1Fx 1 dx = Jcot z. (2dz)
f
=2 cot zdz = 2 - COS Z
f
. - dz= 2 (sin z) -I cos zdz f
szn z
= 21njsin zl +c, (z > 0 as x > 0)
= 2 In lsinFxl + c
Example 5 : Evaluate fcosec x dx (ii) fsec x dx
(i)
Solution: (.) fcosec x dx f cosec(cosec

1 =
x (cosec x-cot x) dx
x - cot x)
2
Put cosec x cot x = t, then (-cosec x cot x + cosec x) dx = dt
or cosec x(cosec x- cot x) dx = dt
x(cosec x-cot x) dx = f -1 d = 1n I I+c
so
f cosec(cosec x-cot x) t
t t
Thus fcosec x dx = In lcosec x - cot xi + c [·: t = cosec x -cot x]

(n. )Jsec x dx = Jsec(secx+tanx)
x(secx+ tan x) dx
' 2
Put sec x + tan x = t, then (secxtanx+sec x)dx = dt
or secx(secx+tanx)dx = dt
so Jsecx(secx+tanx) dx = J!dt =In It l+c

(secx+tanx) t
Thus Jsecx dx =In jsecx+tanxl+c (·: t = secx+tanx)
Example6: Evaluate Jcos3 x Jsin x dx,(sinx > 0).

Solution : Put J sin x = t, then dt = [ ~.cos x] dx
2 szn x
or 2t dt =cos xdx [·: ~sinx = t
Putting Jsinx =t . and cos x dx = 2t dt in the integral, we have,
Jco/ xJsinx cos x dx = J(I-t4).tx 2t dt, (·:co/ x = 1-sin =1-t
2 4
)
=2 J(t -r6) dt = 2 ft Jr6 dt

2 2
dt - 2
/3 /7
=2.-2. -+c
3 7
3 7 3 7
2 - 2 -2 2 -2 2 -2
= -(sinx) --(sinx) +c = -sin x--sin x+c
2
3 7 3 7
--- -- -- ~- -- -- ~-- -- -- ~~-~- -- -~--- -

134 Calculus ana Analytic Geometry
Example 7 : Evaluate J ~1 +sin x dx, (-% < x<; )
J~l+sinx dx=J~I+sinx . .Jl-~inx dx =J~l-s~n x

2
Solution: dx
1-sznx 1-sznx
cosx dx =J
~1-sinx
Put sin x = t, then cos xdx = dt. therefore
I
~-.-
J ~l+smx dx = J~1-sinx .cosx dx = J--
1
~
= JO-t)
dt -2
dt
_!+1
(1-t) 2 r;-:
=( 1 ) +c=-2vl-t+c
-- + 1 (-1)
2
=-2~1-sinx +c,
Example8: Find J
dx 3 , (x > 0)
x(ln 2x)
Solution : Put In 2x = t, then
1
- 2dx = dt or .!_ dx = dt
2x x
Thus f 1
3 . -
3
f
1 dx = 1 . dt = t -3 dt = - -
t- + c f 2
(In 2x) x t -2
1 1
=--+c=
2 2
+c
2t 2(/n 2x )
Example9: Find Jax 3

x dx, (a> O, a :;t: 1)
2 1
Solution : · Put x = t, then x dx = - dt
2
Thus a x x dxf
2
= fa t
2'
x 1 dt
I x2
= .!_ Ja' dt = .!_ ~ + c . = _a_+ c.

2 2 Ina 21na
Example IO: Evaluate
(i) J~ 2
1
2
dx, (-a<x<a) (ii) Jx .Ja; -x dx, ( x - a or x < -a)
a -x 2
.
Unit 3: Jrztegration 135
where a is positive
Solution: (i) Let x = a sin B, that is,
7t 7t
x =a sine for - - < e < - then dx = a cos e d e
2 2'
Thus J~a ~-x = J a cos ede

va -a 2 sm
/2 .2e
2
= Ja cosed e = Ja cos ede

a~I-sin e 2 acos e
= fIde= e+c
= sin -!(X)
-; +c (·: ~=sine)
(ii) Put x =a sec e i.e., x = a sec e for 0< e <~ 7t
or - < < 7te
2 2
Then dx = a sec B tan 8 dB
Jx ~x~-a = f a sec e tan e de

Thus 2 .J
a secea 2sec 2e-a 2
= fa sece tanede
(·: ~a 2 (sec2 e- I)
a sec. atane
= -If Ide= -I e+c

a a
I -IX
= -sec -+c
a a
3.4 SOME USEFUL SUBSTITUTIONS
We list below suitable substitutions for certain expressions to be integrated.
Expressions Involving Suitable Substitution
(i) ~a2 -x2 x =a sine
(ii) ~x2 -a2 x =a sec e
(iii) )a2 +x2 x =a tan e
(iv) .Jx+ a(or.Jx-a) .Jx + a = t( or.Jx - a = 0
(v) )2ax-x2 x-a= a sine

136 Calculus and Analytic Ge_ometry
(vi) ~2ax + x 2 x+a=a sec e

1
Example!: Evaluate J dx, (a>O)
~a2 +x2
1t 1t
Solution: Let x =a tan e for -- < 9 <-.Then
2 2
2
dx =a sec ede
Thus
J~21 2dx
-f
- 2 2 2
1 e
x a sec 2 de - -f a sec ede 2
a -x a +a tan e a~1+tan 2 e
2
=fa sec ~de= secede f
asec e
f
= sece(sec e+tan e) de
=In (sec e+tan e)+c,
sece+tan e
(~a
2 2 2 2 2
+x +-
xJ +c , , x a +x
= In 1
·: sec 0 = 1 +tan 0 = 1 + - 2 = - -2
i.e.,
a a (
a a
( ~a
2
~
2
= ln + x +xJ + c sec - - - a s sec 0 is

a I a
= ln(x+~a 2 +x2 )-ln a +c1 1t

Positive for - - < 0 < - 1t)
2 2
=ln(x+~a +x )+c 2 2
where c = c I - In a
Note: x+~a 2 +x 2 is always positive for real values of x.
Example 2 : Evaluate J dx (x>O)

~2x +x 2 '
Solution:
J~2xdx+ x =f ~(x+dx1) -1
2 2
Let x +1 =sec e, Then
dx =sec etanede
Thus J dx fsec e tan ede =fsecetane de= Jsecede

~(x+l/-1 ~sec2 e-1 tan e
= /n(sec e + tane)+c = /n(x+ 1+~2x+x2 )+c1
EXERCISE 3.3
Evaluate the following integrals:
2
1. J -2x dx 2. 3. J-x-dx
~4-x 2 Jx 2 +:+13 4+x2
x
4. J 1 dx 5. Jexe+3
x/nx
2
6.
x+b Jsec x dx
J 2
I dx 7.
~tanx
(x +2bx+c)2
8. (a) Showthat J~ dx 2
2
dx=ln(x+~x
.
2
-a 2 )+c
x -a
2
I 2 2 · a . -1 x x I 2 2
(b) Show that
Jva -x dx =-
2
szn -+-va -x +c
a 2
Evaluate the following integrals:
9. J dx
(1 + x2)2
3 10. 2
1
J(l+x ) tan- x dx I 11. JJ§ 1-x
12. J sine2 de 13.

J~a:x-x 14. J dx
1 +cos e 4
~7-6x-x 2
15. J cos x
sinx In sinx
dx 16. Jcos x(/nszn~inx xJdx 17. J xdx
2
4+2x+x
18. J 4 x2 dx 19.
x +2x +5
20. J;;A
x+3
dx 21.
22. J dx.J3
1 . 3
-szn x + - cos x
2 2
138 Calculus and Analytic Gepmetry
3.5 INTEGRATIONBYPARTS
We know that for any two function f andg.
!!_[f(x)g(x)]= f' (x)g(x)+ f(x)g' (x)

dx
or f(x)g' (x) = !!_ [f(x)g(x)]- f' (x)g(x)

dx
Integrating both the sides with respect to x, we get
Jf(x) g' (x)dx = J[! (f(x)g(x))- f' (x)g(x)] dx

= J(![/(x)g(x)) dx - J f'(x)g(x) dx
= f(x) g(x) + c-J f'(x)g(x) dx (By Definition)
i.e., Jf(x) g' (x)dx = f(x) g(x)- f g(x) f' (x) dx+c (i)
or J/' (x) g' (x)dx = f(x) g(x) - f g(x) f'(x)dx (i)'
A constant of integration is written, when Jf(x) f' (x) dx is evaluated. The

equation (i) or(i)' is known as the formula for integration by parts.
If we put u = f(x) and dv = g'(x)dx

then du =f'(x) dx and v = g(x)
The equation (i) and (i)' can be written as
fudv= uv-fvdu+c (ii)
Judv = uv-f vdu (ii)'
f
Examplel: Find x cos x dx.
Solution: If f(x) = x and g'(x) =cos x,
then f'(x) =1 and g(x) =sin x
Thus Jxcos x dx = xsin x- J(sin x)(l) dx
= x sin x-(-cos x)+c
= x sin x + cos x + c.
Example2: Find xex dx I

Solution : Let u = x and dv =ex dx
x
then du =l.dx and v=e
Applying the formula for integration by parts, we have
Ixex dx = xex -I ex x1 dx = xex - ex+ c
Example3: Evaluate x tan x dx J 1
Solution : Jx tan 2
x dx = Jx(sec 1 x - I) dx
2
(°: 1+tan x=sec x)
2
= Jx 2
sec x dx- x dx J (I)
Integrating the fist integral by parts on the right side of (I), we get
fxtan 2
f
x dx= [xtanx- tan x. I dx] -(x: + c, J
1 2
~x
1
= xtanx+J-- . (-sinx)dx-(x
2
+c1 J= xtanx+ln!cos xl+c 2
- x -c1
2
2
=xtanx+ln!cos xi-£ +c,

2
Example 4: Evaluate Jx5 lnx dx
Solution: Jx lnx dx = J(In x)x
5 5
dx
x
= (/nx)-- Ix
-. -
6
6 6
6 x
1
dx= -x
6
6
In x - 1
6
Ix dx5
6 6
:::;; £In x-~+c where c = c1
6 36 6
E~atmple 5. Evaluate In (x + ~x
J 2
+1) dx
Solutlt>n: Let f(x);::: ln(x + ~i'+1) and g'(x)::;;; 1. Then
1 [ 1 2 .!._1 ]
- ~ x 1+-(x +1)
2
f'(x) = • 2x
:r+vx- +I 2
140 Calculus and Analytic Geometry .
= x+~·(I+ ~J
1 1
= x f;2;1 +x = and g(x) = x
x+.Jx +1
2
~x
2
+1
2
.Jx +1
Using the formula f f(x) g' (x) dx = f(x) g(x)- g(x) f' (x) dx, we get f
fln(x+.Jx' + 1).1 dx: = [ln(x+.Jx' +I)]. x- fx. ~ ,1 dx:
x +1
I
2
x-~f (x2 +1)-2(2x)dx
l
=(ln(x+.Jx +1).
= ~+1)- 2 +1)~ +c,

xln(x+vx· 1 [(x ~
2
2 2
= xln(x+.Jx +1) -.Jx +1 +c, where c=-_!_c
2 I
Example 6: Evaluate fx 2
• a eax dx
2
Solution: If we put f(x) = x and g' (x) = a eax, then
f' (x) = 2x and g(x) = eax
f
Using the formula f(x) g'(x) dx = f(x) g(x)-f g(x)f'(x) dx,weget
2
f x .axax dx = x 2 eax -I eax.(2x)dx
-2J x eax dx
= x 2 eax
But fxem dx: = x( •: )- f(•: Jx I. dx:

1 e ax - -1 e ax dx =-x
= -x
a a
J
1 e ax --.
1 (eax
-
a a a
J
+c
1
Thus fx' aem dx: = x' em -2[~ .x eQ - :, eQ +c J 1
= x2ea x- 2-a . x eux + -a2ax

2 e + c1 where c =-2c1
Example 7: Evaluate f eax cos bxdx
Solution : Let f(x) = eax and g' (x) = cos bx

sin bx
then f' (x) = a.eax and gx
( )=--
b
Thus f e ax cos bx dx = eax x (sin

- bbx)
- - (sin
- bbx) J
- x ( ae ax ) dx
= -1 eax sm bx - -a f eax sm
• . bx dx (I)
b b
J
Integrating eax sin bx dx, by parts, we get
ax · b dx
f e sm x = eax x ( - COS
b bx) - J(- b bx) x (ae ax ) dx+c1
COS
=--e af eax cos bx dx +c

1 ax cos bx+-
(II)
1
b b
J
Putting the value of e= sin bx dxin(I), we get
ax dx 1 ax smbx--
f e cos bx . =-e
b
. a[ --e
b b
1 ax cos bx+-
af e ax cos bx dx +c
b 1
J
2
lax.b
=-e aax.cos bx -a- fax
sm x +-e a
e cos bx dx --c
b b2 b2 b I
( 2J
a ax . lax. aax a
or 1-
2
Je cos bx dx = -e szn bx+-2 e cos bx--c1
b . b b b
.
1.e., Jeax cos bx dx= a b+b 2
2
2
[
lax. aax b a
-e szn bx+ 2 e cos bx - 2 2 2 x-c1 J
b b a +b b
ax
ab
= e (b sin bx+ a cos bx]+c, where c= --=---C
2
a +b
2
b(a2 + b2) I
If we put a = r cos e and b = r sine,

2 2 2 2 2
then a +b = r => r = .Ja +b
b rsin e e => = tan -I -b
= tan
- =
a rcos e a
and a cos bx +b sin bx= rcos ecos bx+ r sine sin bx
= r [cos bx cos a+sin bx sin0] = r cos (bx-0)
=
2 2
.Ja +b cos(bx-tan-
1
!)
The answer can be written as:
Je~ cos bx dx ~ ../a'l+b' e~ cos( bx-tan-' !)+c

Example 8: Evaluate J.Ja 2
+ b dx
2
Solution: J.Ja 2 2
+x .1 dx = (.Ja 2
+x )x-
2
fx.~(a 2
+x )-2 . 2x dx
2
2
=x.Ja2+x2-f x dx
.Ja2 +x2
2 2 2
t 2 2 fa +x -a dx
= xva +x - .J 2 2
a +x
2
=x.Ja2+x2-f.Ja2+x2dx+f.J~ 2dx
a +x
2J .Ja2+x 2
dx = x.Ja
2
+x +a
2 2
• J.Ja 1+x
2 2
dx
= x.Ja 2 +x 2 +a 2 [/n(x+.Ja 2 +x 2 )+c1]

(See Example 1Article3 .4)
2 2
/2 2 x/2 2 a /2 2 ac
fva +x dx =-va +x +-ln(x+va +x )+c, where c=--1
2 2 2
2 2
J 2 2
Similarly integrals .Ja - x dx and .Jx - a dx can be evaluated. f
Example 9 : Evaluate x dx. f sin 4
Solution:·
4 2 2 2
fsin xdx;;; fsin x.sin xdx= sin x(l-co/x)dx f
= f szn. 2x dx - f·2
sm x cos 2x dx
= 1- cosI2x 2 2
dx - sin x cos x dx
I (I)
2 .
2
IntegratingJ stn xcos2 x dx by parts, we have
Jstn 2
co/ x dx = Jcos x sin x cos x dx
2
Unit 3: Integration · . 143
szn
. 3 x
=cos x ( - -
J-J- .- x x (-sin x) dx
szn 3
[·: if f(x) = cos x and
3 3
g , ( x) = szn. 2 xcos x.
= -i cos x sin 3 I
x + -i sin 4 x dx ... (II) then f' (x)= -sinx
3 3
and g(x) = -szn. 3-x ]

3
J 2
Putting the value of sin x co/ x dx in (I), we obtain
= J(~- co: dx-[~cos x sin ~ Jsin

2
Jsin
4
x dx x)
3
x+
4
x dx J
= .!.J 1 dx _ _!_Jcos 3
2x dx-!cos x sin x-! Jsin x dx
4
2 2 3 3
or (1+!) 3
Jsin x dx
4
= _!_ x-_!_(sin 2x)+c
2 2 2 I
_!cos x sin 3 x
3
f sm. x dx = 43[12x- 41.szn 2x- 31 cos x szn.

4 3 x +c1 J
= -3 x--
3 szn
·2 x --1 cos .3
x sm x +c h
were 3
c=-c
8 16 4 ' 4 I
ex (I +sin x)
Example 10: Evaluate f dx.
1+cosx
ex(l+sin x)dx--f
ex (i .
+ 2 szn-cos-
2 2 dx
x x)
2 x .
Solution: f 1+cos x [·:l+cosx=l+2cos --1] .
cos 2 -x 2
2
2
i.e., ex (I+ sin x) dx =J ex ( -sec x
1 2 -+tan -x) dx
f I+cos x 2 2 2
= -If e x sec 2X
- dx + f e x tan -xdx (I)
2 2 2
But J(tan~ ).ex dx =(tan~ ).ex - Jex ( sec 1). t dx+ c, 2
(Integrating by parts)
i.e., I e x tan - =e x tan-2 --21Jx

Xdx
e sec - +c X 2Xdx
(II)
2 2
Putting the value of J,/ tan ~ dx in (I), we get
ftl (l +sin x) dx'"" .! Jtlse(i ~ dx+[tl tan ~-.!.Jtl sec 2 :_ dx +
1 + cos x 2 2 2 2 2
c] ==tl tan ~+c
2
144 Calculus and A11alytic Geometry
Example 11 :Show that fe"'[af(x)+ f'(x)] dx = e

0
-' f(x)+c.
Solution: Jeax[af(x)+f'(x)]dx .= Jeax af(x)dx+ Je=.f'(x)dx (i)
In thesecondintegral, let <p(x)= e= and g' (x) = f'(x),
then <p'(x) = (eax)xa and g(x) = f(x)
so J
e= f'(x) dx = eax xf(x)-J f(x)x(ae m)dx +c
= eax f(x)-J a eax f(x)dx +c
thus Jeax[af(x)+ f'(x) dx = Ja eax f(x) dx + Jeax f'(x)dx +c
= Ja eax f(x) dx +[e ar f(x)- Jae ax f(x)dx+ c]
= eax f(x) +c
EXERCISE 3.4
Evaluate the following integrals by parts add a word representing all the functions
are defined.
1. (i) Jxsinxdx (ii) In x dx f(iii) x In x dx f
(iv) Jx In x dx
2
(v) Jx In x dx (vi) Jx Zn x dx
3 4
Jtan- x dx (viii) Jx sin x dx (ix) Jx tan x cJx

1 2
(vii) 2 -I
Jx tan- dx (xi) fx tan x dx (xii) Jx cos x dx

1 3
(x) 3 -I
Jsin- x dx (xiv) Jx sin- x dx

1 1
(xiii) (xv) f ex sin x cos x -dx
(xvi) Jxsinx cos x dx (xvii) .J x cos2 x dx (xviii) Jx sin x dx
2
. -I
J(lnx) dx (xx) J(In (tan x)sec x dx (xxi) Jxszn x dx

2 2
(xix)
2
~l-x
2. Evaluate the following integrals.
(i) Jtan xdx
4
(ii) Jsec x dx 4
(iii) Jex sin 2x cos x dx
(iv) Jtan x sec x dx
3
(v) Jx e x dx
3 5
(vi) Je-x sin 2x dx
(vii) Je2x cos 3x dx (viii) Jcosec x dx 3
3. Show that Ieaxsin bx dx =

1
eax sin(bx-tan -I"!!..)+ c.
~a 2
+b
2
a
4. Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.
(i) J~a 2 -x 2 dx (ii) J~x 2 -a 2 dx (iii) J~4-sx 2 dx

(iv) J~3-4x 2
dx (v) J~x2 + 4 dx (vi) Jx eax dx
2
5. Evaluate the f ~llowing integrals.
(i) f ~ (~ + In x) dx (ii) J~(cos x + sinx) dx

(iii) Jeax[a sec- x+ ~] dx
1
(iv) Je (3 sin~sm- xcos x) dx
3_..
2
(v) Je2r [ -sinx + 2 cos~] dx (vi)

J xex dx
(1 + x)2
(vii) Je-x (cos x - sin x) dx (viii)

Jem dx -1
tan x
(1 + x2)
(ix) J1-~nx dx (x)

J~ (1 +x)
(2 + x) 2
(xi) e-
J 1-cosx
sinx) ~
dx
3.6 INTEGRATION INVOLVING PARTIAL FRACTIONS

If P(x), Q(x) are polynomial functions and the denominator Q(x)( ;t 0), in the
rational fun~tion ~&5 ,can be factorized into linear and quadratic (irreducible)
factors, then the rational function is written as a sum of simpler rational functions,;
each of which can be integrated by methods already known to us. ,, ·'·
Here we will give examples . of the following three cases when the
denominator Q(x) contains
·Case I. Non-repeated linear factors.
Case II. Repeated and non-repeated l_inear factors.
Case m. Linear and non-repeated irreducible quadratic factors or non repeated
irreducible quadratic factors.
EXAMPLES OF CASE I
Example 1: Evaluate J2x2--x+6

?x + 6 dx, (x > 2)
Solution: The denominator 2x2 - 7x + 6 = (x - 2)(2x - 3),
-x+6 A
- --+--
B
let (x -''2)(2x - 3) - x-2 2x-3
or -x + 6 = A(2x - 3) + B(x - 2) which is true for all x

Putting x = 2, we get
-2+6 = A(4-3)+Bx0 =>A = 4
and Putting x = ~ , we get - ~ +6 = A(O) + B (~ - 2 J

or ~ B(- ~ ) => B= -9
=
Thus J (x-;~(-;;-3) ~x = J(~ ~ 2 + 2x-~ 3 )dx
= 4 J(x - 2r 1 l.dx - ~ J(2x - 3t' .2dx

9
= 4 ln (x - 2) -2 In (2x- 3) + c, (x >2)
Example 2: Evaluate J2x2x2-7x

3
9x2 l2x
-
+6
\f-
'
(x> 2)
Solution: After performing the division by the denominator, we get
J2x3-9x2+ 12x
2x2-7x+6 dx =
J(x-l+2x2-7x+6
·-x+6 )
dx
= Jx dx- Jldx + J(x ~ 2) dx + Jh~ 3 dx, (See the Example 1)
x2 9
=2 -x + 4 ln (x - 2) -2 (2x- 3) + c, (x > 2)
Example 3: Evaluate (i) Jx?a-a 2 dx, (x > a) (1·1·) I x2-a2

2a dx , cx<a)
Solution: (i) The denominator x2 - a 2 = (x - a)(x + a),

2a A B
Let (x - a)(x + a) = x - a + x + a
1
= ;:a - x +1 a , (Applying the method of partial fractions)
Thus f (x-a~Cx+a) dx = f (x:a-x!aJ <ix =f<x-at1.1dx-(x+at'.l.dx
= In Ix - al - In Ix+ al + c =In I~:: I+ c, (x > a)
(ii) It is left as an exercise.
EXAMPLES OF CASE II
7x-1
Example 4: Evaluate J (x _ l)2(x + l) dx , (x > 1)
Solution: We write
7x-1 A B C
(x - 1)°2(x + l) dx =x- l + (x - I )2 + x + 1
_ _2_ + 3 _2_ (Applying the method of)
- x- 1 (x - 1)2 - x+] Partial Fractions
Thus f (x - 7{;2~x] + 1) =f [x -= l + (x ~ I)1 - x : i] dx
= 2fcx- tr 1
l.dx +3f(x-l)-2 J.dx-2f(x + l f 11.dx
(X- 1)-2+ I
= 2 In (x - l) + 3 _2 + 1 - 2 In (x + I) + c, (x > 1)
= 2 [In (x-1) - .ln(x + l)] + 3 [(x =llt'] + c
= 2/n -x-1)
- - -3- +c
( x+l x-1
Example 5: Evaluate f e'(.x2 + l)

(x + 1) 2 dx
. Je'(.x2
Solution:
+ 1)
(x + 1)2 dx = Jex(1 - x: 1 (x; + l)2) dx, (By Partial Fractions) ·
==> Je~~ ~ )~) dx = Jexdx - .2 J x : · 1 dx + 2 f (x : •1)2 dx (I)
We integrate by parts the last integral on the right side of (I).
Je' (x + o-2 dx = e'. (x ~11)-1 - f ((x ~llt') . e' dx

(II)
Using (II), (I) becomes
f e«x2 + 1)
(x + 1)2 dx =
Je dx - 2 Jx_§___
x
+I
= (<i' + c) - 2 I x <i'+ 1 2<i'

dx- x + 1 + 2
I x <i'+ 1 dx
t 2<i' xex + <i' - 2<i' <i'(x - 1) .

= e -x+l +c= x+l + 'C = x+l + C.
Example 6: Evaluate Jxi~ 1 dx

Solution: The denominator xi - 1= (x - 1)(.x2 + x + 1),
I A Bx+ C
let (x - I )(.x2 + x + I) = x- 1 + x2 + x + 1
1 ( 1l 2
_l_ + -3 )x-3
= X_ 1 .x2 + X + 1 , (Applying the method of partial fractions)
I 1 1 x+2
=3 ·x-1 -3 ·.x2+x+1
Thus I (x - 1)(.x2I + x + 1) dx =
I (13 · x -1 1 - 61 · .x22x+ x++4 .1) dx
1 1 1 2x + 1 1 3 )
= J (3 . x - 1 l.dx - 6 . x2 + x + 1 -6 . x2 + x + 1 dx
= 3I I(x - -I
I) dx - 6I I(x + x + 1) (2x + I )dx - 21 I (
2 -l 1
.!.j2 (~)2 dx
x+2)+ 2
= 31 ln(x-1)-61 ln(x2+x+l)-21 .:fl·

1 tan- 1 :fl (x +~J- +c
. 2 2
= 31 In l(x-1)1-..61 In (.x2 +x + l)-13

1 tan- 1(2x+l)
\[) +c
Note: i + x + 1 is positive for real values of x.
Example 7: Evaluate Jx6~ 1 dx

Solution: Put x2 = t, then 2x dx = dt and
I x62x-1 dx = J-:r1--
l-1
dt = J
1
(t-l)(t2 +t+l)
dt
= t ~n (t- 1) - ~ In (t2 + t + 1) - ~ tan-

1
(2~
1
) +c
(see the example 6)
= 31 In (x_2 - 1) - 61 In (x4 + x_2 + 1) - \[3

1
tan- 1 (2x2.; 1J + c
3 .
Example 8: Evaluate J x(x3 - l) dx, x # 0, x # 1
Solution: Let 3 = A + _!!_ + Cx + D

x(x 3 - l) x x -1 x2 + x + 1
-3 1 2x+ 1
= -+--+ 2 (By the method of partial fractions)
x x-1 x +x+1 ·
Let Jx (x- l)(r3 + x: + 1) dx = J (-3~ + x-1 1 + X-2x+ x++1 1) dx

= -3J (xt'l.dx + (x - J 1r t.dx +Jex-+ x + 1)- (2x + l)dx
1 1
= -3 In lxl + In Ix - 11 + In (r + x + 1) + c
= -3 In I.xi + In Ix - 11 (r + x + 1) + c
= -3 In lxl +In lx3 - 11 + c
Example 9: Eval~ate J(r + 12X"+6x

)(r + 2x + 3) dx
Solution:
2r + 6x Ax+ B Cx + D
Let ex- + l)(r + 2x + 3) = +1 + x- x- + 2x + 3
2x+ 1 2x+3
= X- + l - X- + 2x + 3 (Applying the method of partial fractions)
Thus J(r+U+6x
l)(r+2x+3) dx
J(2x+ 1 2x+3 1
X- + 1 - X- + 2x + 3 J dx
=
2x
= JX-+ J 1 I 2x+2 I 1
1 dx+ X-+ 1 dx- X-+2x+3 dx- X-+2x+3 dx
. 1 -1 x+1
= /n(r+l)+ tan- 1x-ln(X-+2x+3)-'12 tan '12 +c
EXERCISE 3.5
Evaluate the foil owing integrals.
1. f x2-x+6
3x + 1 dx 2. J (x +5x+ 8
3)(2.x- 1) dx
3. f x2x2 ++ 3x-34
2.x-15 dx 4. J (x-{a-b}x
a)(x - b) dx,(a > b)
5. f 1-x+6x2
3-x
dx 6. Jx2 2:_a2 dx, (x >a)
7. f 6x2+ ISx-4 dx 8.
f 2x 3,t2 - x - 7 dx
3
-
2.x2- 3x- 2
9. f (x-3xl)(x-
2
- 12x + 11
dx 10. f x (x -2x-1)(xI - 3) dx
2)(x- 3)
11. f (x2-5x2 + 9x + 6
12. f (1 + 4+7x
1)(2.x + 3) dx x) 2(2 + 3x) dx
13. f (x - 1¥cx + 1) dx 14. f (x - 1)~x + 1)2 dx

15. f x2-3x2
x+4
+ 4 dx 16. f (xx +-6x2
3
+ 25
1)2(x - 2)2 dx
17.
f x3 + 22.x2 + l4x - 17 dx 18. f (x + x-2
(x - 3)(x + 2)3 1)(.x2 + 1) dx
19.
f (x- i:Cr + 1) dx 20. J (x +9x-7
3)(x2 + 1) dx
21. f (x - 13)(x2
+4x
+ 4) dx 22. f x3+8
12
dx
23. f 9x+6 dx
24. f (x-2x2 1)2(.x2
+ 5x + 3
x3-8 + 4) dx
25. f 2x2-x-7 f (4.x2 + 3x1)(.x2+ 1- x + 1) dx
(x + 2)2(.x2 + x + 1) dx 26.
27. f (x2 + 4)(.x2

4x+ 1
+ 4x + 5) dx 28. f (.x2 + a2)(.x2
6a2
+ 4a2) dx
29. f x42x2-2
+ x2 + 1 dx 30. J 3x-8
(.x2 - x + 2)(.x2 + x + 2) dx
31. f 23x + 4.x2 + 9x + 5

3
(x + x + 1)(x2 + 2x + 3) dx
3.7 THE DEFINITE INTEGRALS

We have already discussed in section 3.2 about the indefinite integral that is, if
</>'(x) =fix), then
Jf(x) dx = </J(x) + c, where c is an arbitrary constant

b
If Jf(x) dx = </J(x) + c, then the integral ofjfrom a to bis denoted by ff(x)dx
a
(read as intergral from a to b off of x, dx) and is evaluated as:
b b
J f(x) dx = J <f/(x) dx (if f(x) = </>'(x))
a a
b
= I (</>(x) + c )I a = [</>(b) + c] - [</J(a) + c] = <f>(b) - </>(a)
b
J f(x) dx has a definite value </>(b) - <f>(a), so it is called the definite integral
a
• b b
ofjfrom a to b. </>(b) -</J(a) is denoted as [</>(x)] or </>(x)] (read </J(x) from a to b)
a a
The interval [a, b] is called the range of integration while a and b are known
as the lower and upper limits respectively.
b
As </J(b) - </>(a) is a definite value, so the variable of integration x in J f(x) dx
a
can be replaced by any other Jetter.
b b
i.e. , J f(x) dx= J .f(t) dt = </>(b) - <f>(a)
a a
NOTE: If the lower limit is a constant and the upper limit is a variable, then the
x
integral is a function of the upper limit, that is, J f(t) dt =
a
I </>(t) (
a
= </>(x) - </>(a)
x
·For Example, J 3r dt
a
The relation </>'(x) = f(x) shows thatf(x) gives the rate of change of </>(x). so
the total change in </J(x) from a to bas </J(b) - </>(a) shows the connection between anti-
b
derivatives and .definite integral J .f(x) dx.
a
L - -- -- -- ~- ..._____-~--
. :"
3.7.1 The Area Under The Curve

About 300 B.C and around the mathematicians succeeded to find area of
plane region like triangle, rectangle, trapezium and regular polygons etc. but the area
of the col)lplicated region bounded by the curves and the x-axis from x = a to x = b
was a challenge for mathematicians before the invention of integral calculus.
Now we give attention to the use of integration for evaluating areas. Suppose
that a function f is continuous on interval a :S x :S b and f(x) > 0. To determine the area .
under the graph off and above the x-axis from x = a to x = b, we follow the idea of
Archimedes (287-212 B.C.) for approximating the function by horizontal functions
and the area under f by the sum of small rectangles.
To explain the idea mentioned y

above, we first draw the graph off defined
1
as: f(x) = 2r
The graph of f is shown in the
figure. We divide the interval [1, 3] into
3-1 1
four sub-intervals of equal length =- 4 - =2 ·
As the subintervals are
[x0 , xiJ, [xi' x 2 ], [x2 , X 3], [x3, X 4 ], so ~-.::..i.-:::::~
0
.........L.:.:-..L.-..L.-..L-~___.x
=" _.. .J:< ~"' .!<
X0 = 1, X 1 = 1.5, X 1 = 2, X3 = 2.5, X 4 =3 II II II 11 11
- - N N Vo.I
~ ~
In the figure MA =f(x0 ), NB =f(x.) and MN= &, so it is obvious that

the area of the rectangle AMNC< the area of the shaded region AMNB < area of the
rectangle DMNB, that is,
f(x 0).8x <area of the shaded region AMNB <flx1).8x
Let x* x* 2, x* 3, x* 4 be the rrud
. pomt
. y
1,
of four sub-intervals mentioned above.

Then the value offatl 1 isf(l 1), so
the area of the rectangle FMNE =f(l 1) &.
(See the rectangle FMNE shown in

the figure)
We observe that the area of the
rectangle FMNE is approximately equal to
the area of the region AMNB under the
graph off from x0 to x,.
Now we calculate the sum of areas of the rectangles shown in the figure, that
is,f(; ) Ox +/(; ) Ox +/(; ) Ox + /(1 ) Ox .
I 2 3 4
= [f(x* ) +f(x* ) + f(x* } + f(x* )] Ox

I 2 3 4
= [k (xo;X1 J + k(x1;X2J + k(x2;X3J .+ k(X3;X4 JJ ~

= i[(1+i.5J + c-~+2)2 + (2+;.5J + (2.~+3)2]
= 4 [(J .25)2+ (1.75) 2+ (2.25)2+ (2.75) 2]

]
= 41 (1.5625 + 3.0625 + 5.0625 + 7.5625)
= 41 (17.25) = 4.3125
3
I 2I r dx = [I2 . 3 = 61(21 -
3
3
x ] 26 =
But i>= 6 4.3
I I
If we go on increasing the number of intervals, then the sum of areas of small
rectangles approaches closer to the number 4.3 .

* the coordinate of
If we divide the interval [1, 3] into n intervals and take X;
any point of the ith interval and fu; =·x; - xi-1' i = 1, 2, 3, .. .,n, then the sum of areas of
n rectangles is f f(xi) & . which tends to the number 4.3

1
and when n ~ oo and
i=l •
* fu; = 4.3
l:n f (xi) and we conclude that
Thus lim
1=1
n~oo
o.xi~o
Thus the area above the x-axis and under the curve y =j(x) from a to b is the definite
b
integral J j(x) dx.
a
Consider a functionfwhich is continuous on the interval a :5 x :5 b and./(x) > 0.
The graph off is shown in the figure.
y
We define the function A(x) as the
area above the x-axis and under the curve
y = j(x) from a to x. Let ox be a small
positive number and x + 8x be any number
in the interval [a, b] such that a <x< x +ox.
Let P(x,J(x)) and Q(x +ox, f(x +ox)) be Af.l I
two points on the graph off. The ordinates
PM and QN are drawn and two rectangles
PMNR, SMNQ are completed.
According to above· definition, the area above the x-axis and under the curve
y =f(x) from a to x + 8x is A(x +Ox), so the change in area is
A(x + Ox) -A(x) which is shaded in the figure.
Note that the functionf is increasing in the interval [x, x + 8x].
From the figure, it is obvious that
area of the rectangle PMNR < A(x+Ox) - A(x) <area of the rectangle SMNQ,
i.e.,
f(x) Ox< A(x + Ox) - A(x) <f(x + Ox) Ox
Dividing the inequality by Ox, we have
A(x + Ox) - A(x) f'i( s:: )
!(x ) < dx <;x+ux (I)
lim f(x) = f(x) and lim f(x + Ox) = f(x)

ox~O ox~o
Since the limits of the extremes in (I) are equal, so

A(x + Ox) - A(x)
s:: ~
f( x ) whenux~
s::
0.
ux •
.
[Im A(x +Ox) -A(x) _ f( )
Th US O - X,
ox~O x
or A '(x) = f(x)
J
that is, A(x) is an antiderivative off, so f(x) dx = A(x) + c
x
and J f(x) dx = [A(x)]~ = A(x) -A(a)
a
Since A(x) is defined as the area under the curve y =f(x) from a to x, so A(a) =0
x
Thus A(x)= J f(x) dx (I)
a
Putting x =b in the equation (I), gives
b
A(b) = Jf(x) dx
a
which shows that the area A of the region, above the x-axis and under the curve
b b
y = f(x) from a to bis given by J f(x) dx, that is, A = J f(x) dx
a a
If the graph off is entirely below the x-axis, then the value of each f(;;) is
negative and each product f (;;) Ox; is also negative, so in such a case, the definite
integral is negative.
Thus the area, bounded in this case by the curve y =J(x), the x-axis and the
b
lines x =a, x =b is - J f(x) dx.
a y
For example, sin x is negative for
-7t< x < 0 and is positive for 0<x<1t.
Therefore the area bounded by the x'-........---------#"--"T"'""---"--+ x
x-axis and graph of sin function from
- 7t to 1t is given by
y'
0 1t
- J sin x dx + J sin x dx
- 1t 0
=J
-1t
0
1t
·
sin x dx + J sinx dx ·:
0
[
!
b
f(x) dx = - !
a
f(x) dx
]
- 1t 1t
= [- cos x] 0 + [- cos x] 0 = - [cos (- n) - cos 0] + [- (coS7t - cos 0)]
= - [(-1) - 1] - [(-1)-1] = 2+2= 4
~ "
Note: J sinxdx= [-cosx]_" = -[cosn-cos(-n)]=-[-1-(-1)) =O
3. 7.2 Fundamental Theorem and Properties of Definite Integrals

(a) Definite Integral
b
J f(x) dx gives the area under the curve y =f(x) from x =a to x =b and
a .
the x-axis (proof is given in the article 3.6.1)
(b) Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Iff is continuous on [a, b] and c/J'(x) = f(x), that is,
<f>(x) is any anti-derivative off on [a, b], then
b
J f(x) dx = </J(b) - </J(a)
a
Note that the difference c/J(b) - <f>(a) is independent of the choice of anti-
derivative of the function/
b a
(c) Jfix) dx = - Jfix) dx
a b
b c b
(d) Ja fix) dx = Ja fix) dx + Jc /{x) dx, a<c<b
Proof of (c) and (d):

(c) If c/J'(x) = f(x), that is, if </> is an anti-derivative of f, then using the
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we get
b a
Jf(x)dx
a
= </J(b)-</J(a) = -[c/J(a)-c/J(b)] = - Jb f(x)dx
(d) If cp' (x) = f (x), that is, if </J(x) is an anti-derivative of ft.x), then applying the
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we have
c b
J f(x) dx = c/J(c) - c/J(a) and Jf(x) dx = <f>(b) -c/J(c)
a c
c b
Thus Ja f(x) dx + J f(x) dx
c
= c/>(c) -</J(a) + </J(b) - cf>(c)
b
= cf>(b)-</J(a) = J f(x) dx
a
Other properties of definite integrals can easily be proved by applying the

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
Now we evaluate some definit~ integrals in the following examples.
3 2 ')
Example 1: Evaluate (i) f (x 3
+ 3x 2
) dx (ii) f rx ++·11 dx
-1 I
Solution:
3 3 3
(i) f (x 3
+ 3x 2
) dx = f x3 dx + f 3x2 dx .
-1 -1 -1
81 1] 81 - 1
= [4-4 + (27-(-1)] = -4- + (27 + l~
= 20 + 28 = 48
2
x2 + 1 2fx2-1+2
(ii) f1 x+l dx =
1
x+l dx
2 2
(i-1
2 ) ( 2 )
= flx+I+x+I dx=f x-l+x+l dx
I 1
2 2 2 1
=f
1
x dx - f 1
Idx + 2 J1 x + l dx
[~ I-[x]:
2
= +2[/n(x+l)]:
~) ]
2 2
= [ (;) - ( - [2 - 1] + 2[ln (2 + 1) - In ( 1 + 1)]
= (2-k)- 1 + 2 [In 3 - In 2]
1 3
= 2 + 2 ln2
7C
3 4
Example 2: Evaluate: (i)
..f3J x3+9x+ 1
x2 + 9 dx (ii) J sec x(sec x + tan x) dx
0 0
Solution:
3 3 3
(i) ..f3J x3+9x+ 1 dx _ ..f3J (x + 9x _1_) dx
x2+9 - \x2+9 +x2+9
0 0
{3 (x(x2+9) _ 1) {3 ( _ 1)
= J \ x2 + 9
0
+ x2 + 9 dx= J
x + x2 + 9 dx
0
{3 {3 1
= J xdx+ J x2+ 9 dx
0 0
= (x22 J.[3
0
[!
+ 3 tan-1 !.J..fj
3
0
(·.· J l
- 2 - 2 dx = 3
x +(3)
x + c)
1 tan-1 3
= (('1})
2
2
{QfJ + !3 ( tan fl3 - tan 3Q)
- 2
-I -1
= (l2 - 0) + !3 ( tan - I '1}

_1 - tan -I O)
-_ l2 + !3 6 - (!!. o} -_l2 + .!!....18 (· .. tan

-1
"3i - 67C and tan _, 0 = O)
7C 7C
4 4
(ii) J sec x(sec x + tan x) dx = J (sec 2x+ secx tanx) dx
0 0
1C 7C
4 4
=J 2
sec x dx + J secx tanx dx
0 0
! 1l
= [tanx ]: + [secx]: = (1an*-tan 0) + (•••i- secO)

= (1 - 0) + ("2 - 1) = "2
1t
4
Example 3: Evaluate f 1
1-sinx dx
0
1t 1t
4 4
Solution: f0 1
1- sinx dx
.
= f0 (1 - sin1 +x)(lsinx+sin x) dx
1t 1t
4 4
1 + sinx 1 + sinx dx
= f
0
1 - sin 2 x dx = f0 cos 2 x
1t 1t
4 4
= f (+ + sin x ) dx = 0f (sec x + sec x tan x) ax
0 cos x cos x
2
2
= -.J2 (See the solution of example 2(ii))

2
Example 4: Evaluate f (x + I x I) dx
-1
Solution:
2 0 2
f (x + I x I) dx = f (x + I x I) dx + J (x + I x I) dx (by property (d))
-1 -1 0
0 2
= f [x + (-x)] dx + f (x + (x)] dx ·:ixl=-x ifx<O)
( =xifx>O
-1 0
0 2 2
= J Odx+ J 2xdx= 0+2f xdx
-1 0 0
Example 5: Evaluate
Solution: Let f(x) = ~ + 9, then f'(x) = 2.x, so

3
f -,Jx23x+ 9 dx = I #+9 dx = 23 f (x2 + 9)- 2 (2.x) l2
(2.x) dx
3 f _l
=2 [f(x)] f'(x) dx 2
I l
2 2
= 3 [f(x)] + c = 3(x2 + 9) + c
Thus, lh
"7 3
dx =
[
3(x2 + 9) 0
l]../7
2
=3
[ I
(7 + 9>2 - (0 + 9)2
I]
= 3[(16l- (9)t] = 3(4- 3) = 3
~
2 . -I
sm x
Example 6: Evaluate f1
--J _ x2 dx,
1
X':l:-1,1
2
7t 7t
Solution: Let t =sin-' x, --
2<
then x =sin t for
- t<-
-2
and dx = costdt = -,Jl-sin 2 t dt [-:costis+vefor-~~t~~J
= Jl-x 2 dt
1
or --J 1 _ x2 dx = dt (x :;f 1, 1)
1 1
If x = 2 , then 2 = sin t => t = sm- 21 = 67t
. l
and if x = '13 '13

T , then T = sin t => t = sin- 1 -{3 7t
2
~
Thus,
2
J
1
sin x
J1-x
1
2
dx-
-
2
J
l
(sin- x)
1
h1-
dx
2 2
7C
3
= Jt dt (": x =sin t => sin- 1x = t)
7C
6
7C
= [~J: = ~[(f)2-(~)2] = t(~ -3~ )

2 2
= t( 4n;6n2) = ~~2 = 2~
!!
6
Example 7: Evaluate fxcos xdx
0
Solution: Applying the formula
ff(x) </>'(x) dx = f(x) </J(x) - J</J(x) f '(x) dx, we have
Jxcosxdx = xsinx- J<sinx)(l)dx
= x sinx- [(-cos x) + c 1]
= x sin x + cos x + c , where c = - c 1
7r
6 7r
Thus J x cos x dx = [x sinx +cos x] 6

0 0
= (~sin~+cos~)-(OsinO+cosO)
7r 1 -J3 7r -J3
= 6 . 2 + 2 - (O + l) = 12 + 2 -1
e
Example 8: Evaluate Jx In x dx
1
Solution: Applying the formula
Jf(x) </J'(x) dx = f(x) </J(x) - J</J(x) f'(x) dx, we have

J(In x) x dx = (In x) . ~ - J( ~ ) .~ dx
f(In x) x dx = .!.2 x 2 In x- .!.

2
fx dx = .!.2 x 2 In x- .!.2 ( ;;-)
2
+c
= [kx 2 /nx-~ r
2
Thus, f xlnxdx
I
2
= (.!.2 e2 In e - e4 ) - (.!. (1) 2 In 1 - .D.2.2
2 4
)
= (~ . 1 - ~) - (k 0 -i) (':In e = 1 and In 1 = 0)

2
e I
= 4 +4
l 3 l
Example 9: If f f(x) dx = 5, f f (x)dx = 3 and f g(x) dx = 4, then
-2 -2
Evaluate the following definite integrals:
3 1
(i) f f(x) dx (ii) f [2/(x) + 3 g(x)] dx
-2 -2
1 1
(iii) f 3 f(x) dx - f 2 g(x) dx
-2 -2
3 1 3
Solution: (i) f f (x) dx = -2f f(x) dx + f1 f(x) dx = 5 + 3 = 8
-2
1 1 1
(ii) f [2/(x) + 3 g(x)] dx = J 2/(x) dx + J 3 g(x) dx
-2 -2 -2
1 1
= 2 J f(x) dx + 3 J g(x) dx
-2 -2
= 2(5) + 3(4) = 10 + 12 = 22
l l 1 1
(iii) J3/(x) dx- J2g(x) dx = 3 J f(x) dx- 2 J g(x) dx
-2 -2 -2 -2
= 3 x 5 -2 x 4 = 15 - 8 = 7
EXERCISE 3.6
Evaluate the following definite integrals:
2 1 I 0
1. f1
(.x2 + 1) dx 2. J
-I
(x 3 + 1) dx 3. J (2x~ 1)2
-2
dx
2 --15 ~
4. J ~3-x dx 5. f ~(2t- 1) 3
dt 6. J x~x2-1 dx
-6 I 2
f3 ( x-xIr dx
2
7. f .x2+x 2 dx 8.
2
9. f
-I
(x+!}Jr+x+l dx
!I
10. f0
3
dx
x 2 +9
11.
3
f cost dt
!I
12.
2
J ( x+:x
1
1y (
2
I)
1-.x2 dx
6
-1C
2 2 4
J (et-e-t) dx Jcos (} + sin (} d(}
13. f lnxdx 14.
0
15.
0
2 cos 2 (}
!!.. !!. -1C

6 4 4
16. J cos3 (}d()
0
17. f
1C
cos 2 () cot 2
(} d(} 18. J cos t dt
0
4
6
1C
-
3
-41C -41C
19. f0 cos2 sin () d(} 20. J(1 +cos 2
(}) tan 2 0 d(} 21. J sec(} d(}
0
sin (} + cos (}
0
5 I ( l
J x~+2
)2 3
Jx2-2
22. J lx-31dx 23. 1 dx 24. x+I dx
-1 l x3 I
8
-41C 7t
3 4
25.
f 2
3x -2x+ 1
26.
J sinx-1 dx 27. J 1 + ~inx
(x-1) (x 2 + 1) dx cos 2 x dx
2 0 0
1t
1 2
3x cosx
I
28. 0 ...J4 - 3x dx 29 • I sinx(2+sinx)
1t
dx
6
1t
2 .
30. J sznx dx
o(l+cosx) (2+cosx)
3.8 APPLICATION OF DEFINITE INTEGRALS

Here we shall give some examples involving area bounded by the curve and
the x-axis. y
Example 1: Find the area bounded by the
curve y = 4 - x2 and the x-axis.
Solution: We first find the points where
the curve cuts the x-axis. Putting y = 0,
we have
4 - x 2 = 0 => x = ±2.
So the curve cuts the x-axis at
(-2,0) and (2,0)
Y'
2
The area above the x-axis and under the curve y = 4 - x is shown in the figure
as shaded region.
J (4 -x2) dx = [4x- ~]
2
Thus the required area=

-2 3 -2
2
= ( 4(2)- <{ )-( 4(-2)- (-~)' J
=(s-ff (-s+%j
_16 (-16J- 32
--- -- --
3 3 3
Example 2: Find the area bounded by the curve y = x 3 + 3x 2 and the x-axis.
Solution: Putting y =0 , we have y
3 2
x +3x =0
2
=> x (x +3) = 0 => x = O, x = -3
,.z. ) ( ,4
The curve cuts the x-axis at (-3,0) and I \
(0,0) (see the figure).
'
0 I (- CU) \ I
x x
Thus the required area = J(x 3 2
+ 3x )dx __ t: IL.§ L.~ ·I . (0 0)
l
__, L,_ _.__, - .l-J- .J_
r: ~-y_:-+
-1 +-
I
•-+ 1-. l
- t-
- 4 0 ~- ~-~T ·-+ ----t--'
=lx4 +x' _, ~
'--t
I
I I
'
I
I
I
L ,_ H
I
-4-+(-3) 3 J
4
0 1
=( 4+0 )- ((-3) y'
=0-(~ -27 J={81~108 J={-2:J= 2:

2
Example 3: Find the area bounded by y = x(x -4) and the x-axis .
Solution: Putting y = 0, we have y
x(x 2 -4) => x = O,x = ±2
The curve cuts the x-axis at (-2,0),(0,0) and

(2,0). The graph of fis shown in the figure
and we have to calculate the area of the
shaded region.
f(x) = x(.x2 - 4),
f(x)?:. 0 for -2 5. x5. 0, that is, the
area in the interval [-2, 0] is above the
0
x-axis and is equal to J x(x 2
- 4) dx
y'
-2
0 0
= J(x -4x) 3
dx = [~4 -2.x2J
-2 -2
(-2)
= 0- -4--2(-2)
(
2
4
I)= 0- (164-8 )=-(4-8)=4
f(x) $. 0 for OSx $. 2, that is, the area in the interval [0,2] is below the x-axis
and is equal to-J2 (x 3 -4x)dx = - [ ~4

-2x 2 ] 2
0
4 0
=-[4 - 8] =-(-4) = 4
Thus the area of the shaded region = 4 + 4 =8
Example 4: Find the area bounded by the curvef(x) = x3 -2x 2
+ 1 and the x-axis in
the 1st quadrant.
Solution: As fil) = 1 - 2 + 1 = 0, so x - 1 is factor of i - 2x2 + 1. By long
division, we find that x2 - x - 1 is. also a factor of i - 2x2 + 1.
Solving x2 - x - 1 = 0, we get
1 ±'11+4 1 ±'15
x = 2 = 2
Thus the curve cuts the x-axis at x = 1,

1+'15 and 1-'15
2 2
y
The graph of the curve is shown in the
adjoining figure and the required area is shaded.
The required area A will be
l
A= J(x3 - 2x2 + 1) dx
0
11
=I~-2~+x 0
4 3
1 2 l 3- 8 + 12 7
= (4-3+ 1)- 0 = 12 =12
y'
Example 5: Find the area between the x-axis and the curve y 2 = 4 -x in the first
quadrant from x = 0 to x = 3.
Solution: The branch of the curve above the x-axis is
y=.J4-x
The area to be determined is shaded in the adjoining figure.
3
Thus the required area = J .J 4 - x dx
0 (x=O) (0,2) (x=3)
Let 4- x = t (i), then - dx = dt ~ dx = -dt
Putting x = 0 and x = 3 (i), we get t = 4 and t = 1
I I I I ..------0-------(4-,0-)-
NOW the required area =Jt2 x(-dt) = Jt2 dt
4 4
(0,-2)
4
3
4 t tT
=JI t dt= -
3
2
4 3
2 14
=2- I tT3 =2- [ (4)2 -(1)2
3 ] =-[8-1]=- (squareunits)
3 1I 3 3 3
EXERCISE 3.7
1. Find the area between the x-axis and the curve y = x2 + 1 from x = 1 to x = 2.
2. Find the area, above the x-axis and under the curve y = 5 - x2 from x = -1
tox = 2.
3. Find the area below the curve y = 3~ and above the x-axis between x = 1
andx = 4.
7r 7r
4. Find the area bounded by cos function from x = - 2 to x = 2 .
5. Find the area between the x-axis and the curve y = 4x - x2.
6. Determine the area bounded by the parabola y = x2 + 2x - 3 and the x-axis.
7. Find the area bounded by the curve y = x3 + 1, the x-axis and line x = 2.
8. Find the area bounded by the curve y = x3 - 4x and the x-axis.
9. Find the area between the curve y = x(x - l)(x + 1) and the x-axis.
10. Find the area above the x-axis, bounded by the curve y 2 = 3 - x from
x =-1tox=2.
11. Find the area between the x-axis and the curve y = cos ; x from x = -7t to 7t .
12. Find the area between the x-axis and the curve y = sin2xfrom x =Oto x = 7r .
3
13. Find the area between the x-axis and the curve y = .J2ax- x 2 when a> 0.
3.9 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

An equation containing at least one derivative of a dependent variable with
respect to an independent variable such as
dy (1·)
y dx + 2x =0
2
xd y dy
or dxz + dx - 2x =0 (ii)
is called a differential equation.

Derivatives may be of first or higher orders. A differential equation containing
only derivative of first order can be written in terms of differentials. So we can write
the equation (i) as y dy + 2x dx = 0 but the equation (ii) cannot be written in terms of
differentials.
Order: The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest derivative
in the equation. As the order of the equation (i) is one so it is called a first order
differential equation. But equation (ii) contains the second order derivative and is
called a second order differential equation.
3.9.1 Solution of a Differential Equation of First Order
Consider the equation
y = Ai+4 (iii)
where A is a real constant
Differentiating (iii) with respect to x gives
dy
dx = 2Ax (iv)
... ) y-4 . h
From ( m A = -y, so puttmg t e value of A in (iv), we get
xdy = 2y-8 which is free of constant A

dx
dy
2y-x-
dx
=8 (v)
y
Substituting the value of y and its
derivative in (v), we see that it is satisfied,
that is,
2(Ai + 4) - x(2Ax) =2Ai + 8 - 2Ax =8
2
which shows that (iii) is a solution of (v)

Giving a particular value to A, say
A =-1, we get
y = -i+4
Y'
We see that (v) is satisfied if we put y =-i + 4 and~ =- 2x, soy= -x 2
+4
is also a solution of (v). ·
For different values of A, (iii) represents different parabolas with vertex at
(0, 4) and the axis along the y-axis. We have drawn two members of the family of
parabolas.
y = Ax + 4 for A = -1, 1
2
All solutions obtained from (iii) by putting different values of A, are called
particular solutions of (v) while the solution (iii) itself is called the general solution
of (v).
A solution of differential equation is a relation between the variables (not
involving derivatives) which satisfies the differential equation.
Here we shall solve differential equations of first order with variables
separable in the forms
dy f(x) dy g(y)
dx = g(y) or dx = f(x)
Example 1: Solve the differential equation (x- 1) dx + y dy =0

Solution: Variables in the given equation are in separable form, so integrating either
terms, we have
,
f (x - 1) dx + f y dy = c 1,
where c 1 is a constant
or (~ -x) + t = c,' which gives
x2 - 2x + y2 = 2c 1
Thus,the required general solution is x2 + y2- 2x = c, where c = 2c 1•

Example 2: Solve differential equation
2 dy
x (2y + 1) dx =1 = 0
Solution: The given differential equation can be written as
2
2
x(y+ I) dx
dy =1 (1·)
Dividing by x , we have (2y + 1) ~

2
= ;1, (x * 0) (ii)
Multiplying both sides of (i) by dx, we get
(2y + 1) ( : dx) = :2dx

1
or (2y + 1) dy = -x2 dx
Integrating either side gives
f(2y+l)dy = f ;2dx
or
Thus, y2 + y =c - x1 is the general solution of the given differential equation.

Example 3: Solve the differential equation ~: - 2y = 0 x i- 0, y > O
Solution: Multiplying the both sides of the given equation by ..! dx, gives
y
~ (~ dx J - 2x dx = 0 or ~ dy = 2x dx ( ·: : dx =dy J
2
Now integrating either side gives Zn y = x + c 1 where c, is a constant
x2+ c x
2
c
or y = e '= e .e'
Thus, y = cex' where ec, =c
is the required general solution of the given differential equation.
dy y2 +I
Example 4: Solve dx = ~
Solution: Separating the variables, we have

1 1
y2 + 1 dy = e-x dx = exdx
Now integrating either side gives

-I x
tan y= e + c, where c is a constant.
or y = tan(ex + c)
which is the general solution of the given differential equation.
Example 5: Solve 2ex tan y dx + (1- e} sec y dy

2
=0 ,
[
0<Y<2
'IC
3
or 'IC <y < ;
J
Solution: Given that: 2e• tan y dx + (1 - ex) sec2 y dy = 0 (i)
Dividing either term of (i) by tan y (1 - ex), we get

2ex sec2 y
1 - ex dx + tan y dy = 0
-2ex 2
secy
or ex - 1 dx + tan y dy = 0
Integrating, we have
f-2(ex~1 )dx + J( ~~~ ;)dy = Cl'
or -21n (ex - 1) +In (tan y) =c 1
=:}
2
In (ex - lf +In (tan y) = Inc, where c 1 =Inc
or In [(ex - lf2 tan y] = In c
=:} (ex - 1r 2 tan y =c =:}tan y = c (ex - 1)2.
Example 6: Solve (sin y + y cosy) dy = [x(2 In x + 1] dx
Solution: (siny+ ycosy)dy= (2xlnx+x)dx (i)
. 2 I
or (l.smy+ycosy)dy= (2x lnx+x .-)dx
x
2
=> (.!!:._(y siny)) dy = (.!!:._(x In x)) d.x (·: .!!:_(y sin y) = 1. sin y + y cosy and
dy · dx dy
d
-(x
d.x
2 1)
In x) = 2xlnx+x 2 .-
x
Integrating, we have
i( ~ (y sin y) )dy =1( ~ (x 2

In x) ).u
=> .
y szn y = x 2 In x + c
3.9.2 Initial Conditions
Differential equations occur in numerous practical problems concerning to
physical, bi~logical and social sciences etc.
The arbitrary constants involving in the solution of different equations can be

determined by the given conditions. Such conditions are called initial value
conditions.
The general solution of differential equation in variable separable form

contains only one variable. Here we shall consider those differential equations which
have only one initial value condition.
Note that the general solution of differential equation of order n contains n

arbitrary constants which can be determined by n initial value conditions.
Example 7: The slope of the tangent at any point of the curve is given by
2 = 2x - 2 , find the equation of the curve if y = 0 when x = -1
Solution: Given that 2= 2x -2 (i)

y
Equation (i) can be written as
dy = (2x - 2) dx (ii) (4. 8)
(-2, 5) (4, 5)
Integrating either side of (ii) gives
Jdy = J(2x - 2) dx
or y = i - 2x + c (iii)
( 1,-4)
App1ying the given condition, we have

2
0 = (-1) - 2(-1) + c :=:} c=- 3
Thus (iii) becomes y'
y = i-2x-3
which represents a parabola as shown in the adjoining figure.
For c = 0, (iii) becomes y = i - 2x.
The graph of y =x
2
- 2x is also shown in the figure.
Note: The general solution represents a system of parabolas which are vertically
above (or below). each other.
dy 3 2
Example 8: Solve dx = 4x + x - 3, if y = 0 when x = 2
Solution: Given that

dy 3 2
dx=4x+x-3 (i)
Separ.ating variables, we have
dy = (~ i +x - 3 )dx (ii)
Integrating either side of (ii) gives
= ~ (~
3
~
2
or y ) + - 3x + c
y = 41 x + 21 x 3 2
- 3x + c (iii)
Now applying the initial value condition, we have

1 1
0 = 4 (8) + 2 (4) - 3(2) + c
~ c = 6-2-2 = 2
Thus (iii) becomes
1 3 1 2
y = 4x + 2x -3x + 2
~ 4y = x3 + 2i- 12x + 8
Example 9: A particle is moving in a straight line and its acceleration is given by
a= 2t-7,
(i) find v (velocity) in terms oft ifv = 10 m/sec, when t = 0
(ii) finds (distance) in terms oft ifs = 0, when t = 0.
Solution: Given that a = 2t - 7, that is
~ dv = (2t - 7) dt
Integrating~ we have
Jdv = J(2t - 7) dt
(1)
Applying the first initial value condition, we get
· 10 = 0-0 + c 1
The equation (1) becomes

v = t2 - 7t + 10 which is the solution of (i)
ds
Now dt = t2 - 7t + 10
ds = (t2 - 7t + 10) dt (2)
Integrating both sides of (2), we get
fds = J<r - 7t + 10) dt

(3)
Applying the second initial value condition, gives
0 = Q- Q + Q + C2 => C2 =0
Thus, is the solution of (ii)
Example 10: In a culture, bacteria increases at the rate proportional to the number of
bacteria present. If bacteria are 100 initi ally and are doubled in 2 hours, find the number
of bacteria present four hours later.
Solution: Let p be the number of bacteria present at time t, then
dp
dt = kp (k > 0)
or p1 dp = k dt => In p = kt+ c 1
kt+c kt c
p=e ' =e.e '
or p = ce kr (i)
c
(where e ' = c)
Applying the given condition. that is p =JOO when t = 0. we have
100 = ce<O> k= c (': e0 = 1)
Putting c = 100. (i) becomes p = 100 l' (ii)
p will be 200 when t = 2 (hours), so (ii) gives
200 = 100 e2" => e 2k = 2
1
or 2k = ln2 => k = 2 In 2
1 -
Substituting k =2 In 2 in (ii), we get
p = 100 ed ln2)t = lOO efr In 2 = lOOe'n ( 2 t)

p = 100 (2t)
If t =4 (hours), then p = 100 (1!) = 100 x 4 =400.
Example 11: A ball is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 1470 cm/sec,
Neglecting air resistance, find
(i) velocity of ball at any time t
(ii) distance traveled in any time t
(iii) maximum height attained by the ball.
Solution.
(i) Let v be the velocity of the ball at any time t, then by Newton's law of motion,
we have
dv
dt = - g => dv = - g dt (i)
or Jdv = J-g dt (Integrating either side of (i))
v =-gt+ c, (ii)
Given that v = 1470 (cm/sec) when t = 0, so
1470 = - g(O) + c1 => c1 = 1470
Thus (ii) becomes v = - gt+ 1470 = 1470- 980 t (taking g = 980)
(ii) Let h be the height of the ball at any time t, then
dh
dt = 1470 - 980 t ( ·.. v = ddht)
or dh = (1470 - 980 t) dt
h
r
= 1470 t - 980 2 + c 2 = 1470 t - 490 t2 + C2 (iii)
h = 0 when t = 0, so we have
0 = 1470 X 0- 490(0)2 + c 2
Putting c 2 =0 in (iii), we have
h = 1470t-490t2
(iii) The maximum height will be attained when v =0, that is
1470 3
1470- 980 t= 0 => t = 980 = 2 (sec)
Thus the maximum height attained in (ems) = 1470 x ( ~ J - 490 x ( ~ J·

= 2205 - 1102.5 = 1102.5
EXERCISE 3.8
1. Check that each of the following equations written against the differential
equation is its solution.
dy
(i) xdx =l+y y = cx-1
dy
(ii) 2
x (2y + 1) dx - 1 =0 y +y
2
= c-~1
dy 2
(iii) y -dx - ex =1 l=e2x+2x+c
1 dy
(iv) ~ dx -2y =0 y =
(v)
dy _ l±.1 y = tan (ex + c)
dx - e-x
Solve the following differential equations:

dy
2. dx = -y 3. y dx + x dy = 0
dy 1 -x dy y
4. dx = y 5. dx = x2 , (y > 0)
. dy
6. sin y cosec x dx = 1 7. x dy + y (x - 1) dx =0
~+] x dy 1 dy 1 2
8. Y+1 = Y. dx ' (x, y > 0) 9. ~ dx = 2 (1 + y)
2 dy 2 dy 2.xy
10. 2xydx=x-1 11• dx + 2y + 1 =x
2 2
dy
12. (x - yx ) dx + y2 + xi = 0
2
13. sec x tan y dx + sec y tan x dy
2
=0
14. dy) = 2 ( y2 + dy)
( y -x dx dx
dy
15. 1 + cos x tan y dx =0
16.
17. secx +tan y dy =0

dx
18. (e
x dy
+e -x) -=e x
-e -x
dx
19. Find the general solution of the equation : - x = x/

Also find the particular solution if y = 1 when x =0.
dx
20. Solve the differential equation dt = 2x given that x = 4 when t = 0.
21. Solve the differential equation !~ + 2st =0. Also find the particular solution if
s = 4e, when t = 0.
22. In a culture, bacteria increases at the rate proportional to the number of

bacteria present. If bacteria are 200 initia11y and are doubled in 2 hours, find
the number of bacteria present four hours later.
23. A ball is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 2450 cm/sec. Neglecting
air resistance, find
(i) velocity of ball at any time t
(ii) distance traveled in any time t
(iii) maximum height attained by the ball.

Unit 4: Introduction to Analytic Geometry 179
·Introduction to
Unit Analytic Geometry
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Geometry is one of the most ancient branches of mathematics. The
Greeks systematically studied it about four centuries B.C. Most of the geometry
taught in schools is due to Euclid who expounded thirteen books on the subject (300
B.C.). A French philosopher and mathematician Rene Descartes (1596-1650 A.D.)
introduced algebraic methods in geometry which gave birth to analytical geometry (or
coordinate geometry). Our aim is to present fundamentals of the subject in this book.
Coordinate System
I
Draw in a plane two mutually perpendicular number lines x'x and y y, one
horizontal and the other vertical. Let their point of Y
intersection be 0 which we call the origin and
the real number 0 of both the lines is represented
by 0 . The two lines are ca1led the coordinate
axes. The horizontal Jine x'Ox is caJled the x -----------x
x-axis and the vertical line y'Oy is called the y- O
axis.
As in the case of number line, we fo11ow
the convention that all points on the y-axis above y
x'Ox are associated with positive real numbers, y
those below x'Ox with negative real numbers.
p (x, y)
Similarly, all points on the x-axis and Jying on the
right of 0 will be positive and those on the left of s
0 and lying on the x-axis will be negative.
Suppose P is any point in the plane. Then x _ _ _.._..._..._x_.._..._..._:- - - - •
_x
P can be located by using an ordered pair of real O R
numbers. Through P draw lines parallel to the
y
coordinates axes meeting x-axis at R and y-axis at
S. Let the directed distance OR = x and the directed distance OS = y.
The ordered pair(x, y) gives us enough information to locate the point P.
Thus, with very point P in the plane, we can associate an ordered pair of real
numbers (x, y) and we say that P has coordinates (x, y). It may be noted that x and y
are the directed distances of P from the y-axis and the x-axis respectively. The reverse
of this technique also provides a method for associating exactly one point in the plane
with any ordered pair (x, y) of real numbers. This method of pairing off in a one-to-
one fashion the points in a plane with ordered pairs of real numbers is ca11ed the two
dimensional rectangular (or Cartesian) coordinate system.
If (x, y) are the coordinates of a point P, then the first number (component) of
the ordered pair is called the x-coordinate or abscissa of P and the second member
of the ordered pair is called they-coordinate or ordinate of P. Note that abscissa is
always first element and the ordinate is second element in an ordered pair.
The coordinate axes divide the plane into four y
equal parts called quadrants. They are defined as
follows:
Quadrant I: All points (x, y) with x > 0, y > 0 II I
Quadrant II: All points (x, y) with x < 0, y > 0 xI x
Quadrant III:All points (x, y)with x < 0, y < 0 I v

Quadrant IV:All points (x, y) with x > 0, y < 0
The point P in the plane that corresponds y'
to an ordered pair (x, y) is called the graph of (x, y).
Thus given a set of ordered pairs of real numbers, the graph of·the set is the aggregate
of all points in the plane that correspond to ordered pairs of the set.
}'
Challenges!
ffl I\'
I
1- Write down the coordinates of ~ ,_

v
the points if not mentioned. x'

-
~ (
' ."
'
x
/.
f I -1 , -~
1T
A n 1,.
11- Locate (0, -1), (2, 2), (-4, 7)
K iii
and (-3, -3)
y'
4.1.1 The Distance Formula

Let A(x,,y.) and B(x2,yJ be two points in the Note that:
plane. We can find the distance d = IAB Ifrom the right AB stands for
triangle AQB by using the Pythagoras theorem, we have mAB or IABI
d2 = AB2 = AQ2 + QB2 . (1)
y
IAQI =IRSI = IRO +OSI '
=1-0R+osl
R r
. Iv )
-
=lx2 -x,I M
)__
i....---~
~
A(J I' Y1 i--
IQBI = ISB - SQI = IOM - ONI N
-n
I
=ly2-Y,i R 0 ~
;:. x
Therefore, (1) takes the form
di =(x2-x1)2+(y2 -y1)2
(2)
which is the formula for the distance d. The distance is always taken to be
positive and it is not a directed distance from A to B when A and B do not lie on the
same horizontal or vertical line. ·
If A and B lie on a line parallel to one of the coordinate axes, then by the
formula (2), the distance AB is absolute value of the directed distance AB .
The formula (2) shows that any of the two points can be taken as first point.
Example 1: Show that the points A(-1,2), B(7,5) and C(2,-6)are vertices of a
right triangle.
y
Solution: ~t, a, b and c denote the lengths of the
sides BC, CA and AB respectively. ·~
l l ' J
i....ol"'J
By the distance formula, we have . ~ ~...- I
~,
'"') _,
c= AB=~(7-(-1)) +(5-2) 2 2
=J73 I-' I
' ,. I
-x
a=BC=~(2-7) 2 +(-6-5) 2 =.J146
\
1 J
=CA= ~(2-(-1))2 +(-6-2) = J73

2 \ J
b
l -11
2 2 2
Clearly: a = b +c •
Therefore, ABC is a right triangle with right angle at A.

Example 2: The point C(-5,3) is the centre of a circle and P(7,-2) lies on the circle.
What is the radius of the circJe? y
Solution: The radius of the circle is the distance

from Cto P. ·
By the distance formula, we have C(-5.3)
Radius= CP=~(7-(-5)) 2 +(-2-3) 2

= .J144 + 25 = 13
4.1.2 Point Dividing the line segment in a

Given Ratio
Theorem 1: Let A(xl'y1 ) and B(x2 .y2 ) be the two given points in a plane. The
coordinates of the point dividing the line segment AB in the ratio k 1 : k 2 are
k1x2 + k2x1, k1Y2 + k2Y1 l
( kl +k2 kl +k2 )
Proof: Let P(x, y) be the point that divides AB in the ratio k1 : k 2
From A, B and P draw perpendiculars to the x-axis as shown in the figure.
Also draw BC J_AQ.
Since LP is paralJel to CA, in the triangle ACB, we have
k AP CL 1 QM x-x y
-1= - = - = - - = - -
k2 PB LB MR x2 - x
k, x-x,
So, -
x. -x
or k 1x 2 -k1x = k 2 x-k 2 x 1
or (k 1 + k 2 )x = k1x 2 + k 2x 1
Q x
k1X2 + k1X1 0 M R
or x=----
k1 +k2
Similarly, by drawing perpendiculars from A, B and P to the -y-axis and
proceeding as before, we can show that

k1Y2 + k2Y1
y = ---"----"'-----':__:_
kl +k2
Note: (i) If the directed distances AP and PB have the same sign, then their ratio
is positive and Pis said to divide AB internally.
(ii) If the directed distances AP and PB have opposite signs i.e., Pis beyond
AB, then their ratio is negative and Pis said to divide AB externally.
AP k AP k1
- = - ' or --
BP k1 PB k2
Proceeding as before, we can show in this case that
X = k1Xz- kzX1 v = k1Y2 - k1Y1
kl -k2 ' . kl -k1
Thus P is said to divide the line segment AB in ratio k : k , internally or
externally according as Plies between AB or beyond AB .
(iii) If k 1 : k2 =I:1, then P becomes midpoint of AB and coordinates of P
(iv) The above theorem is valid in whichever quadrant A and B lie.
Example 3: Find the coordinates of the point that divides the join of A(-6,3) and
B(5,-2) in the ratio 2 : 3.
(i) internally (ii) externally
Solution: (i) Here k, = 2, k1 = 3, x, = -6, x2 = 5 .
By the formula, we have
2x5+3x(-6) -8 y = 2(-2) + 3(3) = 1
x= = and
2+3 5 2+3
8
Coordinates of the required point are ( - ,I)
5
(ii) In this case
x= 2x5-3x(-6) =-28 and y = 2(-2)-3(3) =13
2-3 2-3
Thus the required point has coordinates (-28, 13).
Theorem 1:
The centroid of a MBC is a point that divides each median in the ratio 2 : 1.
using this show that medians of a triangle are concurrent.
Proof: Let the vertices of a MBC have coordinates as shown in the figure.
Midpoint of BC is D X2+X3 , Y2+Y3J .

( 2 2
Let G(x, y) be the centroid of the ~
Then G divides AD in the ratio 2: 1. Therefore
X2 + X3
2. + l.x 1
2 XI +X2 + X3
x=------=
2+1 3
B "'-----....___ ____.. C
. . l -
SHill1ar y, y = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 (Xi, Yi) D (X3, Yi)
3
In the same way, we can show that
coordinate of the point that divides BE and CF
x 1 +x +x 3 y 1 + y + y 3 ]
each in the ratio 2 : 1 are ( ; , ; )•
Thus (x, y) lies on each median and so the medians of the MBC are
concurrent.
Theorem 3: Bisectors of angles of a triangle are concurrent.
Proof: Let the coordinates of the vertices of a triangle be as shown in the figure.
Suppose JscJ = a, JcAJ = b and JABJ = c
Let the bisector of LA meet BC at D. Then D divides BC in the ratio
.
c : b . Therefore coordmates of D are (ex +bx
3 2
,
cy 3 +by 2 J
b+c b+c
The bisector of LB meets AC at I and 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
divides AD in the ratio c: JBDI
Now
JBDJ _c or
IDCl _b
JDCJ-b IBDI-~
or
JDCJ+JBDJ _b+c
JEDI c
or __!!____ = b +c or IBDI = ~
IBD/ c b+c
Thus I divides AD in the ratio c: ___!!!!___ or in the ratio b + c: a

b+c
Coordinates of I are
(b + C) bx2 + cx3 (b by2 + cy3 ]

-----=b_+'-c=---_+_ax_1 ' + c) b + c + ay,
[ a+b+c a+b+c
ax, +bx2 +cx3 , ay, +by2 +cy3 )

i.e.,
( a+b+c a+b+c
The symmetry of these coordinates shows that the bisector of LC will also
pass through this point.
Thus the angle bisectors of a triangle are concurrent.
EXERCISE 4.1
1. Describe the location in the plane of the point P (x, y) for which
(i) x >0 (ii) x > 0 and y > 0 (iii) x =0
(iv) y=0 (v) x < 0 and y ~ 0 (vi) x=y
(vii) lxl = -IYI (viii) Ix!~ 3 (ix) x > 2 and y =2

(x) x and y have opposite signs.
. -··' Find in each of the following

(i) the distance between the two given points
(ii) midpoint of the line segment joining the two points
,a) A(3, 1); B (-2,-4) (b) A( - 8' 3); 8(2, -1) (c) A(-.JS.-~} B ~ 3,/5,s)
3. Which of the following points are at a distance of 15 units from the origin?
1 1
(a) (.Ji76,7) (b) (10, -10) (c) (1, 15) (d) ( ;, ; )
4. Show that
(i) the points A(O, 2), B (J3,-1) and C(O, - 2) are vertices of a right triangle.
186 Calcitlus and Analytic Geometry
(ii) the points A(3, 1), B (-2,-3) and C(2, 2) are vertices of an isosceles triangle.
(iii) the points A(5, 2), B(-2, 3), C(-3,-4) and D(4, -5) are vertices of a
parallelogram. Is the parallelogram a square?
5. The midpoints of the sides of a triangle are (1, -1), (-4, -3) and (-1, 1). Find
coordinates of the vertices of the triangle.
6. Find h such that the points A(.J3,-1), B(O, 2) and C(h, -2) are vertices of a
right triangle with right angle at the vertex A.
7. Find h such that A(- I, h), B(3, 2) and C(7. 3) are col1inear.
8. The points A (-5,-2) and B(5,-4) are ends of a diameter of a circle. Find the
centre and radius of the circle.
9. Find Ii such that the points A(h,l), B(2,7) and C(-6,-7) are vertices of a right
triangle with right angle at the vertex A.
10. A quadrilateral has the points A(9, 3), B( - 7 , 7), C ( -3,-7) and D(5, - 5) as
its vertices. Find the midpoints of its sides. Show that the figure formed by
joining the midpoints consecutively is a parallelogram.
11. Find h such that the quadrilateral with vertices A( -3, 0), B(l, -2 ), C(5, O)
and D(l, h) is parallelogram. Is it a square?
12. If two vertices of an equilateral triangle are A(-3, 0) and B(3, 0), find the third
vertex. How many of these triangles are possible?
13. Find the points trisecting the join of A( -:-1, 4) and B(6, 2).
14. Find the point three-fifth of the way along the line segment from A( - 5, 8)
to B(5. 3). _
15. Find the point Pon the joint bf A(l, 4) and B(5, 6) that is twice as far from A as
Bis from A and lies
(i) on the same side of A as B does. (ii) on the opposite side of A as B does.
16. Find the point which is equidistant from the points A(5, 3), B( - 2, 2) and
C (4, 2). What is the radius of the circumcircle of the L\ABC ?
17. The points (4, -2), (-2, 4) and (5, 5) are the vertices of a triangle. Find in-centre
of the triangle.
18. Find the points that divide the line segment joining A(x 1 , y 1 ) and B(x , y ) into
2 2
four equal parts.
4.2 TRANSLATION AND ROTATION OF AXES

Translation of Axes
Let .xy-coordinate system
be given and O' (h, k) be any
y y P(x, v) or P(X , Y)
point in the plane. Through O' ' .
draw two mutually perpendicular
lines O'X, O'Y such that O'X is r:
······K· ·····
parallel to Ox. The new axes O'X --+-----1--~--•X
and O'Y are called translation of O'(h , k) M ':
y
the Ox- and Oy-axes through the
.... . ...'. ·······X···· ···· . . .......... .
point Q'. In translation of axes,
origin is shifted to another point •--+-0-(0-,--) ____N.__ _ ___.M_ _ _ __._ x
0
in the plane but the axes remain
parallel to the old axes.
Let P be a point with coordinates (x, y) referred to xy-coordinate system and
the axes be translated through the point O' (h, k) and O'X, O'Y be the new axes. If P
has coordinates (X, Y) referred to the new axes, then we need to find X, Y in terms of
x,y.
Draw PM and O' N perpendiculars to Ox.
From the figure, we have
OM=x,MP=y, ON =h, NO'= k = MM'
Now X = O'M' = NM = OM - ON = x- h
Similarly, Y = M'P = MP-MM'= y-k
Thus the coordinates of P referred to XY-system are (x - h, y - k)
i.e.,X = x-h
Y=y-h
Moreover, x = X + h, y = Y + k.
Example 1: The coordinates of a point P are (-6, 9). The axes are translated
through the point O' (-3, 2). Find the coordinates of P referred to the
new axes.
Solution: Here h =-3, k = 2
Coordinates of Preferred to the new axes are (X, Y)given by
X= -6-(-3) = -3 and Y= 9-2 =7
Thus P (X, Y) = P (-3, 7).
Example 2: The xy-coordinate axes are translated through the point O' (4, 6). The
coordinates of the point Pare (2, -3) referred to the new axes. Find the
coordinates of P referred to the original axes.
Solution: Here X = 2, Y = -3, h = 4, k = 6.
We have x=X+h=4+2=6
y=Y+k=-3+6=3
Thus required coordinates are P (6, 3).
Rotation of Axes
Let xy-coordinate system
be given. We rotate Ox and Oy y
about the origin through an angle P(x,y)or
8 (0 < e < 90°) so that the new y P(X, Y)
axes are OX and OY as shown in x
the figure. Let a point P have
coordinates (x, y) referred to the
xy-system of coordinates. Suppose
P has coordinates (X, Y) referred to
the XY-coordinate system. We have
to find X, Y in terms of the given x
coordinates x, y. Let a be measure
of the angle that OP makes
with Ox. ·
From P, draw PM perpendicular to Ox and PM' perpendicular to OX.
Let IOPI = r. From the right triangle L1 OPM: we have
OM' = X = rcos (a-
M'P = Y = rsin(a- 8)
8)] (1)
Also from the L1 OPM, we have
x = r cos a, y = r sin a (2)
System of equations (i) may be re-written as:
X = r cos a cos()+ r sin a sin()]
Y = r sin a cos() - rcosa sin()
Substituting from (2) into the above e~uations, we have
x = x cos e + y sin
y = y cos e - x sin e
8] (3)
i.e., (X, Y) = (x cos 8 + y sin 8, - x sin 8 + y cos fJ)
are the coordinates of Preferred to the new axes OXand OY
---~---~---~~--------------~------..,____ _ _ _
Example 3: The xy-coord!nate axes are rotated about the origin through an angle of
30°. If the xy-coordinates of a point are (5, 7), find itsXY-coordinates,
where OX and OY are the axes obtained after rotation.
Solution: Let (X, Y) be the coordinates of Preferred to the XY-axes. Here e = 30°.
From equations (3) above, we have
X = 5 cos 30° + 7 sin 30° and Y = -5 sin 30° + 7 cos 30°
=~ 7 d -_J_ ?Ji
X 2 + 2 an y = 2 + 2
.
i.e., (X, y) = ( 5j32 + 7 , - 5+
2
113 }
are the required coordinates.
4
Example 4: The xy-axes are rotated about the origin through an angle of arctan 3
lying in the first quadrant. The coordinates of a point P referred to the new axes OX
and OY are P (-1, - 7). Find the coordinates of Preferred to the xy-coordinate system.
Solution: Let P (x, y) be the coordinates of Preferred to the xy-coordinate system.
4 4 3
Angle of rotation is given by arctan 8 = j . Therefore, sin 8 = S , cos 8 = S.
From equations (3) above, we have
x = x cos () + y sin and e y = - x sin e+ y cos e
3 4 4 3
or -1 =- x + - y and- 7 =- - x + - y
5 5 5 5
or 3x + 4y + 5 = 0 => -4x + 3y + 35 = 0
Solving these equations, we have
x ___L_ .1_
125 = - 125 = 25 => x = 5 , y = - 5
Thus coordinates of Preferred to the xy-system are (5, -5).
EXERCISE 4.2
1. The two points P and O' are given in xy-coordinate system. Find the
XY-coordinates of P referred to the translated axes O'X and O'Y . .
(i) P (3, 2); O' (1, 3) (ii) P (- 2, 6); O' (-3, 2)
(iii) P (-6, -8); O' (-4, -6) (IV)

. (32' 25) ;
p O
I ( 1 7)
-2' l
2. The xy-coordinate axes are translated thr<"' .:;;h the !"' O' whose coordinates
are given in xy-coordinate. The coordinates of P are given in the
XY-coordinate system. Find the coordinates 0f Pin A.y-coordinate system.
(i) P (8, 10); O' (3, 4) (ii) .P (-5, -3); O' (-2, -6)
(iii) P(-~. -~}o'(i, -i) (iv)P (4, -3); O' (-2, 3)
3. The xy-coordinate axes are rotated about the origin through the indicated
angle. The new axes are OX and OY. Find the XY-coordinates of the point P
with the given xy-coordinates.
(i) p (5, 3); 8=45° (ii) P (3, -7); e = 30°
1
(iii) p (11, -15) ; 8= 60° (iv)P (15, 10); () = arctan - -
3
4. The xy-coordinate axes are rotated about the origin through the indicated angle
and the new axes are OX and OY. Find the .Y)·-coordinates of P with the given
XY-coordinates.
(i) p (-5, 3); 8= 30° (ii) P c- 7-{2 , 5-{2) ; e=45°

4.3 EQUATIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES
Inclination of a Line: The angle a(0°<a<180°)measured counterclockwise
from positive x-axis to a non-horizontal straight line l is called the inclination of l.
y y y
a= 0°
a= 90°
---+------x ---+---+-'----x
0 O l 11 Y-axis
l II x-axis
Observe that the angle a in the different positions of the line l are a, 0° and
90° respectively.
Note: (i) If l is parallel to x-axis , then a = 0°

(ii) If I is parallel to y-axis, then a = 90°
Slope or gradient of a line: When we walk on an inclined plane, we cover

horizontal distance (run) as well as vertical distance (rise) at the same time.
It is harder to climb a steeper
inclined plane. The measure of
steepness (ratio of rise to the run) is
termed as slope or gradient of the
inclined path and is denoted by m.
rise y
m = - - = -. = tana
run x
In analytical geometry, slope or gradient m of a non-vertical straight line

with a as its inclination is defined by : m = tan a
If l is horizontal its slope is zero and if l is vertical then its slope is undefined.
If 0° < a< 90°, m is positive and if 90° < a< 180°, then mis negative
4.3.1 Slope or Gradient of a Straight Line Joining Two Points

Theorem 1:
If a non-vertical line l with 'j
Q (x,.y, ~
inclination a passes through two points
;:;:::
P(x 1 , y 1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ), then the slope or I:
P ( x., y,) a
;r:: y,
gradient m of l is given by : :
. ········ ......... ~~-~-~ ! .. ; R ;
.t
Proof: Let m be the slope of the line l.
Draw perpendiculars PM and QM' on x-axis and a perpendicular PR on QM'.
Then LRPQ =a, mPR = x 2 -x1 and mQR = y 2 -y 1
The slope or gradient of l is defined as: m =tan a.= Y2 - Yi

X2 -XI
Tr
Case (i). When O<a< -
2
In the right triangle PRQ, we have
m =tan a = Y2 - Yi
Xz -XI
1t
Case (ii) When - < a. < 7t
2
In the right triangle PRQ
Rl ... :~.L"h .....1:. :-:-.~--- .... P(x l' Y1 )

or X1 X1
~~~-=--+-~---'~~~__,,,,__._~~-- x
Y1 : a.
M' 0 M
or m = Y2 -y1
or
Thus if P(x 1 , y 1 ) and Q(x 2 , y 2 ) are two points on a line, then slope of PQ is
given by:
(ii) l is horizontal, iff m = 0 (·:a= 0°)

(iii) l is vertical, iff mis not defined (·:a.= 90°)
(iv) If slope of AB =slope of BC, then the points A, Band Care collinear.
Theorem 2: The two lines 11 and 12 with respective slopes m1 and m2 are
(i) parallel iff m1 = m2 Remember that:
The symbol
(ii) perpendicular iff
(i) II stands for "parallel".
(ii) )f stands for "not parallel".
m1m2 +1=0
(iii) 1- stands for "perpendicular".
Example 1: Show that the points A(-3,6),
B(3,2) and C(6,0) are collinear. Notice that:
Solution: We know that the points A, B Slope of AB = slope of AC
and C are collinear if the line AB and BC
have the same slopes. Here
2-6 -4 -4 -2 0-2 -2
Slopeof AB= =--=-=- and slope of BC = - - = -
3-(-3) 3+3 6 3 6-3 3
Slope of AB =Slope of BC
Thus A, Band Care collinear.
Unit 4: Introduction to Anaiytic Geometry
Example 2: Show that the triangle with vertices A(l,1) B( 4,5) and C(12,-1) is a
right triangle.
5-1 4 -1-5 -6 -3
Solution: Slope of AB= m, =-- =- and Slope of BC= m2 =- - =- =-
4-1 3 12-4 8 4
Since m, .m2 = ( : ) (- !) = -I, therefore, A8-l BC
So MBC is a right triangle.

4.3.2 Equation of a Straight Line Parallel to the x-axis
(or perpendicular to the y-axis)
y
y y :
~
' '
I
-; I •x
I I
a>O a<O
(i) f ;. x (ii) ~ I
('")
111 I
a=O
~x
0 0 0
111 x-axis 111 x-axis 111 x-axis
or /..Ly-axis or / ly-axis or / ly-axis
All the points on the line l parallel to x-axis remain at a constant distance
(say a) from x-axis. Therefore, each point on the line has its distance from x-axis equal to
a, which is its y-coordinate (ordinate). So, all the points on this line satisfy the
equation: Iy = a I
Note: (i) If a > 0 , then the line l is above x -axis.

(ii) If a < 0, then the line l is below x-axis.
=0 , then the line l becomes x-axis
(iii) If a
Thus the equation of x-axis is y = 0
4.3.3 Equation of a Straight Line Parallel to the y-axis

(or perpendicular to the x-axis)
y l l y
~ ' ·~ ~
Y.
~b- ~b-
b>O
x b<O -
x
b =0 x
0 ! II y-axis 0 0 l lly-axis
l lly-axis (iii)
(i) or l ..Lx-axis (ii) or l lx-axis 1., or l lx-axis
All the points on the line l parallel to y-axis remain at a constant distance (say
b) from the y-axis. Each point on the line has its distance from the y-axis equal to b
which is its x-coordinate (abscissa). So, all the points on this line satisfy the
equation: Ix= bl
which is an equation of the line l parallel to the y-axis (or perpendicular to the
x-axis).
Note: (i) If b > 0, then the line is on right of the y-axis.

(ii) If b < 0, then the line is on left of the y-axis.
(iii) If b = 0 , then the line becomes the y-axis
Thus the equation of y-axis is x = 0.
4.3.4 Derivation of Standard Forms of Equations of Straight Lines
Intercepts: y
•!• If a line intersects x-axis at (a, 0), then
B(O,b)
a is called x-intercept of the line.
•!• If a line intersects y-axis at (0, b) , then b
b is called y-intercept of the line.
1. Slope-Intercept form of Equations of a Straight Lines:

Theorem 3: Equation of a non-vertical straight line with slope m and
y-intercept c is given by:
. ly=mx+ci
Proof: Let P(x, y) be an arbitrary point of the straight line l with slope m and
y-intercept c. As C(O, c) and P(x, y) lie on the line. So the slope of the line is:
y-c y
m = - - or y - c = mx or y = mx + c
x-0
is an equation of l.
The equation of the line for which c = O is
y=mx
In this case the line passes through the origin. x
Example 3: Find the equation of the straight line if

(a) its slope is 2 and y-intercept is 5
(b) it is perpendicular to a line with slope -6 and its y-intercept is ~
Solution: (a) The slope and y-intercept of the line are respectively:
m = 2 and c = 5
Thus . y = 2x + 5 (Slope-intercept form: y = mx + c)
is the required equation
(b) The slope of the given line is
m1 =~6
1 1
The slope of the required line is: m2 = - - - = -
m1 6
1 4
y=-x+-
6 3
The slope and y -intercept of the required line are respectively:
4
m = _.!_ (slope of 1- line is -6) and c =
6 3
1 4
Thus y = -(x) +- or 6y = x+S
6 3
is the required equation.
2. Point-slope Form of Equations of a Straight Line
Theorem 4: Equation of a non-vertical straight line I with slope m and passing .through
a point Q( x1 , y 1 ) is given by:
y
y-y1 = m(x-x1 )
Proof: Let P(x, y) be an arbitrary point of the
straight line with slope m and passing through
Q(x1,Y1).
As Q(x1,y1) and P(x,y) both lie on the
line so, the slope of the line is
. [m =~ or y-y1 = m(x-x1 )]
which is the equation of the straight line passing through (x 1 , y 1 ) with slope m.
3. Symmetric Form of Equations of a Straight Line
We have m = y - Yi = tan a , where a is the angle of inclination of the line.

x-x1
or · .\-xi = y.-y 1 = r (say)

cos a sma
This is called symmetric form of equation of the line.

Example 4: Write down an equation of the straight line passing through (5, 7) and
parallel to a line passing through the points (0,-1), (7,-15).
Solution: Let m be the slope of the required straight line, then
m = - l 5 - (-l) ( ·: Slopes of parallel lines are equal)

7-0
= -2
As the point (5, 1) lies on the required line having slope -2 so, by point-slope
form of equation of the straight line, we have
y-(1) = -2(x-5)
or y = -2x+ 11
or 2x + y - 11 = 21
is an equation of the required line.
4. Two-points Form of Equations of a Straight Line
r--~~~~~~~~--.
y
Theorem 5: Equation of a non-vertical straight line
passing through two points Q (x1 , y 1 ) and R (x 2 , Yi) is P(x ,y)
Proof: Let P(x,y) be an arbitrary point of the line passing through Q(x1 ,y1 ) and
R(x 2 , y 2 ). So
Y - Y1 = Y - Y2 = Y2 - Y1
(P, Q and Rare collinear points)
x-x1 x-x2 x 2 -x1
We take
y-y1 _ Y2 -Yi
x-x1 x 2 -x1
or Y2 - Y1 ( .
Y - Y1 = x - X1), the requrred equation of the line PQ.
X2 -XI
x y 1
We may write this equation in determinant form as: x 1 y1 1 = 0
X2 Y2 I
1
ote: (i) If x1 = x 2 , then the slope becomes undefined. So, the line is vertical. I
(ii) y- y 2 = Y2 - Yi (x- x 2 ) can be derived similarly.
X2 -XI
Example 5: Find an equation of line through the points (-2,1) and (6,-4).
Solution: Using two-points form of the equation of straight line, the required
equation is
4
y -1= - -l [x-(-2)]
6-2(-2)
-5
or y-1=-(x+2) or 5x+8y+2=0
8
5. Intercept Form of Equations of a Straight Line
Theorem 6: Equation of a line whose non-zero x and
--------
y
Y-intercepts are a and b res ctively
x +1'.=1
a b
Proof: Let P(x, y) be an arbitrary point of the line
whose non-zero x and y-intercepts are a and b
respectively. Obviously, the points A(a,O) and B(O,b)
lie on the required line. So, by the two-points form of ..___ _ _ _ _ _ __
the equation of line, we have
b-0
y-0=--(x-a) (P, A and B are collinear)
0-a
or -ay=b(x-a)
or bx+ay =ab
or x +1'.=l (dividing by ab)

a b
Hence the result.
Example 6: Write down an equation of the line which cuts x-axis at (2,0) and
y-axis at (0,-4).
Solution: As 2 and -4 are respectively x and y-intercepts of the required line, so
b)'. two-intercepts form of equation of a straight line, we have
~+_)'_ = 1 or 2x-y+4=0
2 -4
which is the required equation.
Example 7: Find an equation of the line through the ,...---------~
point P(2,3) which forms an isosceles Y.
triangle with the coordinate axes in the B(O, a)
first quadrant.
P(2 ,3)
Solution: Let OAB be an isosceles triangle so that
the line AB passes through A = (a,O) and 1 - - t - - + - - - - -
O A(a, O) x
B(O, a), where a is some positive real ..___.__ _ _ _ _ ___,
number.
· a-0
Slope of AB = --. = -1 . But AB passes through P(2, 3).
0-a
Equation of the line through P(2,3) with slope -1 is
y - 3 ~ - l(x - 2) or x+y- 5=0
6. Normal Form of Equation of a Straight Line
Theorem 7: An equation of a non-vertical straight line l , such that length of
the perpendicular from the origin to I is P and a is the inclination of this
perpendicular, is
~I
x-c-os_a_+_y-sz-
·n_a_=_p~I
Proof: Let the line I meet the x-axis and y-axis at

the points A and B respectively. Let P(x, y) be an
arbitrary point of AB and let OR be perpendicular
to the line /. Then IOR I = P ·
From the right triangles ORA and ORB , we
/
have
cosa=_p_ or OA= _P_

OA cos a
and cos(90° -a)= _p_ or OB=_p_

OB sin a
[·."cos(90° -a)= sina)]
As OA and OB are the x and y intercepts of the line AB, so equation of AB is

x y
----+---=1 (Two intercepts form)
p/cosa pl sin a
That is xcosa + y sin a= p is the required equation.
Example 8: The length of perpendicular from the origin to a line is 5 units and the
inclination of this perpendicular is 120°. Find the slope and y-intercept
of the line.
Solution: Here p= 5, a= 120° .

Equation of the line in normal form is
xcos12D° + ysin120° =5
1
--x+-y=5
J3
2 2
=> x-J3y+10=0 (1)
To find the slope of the line, we re-write (1) as:
which is slope-intercept form of the equation.

1 10
Here m = J3 and c = J3
4.3.5 A Linear Equation in two Variables Represents a Straight Line

Theorem 8: The linear equation ax + by + c = 0 in two variables x and y represents a
straight line. A linear equation in two variables x and y is
Iax+ by + c = oI (1)
where a, b and c are constants and a and b are not simultaneously zero.
Proof: Here a and b cannot be both zero. So the following cases arise:
Case I: *
a 0 , b =0 Remember that:
In the case equation ( 1) takes the form: The equation (1) represents
c a straight line and is called
ax+ c =0 or x = - -
a the general equation of a
straight line.
_,,.___...__ _______ _________ _

.....___ ~~
which is an equation of the straight line parallel to the y - axis at a directed
distance - !:... from they- axis.

a
Case II: a =0 , b 0*
In the case equation ( 1) takes the form :
c
by + c = 0 or y = - - ,
b
which is an equation of straight line parallel to x-axis at a directed distance - c
b
from the x-axis.
Case III: a°*O , b°*O
In this case equation (1) takes the form:
-a c
by = -ax - c or y =- x - - =mx + c
b b
which is the slope-intercept form of the straight line with slope equals - a and
b
-c
y-intercept - .
b
Thus the equation ax+ by + c = 0 , always represents a straight line.
4.3.6 To Transform the General Linear Equation to Standard
Forms
Theorem 9: To transform the equation ax+ by+ c = 0 in the standard forms:
(i) Slope-Intercept Form.
We have
by=-ax+c or y = --a
-x- -
c
=
-a -c
mx + c, where m=--, c = - -
b b b b
(ii) Point-Slope Form.
-a
We note from (1) above that slope of the line ax+ by+ c = 0 is -b-. A point
on the line is ( -ac , O).
Equation of the line becomes y ~ -ba (x + ~ )

which is in the point-slope form.
(iii) Symmetric Form
-a a b
m = tan a = -b , sin a = ~ , cos
+
- a2 +b2
A point on ax + by + c = 0 is [ ~c , 0
Equation in the symmetric form becomes
l·
x-Hl y-0
---;:::::=== =r (say)
al±~a +b
2 2
is the required transformed equation. Sign of the radical to be properly chosen
(iv) Two Points Form

We choose two arbitrary points on ax+ by + c = 0. Two such points are
(-: , 0) and ( 0, -be } Equation of the line through these points is
y-0
c
x+ _£_
= - -a- .
1.e., -a ( x
y-0 = -b- c)
+-;
O+- -~-0
b a
(v) Intercept Form
ax by x y
ax+ by= -c or -+-=1 i.e., -+-- =.1
-c -c cI a -c I b
which is an equation in two intercepts form.
(vi) Normal Form
The equation: ax + by + c = 0 (1)
can be written in the normal form as:
ax+ by -c
(2)
± ~a2 +bi ± ~a2 +bi
The sign of the radical to be such that the right hand side of (2) is positive.
Proof. We know that an equation of a line in normal form is
xcosa + y sin a= p (3)
If (1) and (3) are identical, we must have
a b -c
--=--=-
cosa sina p
202 Calculus and Analytic Geometryi
p cosa sina Jcos 2 a+sin 2 a 1

i.e., -=-----= =--===
-c a b ±Ja2 +b2 ±Ja2 +b2
a . b
Hence, cos a = J
± az +b2
and szna=--===
±Ja2 +b2
Substituting for cos a, sin a and pinto (3), we have
Thus (1) can be reduced to the form (3) by dividing it by ±Ja2 +b 2 . The sign of
the radical to be chosen so that the right hand side of (2) is positive.
Example 9: Transform the equation 5x-12y + 39 = 0 into

(i) Slope intercept form. (ii) Two-intercept form.
(iii) Normal form. (iv) Point-slope form.
(v) Two-points form (vi) Symmetric form.
Solution:
39
(i) We have 12y = 5x+39 or y = 2-x+ ,m = 2_, y-intercept c = 39
12 12 12 12
12
(11.. ) 5 x- 12 y = - 39 o rSx
- - + -Y= 1 or x + y = l 1s · the required
-39 39 -39/5 39112
equation.
(iii) 5x-12y = -39. Divide both sides by ± Js 2
+12 2 = ±13. Since R.H.S is to
be positive, we have to take negative sign.
5x 12y .
Hence - - + - = 31s the normal form of the equation
-13 13 .
(iii) A .pomt
· on the 1.me 1s
· (-
--,
5
39
o) an d its · -5 .
· s1ope 1s
12
Equation can be written as : y -0 = 2-(x +

39
l
12 5 )
(v) Another point on the line is ( o, ~~}Line through

39
r-: 9
,o) and ( o, ~~) is
x+-
y-0 5
=---
0- 39 _-3_9 -0
12 5
(vi)We have tan a= 2_ = m, so sin a= 2_ , cos a= g. A point form of the line is
12 13 13
r- 39
5
.o)
Equation of the line in symmetric form is
x+39/5 y-0
12 /13 = 5 /13 = r (say)
Example 10: Sketch the line
y
· 3x+2y+6=0. (1)
Solution: To sketch the graph of (1 ), we find
two points on it. If y = 0, x = -2 and if x =0,
y=-3.
Thus x intercept =-2
y intercept =-3
x
The points A (-2, 0), B (0,-3) are on (1). Plot
these points in the plane and draw the straight
line through A and B. It is the graph of ( 1).
Example 11: Find the distance between the parallel lines

2x + y + 2 = 0 (1)
and 6x + 3 y - 8 = 0 (2)
Sketch the lines. Also find an equation of the line parallel to the given lines and lying
midway between them.
Solution: We first convert both the lines into normal form. (1) can be written as
2x+ y =-2
Dividing both sides by - .J4+1 , we have
-2 -y 2
JSx+ JS= JS (3)
which is normal form of (1 ). Normal form of (2) is
~+_iL=_8_
./45 .J45 J45
. 2x y 8
i.e., .J5 + .f5 =3 .J5 (4)
~-~-------------- ~-
Length of the perpendicular from (0, 0) to the line ( 1) is Ji ,[From (3) ]
8
Similarly, length of the perpendicular from (0, 0) to the line (2) is ~, [From (4)]
3v5
From the graphs of the lines it is clear that the lines y
are on opposite sides of the origin, so the distance
between them equals the sum of the two
perpendicular lengths.
. d d' 2 8 14 .
i.e., Reqmre istance = - + - - = - -
JS 3J5 3J5
The line parallel to the given lines lying midway
between them is such that length of the perpendicular
from . =
0 to the hne 8
J5- 7 ( or J5-
J5 7 2J = J5
J5 1
3 3 3 3
Required line is
2
~+
-v5
i- = ~ or 6x + 3y =1
1
v5 3-v5
4.3. 7 Position of a Point With Respect to a Line , . - - - - - - - - -

y
Consider a non-vertical line l
l:ax+by+c=O (1)
in the xy-plane. Obviously, each point of the plane is
either above the line or below the line or on the line.
Theorem 10: Let P(x 1 , y~) be a point in the plane not
'--~~~~~~--J
lying on l
l:ax+by+c=O (1)
then Plies
a) above the line (1) if ax1 + by 1 + c > 0
b) below the line (1) if ax1 +by 1 +c<0
Proof: We can suppose that b > 0 (first multiply the
equation by -1 if needed).
Draw a perpendicular from P on x-axis meeting x
the line at Q(x 1 , y'). 0
Thus ax1+by'+ c = 0 so that

I Q C
y =-bx1 -b
The point P(x1 , y 1) is above the line if y 1 > y' that is
Y1-y'>0
i.e.,y, -(-: x, - ; )>o

~ ax1 +by 1 +c>O
Similarly P(x 1 , y 1 ) is below the line if
y, -y' < 0 ie.,y,-(-: x,-; )<o

or ax1 +by 1+c<0
The point P(x 1 , y 1 ) is on the line if
I ax 1 +by 1 +c=O
Corollary 1: The point Pis above or below l respectively if ax1+by, + c and b
have the same sign or have opposite signs.
. l , 0. ax,+by,+c
Proof: If Pis above , then y > i.e.,
y1 - >0
b
Thus ax1 + by1 + c and b have the same sign.
Similarly, Pis below l if
, . ax 1+by1 +c
Y1 - y < 0 i.e., b <0
Thus ax, + by1 + c and b have opposite signs.

Corollary 2: The point P(x1 , y 1) and the origin are
(i) on the same side of l accordingly as ax1 +by, + c and c have the same sign
(ii) on the opposite side of l according as ax, + by 1 + c and c have opposite
signs.
Proof: (i) The point P(x1 , y1 ) and 0(0,0) are on the same side of l if
ax1 + by1 + c and a.O + b.O + c have the same sign.
(ii) Proof is left as an exercise.
Example 12: Check whether the point (-2, 4) lies above or below the line
4x+5y-3=0 (1)
Solution: Here b = 5 is positive. Also
4(-2) + 5( 4) -3 = -8 + 20- 3 = 9 > 0 (2)
The coefficient of yin (1) and the expression (2) have the same sign and so the
point ( -2, 4) lies above (1).
Example 13: Check whether the origin and the point P(5, -8) lie on the same side or
on the opposite sides of the line:
3x+7y+15 =0 (1)
Solution:
Here c = 15
For P(5,-8),
3(5) + 7(-8) + 15 = -26 < 0 (2)
But c = 15 > 0
c and the expression (2) have opposite signs. Thus 0(0, 0) and P(5, - 8) are on the
opposite sides of (1).
Note: To discuss whether a point P(x 1 , y 1 ) lies above or below the line
ax+by+c=O
we make the co-efficient of y as positive by multiplying the equation by (-1)
if needed
4.4 TWO AND THREE STRAIGHT LINES

For any two distinct and lines 11 , 12 .
11 : a 1x + b1y + c = 0 and 12 : a 2 x + b2 y + c = 0 one and only one of the
following holds:
(i) l1 11 12 (ii) l 1 ..L 12 (iii) l 1 and l 2 are not related as (i) or (ii).
The slopes of 11 and 12 are m1 =- ~1 , m2 =- ~2 Recall that:

l . 2
Two non-parallel lines
(i) 11 II .12 ~ slope of 11 (m 1 ) = slope of 12 (m 2 ). intersect each other at
one and only one point.
1 1 a b
<=>-=- <=> a 1b2 -b1a2 =0
a2 b2
(ii) 11 J_ 12 <=> m 1m 2 = -1
<o> (-::I-:}-1 <o> a,a, +b,b, =0

(iii)If 11 and 12 are not related as in (i) and (ii), then there is no simple relation of the
above forms.
4.4.1 The Point of Intersection of Two Straight Lines

Let 11 : a1x +b1y + c1 = 0 (1)
and 12 : a 2 x+b2 y + c 2 = 0 (2)
be two non-parallel lines. Then a 1b2 -b,a 2 ::t 0
Let P (x 1 , y 1 ) be the point of intersection of 11 and 12 • Then
(3)
a2X1 + h2Y1 + C2 = 0 (4) Recall that:
Two non-parallel lines
Solving (3) and (4) simultaneously, we have intersect each other at one
X1 Y1 1 and only one point.
---=---= =----
b1C2 -b2 c 1 a 2 c1 -a1c 2 a1b2 -a 2b1
qc2 -b2c1 d a c - a 1c 2
1.e., x1 = an y 1 = 2 1
a 1b2 -a2q a 1b2 -a 2b1
is the required point of intersection. ·
INote: a 1b2 - a 2 b1 ::t 0, otherwise 11 j j 12 • I
Examples 1: Find the point of intersection of the lines
....-----------~
5x + 7 y = 35 (i) Remember that:
3x-7y =21 (ii) * If the lines are parallel,
then solution does not
Solution: We note that the lines are not parallel
exist (·: a 1b2 - a 2 b1 = 0)
and so they must intersect at a point. Adding (i)
and (ii), we have * Before solving
equations one should
8x=56 or x=7 ensure that lines are not
Setting this value of x into (1), we find y = 0. parallel.
Thus (7, 0) is the point of intersection of the two lines. '--=-----------
4.4.2 Condition of Concurrency of Three Straight Lines

Theorem 1: Three non-parallel lines
11 : a 1x+b 1y+c 1 =0 (1)
12 : a 2 x+b 2 y+c 2 =0 (2)
/3 : a 3 x+b3 y+c3 =0 (3)
a, b, ct
are concurrent iff a1 b2 C2 =0
a3 b3 C3
Proof: If the lines are concurrent then they have a common point of intersection
P(x 1 , y 1 ) say. As 11 .H' 12 , so their point of intersection (x, y) is
b1C2 -b2C1
x = - - - - and
a1b2 -a2b1
This point also lies on (3), so
a3 ( c
b 1 2 -b2 c1
a1b2 - a 2 b1
J (a c-a c J _0
+ b3 2 1 1 2 + C3
a 1b2 - a 2 b1
-
or a 3 (b1c 2 - b2 c 1 ) + b3 (a 2 c 1 -a 1c 2 ) + c 3 (a 1b2 - a 2 b 1 ) = 0
An easier way to write the above equation is in the following determinant form:
al bl Cl
a2 b2 c2 =0
a3 b3 C3
This is a necessary and sufficient condition of concurrency of the given three

lines.
Example 2: Check whether the following lines are concurrent or not. If concurrent,
find the point of concurrency.
3x - 4 y - 3 = 0 (1)
5x+l2y+l=O (2)
32x + 4 y -17 = 0 (3)
Solution: The determinant of the coefficients of the given equations is
3 -4 -3 18 32 0
5 12 1 = 5 12 1 , by R1 + 3R 2
32 4 -17 117 208 o and R3 + 17 R 2
Unit 4: Introduction to Analytic Geometry 209 '
18 32
=-1 = -(208xl8-117x32) =0
117 208
Thus the lines are concurrent.
The point of intersection of any two lines is the required point of concurrency.
From (I) and (2), we have
x y 1
---= =---
-4+36 -15-3 36+20
32 4
x =-56 = 7
and y=
-18 -9
56
= 28 1.e., 2' 28 . [4 -91
is the point of intersection.
4.4.3 The Equation of Lines Through the Point of Intersection of Two

Lines
We can find a family of lines through the point of intersection of the two non-
parallel lines 11 and l 2 •
Let l :a x+b y+c =0 Do you remember?
1 1 1 1 (1)
(2)
An infinite number of
lines can pass through
For a non-zero real h , the equation a point.
a 1x+b1 y+c 1 +h(a 2 x+b2 y+c 2 ) =0 (3)
This, being a linear equation, represents a line. For different values of h,(3)
represents different lines. Thus (3) is a family of lines.
If (xp y 1 ) is any point lying on both (I) and (2), then it is their point of
intersection. Since (x1 , y 1 ) lies on both (I) and (2), we have
a 1x+b1 y+c 1 =0 and a 2 x 2 +b2 y 1 +c 2 =0
From the above two equations, we note that (x1, y 1 ) also lies on (3).
Thus (3) is the required family of lines through the point of intersection of (1)
and (2). Since h can assume an infinite number of values, (3) represents an infinite
number of lines.
A particular line of the family (3) can be determined if one more condition is
given.
Example 3: Find the family of lines through the point of intersection of the lines
3x - 4 y -10 = 0 ( 1)
x + 2 y -10 =0 (2)
Find the member of the family which is
-2
(i) parallel to a line with slope -
3
(ii) perpendicular to the line l : 3x - 4 y + 1 = 0 .
Solution: (i) A family of lines through the point of intersection of equations
(1) and (2) is
3x-4y-10+k(x+2y-10) = 0
or (3 + k)x +(-4 + 2k)y + (-10-lOk) = 0 (3)
. b
Slope m of (3) is given y: m = - -_-3+k
-+--k
4 2
This is the slope of any member of the family (3).
. 1ope - -2 then
. withs
If (3) is parallel to the lme
3
3+k -2
- =- or 9 + 3k = -8 + 4k i.e., k = 17
-4+2k 3
Substituting k = 17 into (3), equation of the member of the family is
20x+30y-180=0 i.e., 2x+3y-18=0.
(ii) Slope of 3x- 4y + 1=0 (4)
is i . Since (3) is to be perpendicular to (4 ), we have 3 + k x i = -1
4 -4+ 2k 4
or 9 + 3k = -16 + 8k or k = 5
Inserting this value of k into (3), we get 4x + 3y- 30 = 0
which is required equation of the line.
Theorem 2: Altitudes of a triangle are concurrent A (x ,,y ,)
Proof: Let the coordinates of the vertices
of .1 ABC be as shown in the figure. Then
Y2-Y3
Slope of BC = ~~
Xz-X3
X2-X3
Therefore slope of the altitude AD = -
Y2-Y3
Equation of the altitude AD is
X2 -X3
Y - Y1 = - Y2 -y3 . (x - xi) (Point-Slope form)
or x (x2 - X3) + Y (y2 - Y3) - X1 (x2 - X3) - Y1 (y2 - y3) = 0 (1)

Equa.tions of the ·altitudes BE and CF are respectively (by symmetry)
x (x3 - X1) + Y (y3 - Y1) - X2 (x3 - x1) - Y2 (y3 - y 1) = 0 (2)
x (x1 - Xz) + Y (yl - Y2) - X3 (x1 - X2) - Y3 (y3 - Y1) = 0 (3)
The three lines (1), (2) and (3) are concurrent if and only if
Y2-Y3
.D= Y3 -y1 is zero
X1 - x2 Y1 - Y2 - X3 (x1 - x2) - Y3 (y1 - Y2)

Adding 2nd and 3rd rows to the 1st row of the determinant, we have
0 0 0
y3-Y1 =0
X1 - X2 Y1 - Y2
- X3 (x1 - x2) - Y3 (y1 - Y2)
Thus the altitudes of a triangle are concurrent.
Theorem 3: Right bisectors of a triangle are concurrent.
Proof. Let A (x 1, y 1), B (x2, y2) and C (x3, y3 ) be the vertices of .1 ABC.
The midpoint D of BC has coordinates
X2 + X3 Y2 + Y3) E
( 2 ' 2
B c
y2 -y3 x2 -x3
Since the slope of BC is , the slope of the right bisector DO of BC is -
X2 -X3 Y2 -y3
Equation of the right bisector DO of BC is
Y-
Y2 + Y3 __ _ X2 - X3 (x _ X2 + X3)
(Point-slope form)
2 Y2 -y3 2
. I 2 2 1 2 2
or x (x2 - X3) + Y (y2 - Y3) - 2 (Yz - Y3 ) - 2 (xz - X3 ) =0 (1)
By symmetry, equations of the other two right bisectors EO and FO are

respectively:
and (3)
The lines (1), (2) and (3) will be concurrent if and only if
Y2-Y3
y3-Y1 =0
Y1 -y2
Adding 2nd and 3rd rows to 1st row of the determinant, we have
0 0 0
y3-Y1
=0
Y1 -y2
Thus the right by bisectors of a triangle are concurrent.
Note: If equations of sides of the triangle are given, then intersection of
any two lines gives a vertex of the triangle.
4.4.4 Distance of a Point From a Line
Theorem 4: The distanced from the points P(x1, y1) to the line l
I : ax + by + c = 0 ( 1)
is given by: d = \a.xi + by1 + c\

~a2 +b2
Proof: Let l be non-vertical and non-horizontal line.
FromP, draw
PQR .L Ox and PM .l I.
Let the ordinate of Q be
y 2 so that coordinates of Q are
(xi' y 2 ). Since Q lies on/, we
have a.x 1 + by2 + c = 0

-axI -c
or Y2--
b
From the figure it is clear
that LMPQ = a= the inclination
of I.
-a
Now tana= slop of l = -
b
Therefore, icosal = lbl

.Ja2 +b2
Thus J PM I=d =I PQ 11 cos a I=I y 1- I
y 2 cos a
J I
_ _ - ax, - c I Ib I
- Yi b . I z z
-va +b
= lhY1 +a.xi +cl·lbl =ax, +by1+c
lhi.Ja2+b2 .Ja2+b2
If l is horizontal, its equation is of the form y = _!:._ and the distance from
. b
, P(x1, y 1) to l is simply the difference of they-values.
:. d = Y1 -(-~) = by,b+c
Similarly, if the line is vertical and has equation: x =- c then d = a.xi + c

a a
Note: If the point P(x1 , y1) lies on l, then the distance d is zero,
since (x 1, Y1 ) would satisfies the equation i.e., ax1 + by 1 + c =0
4.4.5 Distance Between Two Parallel Lines

The distance between two parallel lines is the distance from any point on one of
the lines to the other line.
Example 4: Find the distance between the parallel lines Challenge!
l1 : 2x-5y + 13.= 0 and Check the answer by taking
12 :2x-5y+6 =0 (i) any other point on 11
(ii) any point of 12 and finding
Solution: First find any point on one of the lines,
say !1 • If x =1 lies on 11 , then y =3 and its distance from 11
the point (1,3) lies on it. The distanced from (1,3) to 12 is
d = 12(1)-5(3)+61 =_12-;=.-=15=+=--61 = 7
J22 + 52 .J4+25 .fi9
The distance between the parallel lines is ~.

v29
y
4.4.6 Area of a Triangular Region
Whose Vertices are Given R
To find the area of a triangular region whose

vertices are: Q
p
P(x1 , y 1 ), Q(x2, y 2) and R(x 3, y3)
-~----lLl......"-..:..-....:..~M~---..::......::.J.N-• x
Draw perpendiculars -P-L, -QN- and RM on x-axis.
0
Area of the triangular region PQR
= Area of the trapezoidal region PLMR
+ Area of the trapezoidal region RMNQ
- Area of the trapezoidal region PLNQ.
= ![(Y1 + Y3)(x3 - X1) + (y3 + Y2)(x2 -x3) -(Y1 + Y2 )(x2 - X1 )]

2
1
=1(X3Y1 +X3Y3 -X1Y1-X1Y3 +X2Y3 +X2Y2 -X3Y3 -X3Y2 -X2Y1 -X2Y2+X1Y1 +X1Y2)
1
= -(X3Y1 - X1 Y3 + X2Y3 -X3Y2 - X2Y1 + X1 Y2)
2
Thus required area ti is given by: Have you observed that?
1 x, Y1 1
ti=-(x1(Y2 -y3)+x2(Y3-Y1)+x3(Y1 -y2)) Ii=.!_ X1
2 Y2 1
2
Corollary: If the points P, Q and R are collinear, then X3 Y3 1
ti=O
Note: · In numerical problems, if sign of the area is negative, then it is to be
omitted.
Example 5: Find the area of the region bounded by the triangle with vertices
(a,b+c),(a,b-c) and (-a,c).
Solution: Required area ti is
a b+c 1 Trapezium:
ti =.!_ a b-c 1 A quadrilateral having two parallel and
2 two non-parallel sides.
-a c 1
Area of trapezoidal region:
1 a b+c 1
= 0 -2c 0 , by R2 -R1 21 (sum of 11 sides) (distance between 11 sides)
2 -a c 1
-~------------~---
=![-2c(a +a)], expanding by the second row

2
= -2ca
Thus ti= 2ac
Example 6: By considering the area of the region bounded by the triangle with
vertices
A(l,4), B(2, -3) and C (3, -10),
check whether the three points are collinear or not.
Solution: Area ti of the region bounded by the triangle ABC is,
1 4 1 1 4 1
1 I
ti = - 2 - 3 1 =- 1 - 7 0 by R 2 - R1 and R 3 - R1
2 2
3 -10 1. 2 -14 0
= _!_ [1(-14+14)], expanding by third column

2
= 0
Thus the points are collinear.
EXERCISE 4.3
1. Find the slope and inclination of the line joining the points:
(i) ( - 2 ,4) ;(5, 11) (ii) (3, - 2) ; (2, 7) (iii)(4,6); (4,8)
Sketch each line in the plane.
2. In the triangle A (8, 6) ,B( - 4 ,2), C (-2,-6) , find the slope of
(i) each side of the triangle (ii) each median of the triangle
(iii) each altitude of the triangle
3. By means of slopes, show that the following points lie on the same line·:
(a) (-1,-3) ; (1, 5); (2, 9) (b) (4,-5); (7, 5); (10,15)
(c ) (-4, 6): (3, 8): (10. 10) (d) (a. 2b); (c, a+ b); (2c- a. 2a)
4. Find k so that the line joining A (7, 3); B (k, -6) and the line joining C(-4, 5);
D ( - 6 ,4) are (i) parallel (ii) perpendicular.
5. Usin~ slopes, show that the triangle with its vertices A (6,1), B (2,7) and
C (-6.-7) is a right triangle.
6. The three points A (7, -1), B(-2, 2) and C (1,4) are consecutive vertices of a
parallelogram. Find the fourth vertex.
7. The points A (-1: 2), B (3, -1) and C (6,3) are consecutive vertices of a
rhombus. Find the fourth vertex and show that the diagonals of the rhombus
are perpendicular to each other.
8. Two pairs of points are given. Find whether the two lines determined by these
points are:
(i) parallel (ii) perpendicular - (iii) none
(a) (l,-2),(2,4)and(4, 1),(-8,2) (b) (-3,4),(6,2)and(4,5), (-2,-7)
9. Find an equation of
(a) the horizontal line through (7, -9)
(b) the vertical line through ( -5, 3)
(c) the line bisecting the first and third quadrants.
(d) the line bisecting the second and fourth quadrants.
10. Find an equation of the line
(a) through A( -6, 5) having slope 7 (b) through (8, - 3 ) having slope 0
(c) through (-8, 5) having slope undefined
(d) through (-5,-3) and (9, -1) (e) y-intercept-7 and slope -5
(f) x-intercept :-3 and y-intercept:4 (g) x-intercept:-9 and slope :-4
11. Find an equation of the perpendicular bisector of the segment joining the points
A(3, 5) and B(9,8)
12. Find equations of the sides, altitudes and medians of the triangle whose
vertices are A( - 3, 2), B(5, 4) and C(3, - 8 ).
13. Find an equation of the line through (-4, -6) and _perpendicular to a line
-3
having slope - .
. 2
14. Find an equation of the line through (11, -5) and_parallel to a line with slope-24.
15. The points A( -1, 2), B(6, 3) and C(2, -4) are vertices of a triangle. Show that
the line joining the midpoint D of AB and the midpoint E of AC is parallel to
BC and DE= _!_BC.

2
16. A milkman can sell 560 litres of milk at Rs.12.50 per litre and 700 litres of
milk at Rs. 12.00 per litre. Assuming the graph of the sale price and the milk
sold to be a straight line, find the number of litres of milk that the milkman can
sell at Rs.12.25 per litre.
17. The population of Pakistan to the nearest million was 60 million in 1961 and
95 million in 1981. Using t as the number of years after 1961, find an equation
of the line that gives the population in terms oft. Use this equation to find the
population in (a) 1947 (b) 1997.
18. A house was purchased for Rs. I million in 1980. It is worth Rs.4 million in
1996. Assuming that the value increased by the same amount each year, find
an equation that gives the _value of the house after t years of the date of
purchase. What was its value in 1990?
19. Plot the Celsius (C) and Fahrenheit (F) temperature scales on the horizontal
axis and the vertical axis respectively. Draw the line joining the freezing point
and the boiling point of water. Find an equation giving F temperature in terms
ofC.
20. The average entry test score of engineering candidates was 592 in the year
1998 while the score was 564 in 2002. Assuming that the relationship between
time and score is linear, find the average score for 2006. t\
21. Convert each of the following equation into
(i) Slope intercept form (ii) two intercepts form (iii) normal form
(a) 2x-4y+ll=O (b) 4x+7y-2=0 (c) 15y-8x+3=0
Also find the length of the perpendicular from (0, 0) to each line.
22. In each of the following check whether the two lines are
(i) parallel (ii) perpendicular (iii) neither parallel nor perpendicular
(a) 2x+ y-3 =0 4x+ 2J1+5 = 0

(b) 3y = 2x+5 3x+2y-8 = 0
(c) 4y+2x-1=0 x-2y-7=0
(d) 4x-y+2=0 12x-3y+l = 0
(e) 12x+35y -7=0 105x-36y + 11=0
23. Find the distance between the given parallel lines. Sketch the lines. Also find
an equation of the parallel line lying midway between them.
(a) 3x-4y+3=0 3x-4y+7=0
(b) 12x + 5 y -.- 6 = 0 12x + 5 y + 13 = 0
(c) x+2y-5=0 2x+4y = 1
24. Find an equation of the line through ( - 4 , 7) and parallel to the line
2x-7y+4 = 0.
25. Find an equation of the line through (5, - 8) and perpendicular to the join of
A( -15, -8 ), B(lO, 7).
26. Find equations of two parallel lines perpendicular to 2x - y + 3 = 0 such that
the product of the x- and y-intercepts of each is 3.
27. One vertex of a parallelogram is (1, 4); the diagonal intersect at (2, 1) and the
sides have slopes 1 and =-!:..
Find the other three vertices.
7
28. Find whether the given point lies above or below the given line
(a) (5,8); 2x-3y+6=0
(b) (-7,6);4x+3y-9~0
29. Check whether the given points are on the same or opposite sides of the given
line.
(a) (0, 0) and (-4, 7); 6x-7y + 70 = 0
(b) (2, 3) and (-2, 3); 3x-5y+8 = 0
30. Find the distance from the point P(6,-1) to the line 6x.-4y + 9 = O.
31. Find the area of the triangular region whose vertices are A(5, 3 ), B(-2, 2), C(4, 2).
32. The coordinates of three points are A(2, 3), B(-1, 1) and C(4, -5). By computing
the area bounded by ABC check whether the points are collinear.
4.5. ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES

Let 11 and l 2 be two intersecting lines, which meet at a point P. At the point
P two supplementary angles are formed, by the lines / 1 and /2 •
Unless l 1 1- 12 one of the two angles is acute. The angle from 11 to 12 is the
angle () through which 11 is rotated anti-clockwise about the point P so _that it
coincides with 12 •
In the figure below 8 is angle of intersection of the two lines and it is

measured from l1 to 12 in counterclockwise direction ,l/f is also angle of intersection
but it is measured from 12 to f 1 •
With this convention for angle of intersection, it is clear that the inclination
of a line is the angle measured in the counterclockwise direction from the positive .
x-axis to the line and it tallies with the earlier definition of the inclination of a
line.
Theorem 1: Let 11 and 12 be two non-vertical lines such that they are not perpendicular
to each axes. If m, and m 2 are the slopes of I, and 12 respectively, then the angle
e from LI to / 2 is given by; y
l, I,
m 2 -m 1
tan()=
I+m 1m 2
Proof: From the figure, we have
a 1 = a1 +8
or 8=a 2 -a 1
Corollary 1. 11 11 12 if and only if m 1 = m 2

m 2 -m1
<=> tan () = 0 =
l+m1m 2
<=> m1 = m1
Corollary 2. 11, _l_ 12 iff 1 + m1m2 = 0
<=> <=>
These two results have already been stated in 4.3.1 .
to the line with slope ~ .

7
Example 1: Find the angle from the line with slope -
3 2
5 -7
Solution: Here m 2 = - , m, = - . If () is measure of the required angle, then
2 3
~-( =21
tanB=~=_3.2_=-l
5(-7) -29
1+- -
2 3
y
A1
Thus () = 135~ ~
Example 2: Find the angles of the triangle whose ' i"r-...

c\ !"-.
vertices are I\ I" b
' 1:n ~
-x
A(-5,4),B(-2, -1),C(7, -5) B !'-.... ~
~
Solution: Let the slopes of the sides AB, BC and CA " a-..... ,.,_',"-!:::...
be denoted by me, m 0 , mb respectively. Then
Ir
4+1 -5 -5+1 -4 -5-4 -3

me= -5+2 =},ma= 7+2 =g,mb = 7+5 = 4
Now angle A is measured from AB to AC.
fn
-3 5
-+- 11
tan A= ;: ~,:::, = 1+ ( ~: = 27
or mLA = 22.2°
. . The angle B is measured from BC to BA

-5 4
-+- -33
··
tan B = me - ma -
l+m,m.
3
l+(-
3
sr- J 9
9
4
=
47
or mLB= 144.9°
The angle C is measured from CA to CB.
r
-4 3
-+-
.. tan c = :::~.::. = 1+( ~n4_43 :~ or mLC= 12.9°
4.5.1 Equation of a Straight Line in Matrix Form

It is easy t? solve two or three. simultaneous linear equations by
elementary methods. If the number of equations and variables become large, the
solution of the equations by ordinary methods becomes very difficult. In such a case,
given equations are written in matrix form and solved.
One Linear Equation:
A linear equation
l : ax+ by + c = 0 (1)
in two variables x and y has its matrix form as:
[ax + by] = [-c]
er [a bt]=[-c]
or AX=C
where A= [a b], X =[:]and C=[-c]

A System of two Linear Equations:

A system of two linear equations
11 :a1x+b1y+c1 =
12 :a 2 x+b2 y+c 2 = 0
o} (2)
in two variables x and y can be written in matrix form as
or (3)
or AX =C .
1
where A =[a
a2
Equations (2) have a solution iff det A :;:. 0 .

A system of three equations:
A system of three linear equations
1 a1x+b y +c1 = 0}
1: 1
12 :a 2 x+b 2 y+c 2 =0 (5)
13 :a 3 x+b3 y+c 3 =0
in two variables x and y talces the matrix form as
Cl]
c 2 is singular, then the lines are concurrent and so the
c system (5) has a unique solution.
3
Example 3: Express the system

3x+4y-7
2x-5y+8= 0
=0}
x+y-3=0
in matrix form and check whether the three lines are concurrent.
Solution: The matrix form of the system is
[~ ~:rn=m
-45
Coefficient matrix of the system is
A=[~
4 0 1 2
-5 -87] ==:} det A= 0 :_ 7 14
by R1 -3R3
and R2 -2R3
1 -3 1 1 -3
and det A= 1(14+14) = 28 :;t: 0
As A is non-singular, so the lines are not concurrent.
Example 4: Find a system of equations corresponding to the matrix form
[! ~ lJ[~J=m
Are the lines represented by a system concurrent?
(1)
Solution: Multiplying the matrices on the L.H.S. of (1), we have
[
;x++2;y++51] =[~] (2)
4x+7y+6 0
By using the definition of equality of two matrices, we have from (2),
x+2y+5=0]
3x+5y +l = 0
4x+7y+6=0
as the required system of equations. The coefficient matrix A of the system is such that
1 2 5 1 2 5
det A = 3 5 1 =0 -1 -14 =0
4 7 6 0 -1 -14
Thus the lines of the system are concurrent.
EXERCISE 4.4
1. Find the point of intersection of the lines
W x-2y+1=0 and 2x-y+2=0
(ii) 3x + y + 12 =0 and x + 2 y -1 =O
(iii) x + 4 y -12 = 0 and x - 3y + 3 = O
2. Find an equation of the line through
(i) the point (2, -9) and the intersection of the lines
2x + 5 y - 8 =0 and 3x - 4 y - 6 = 0
(ii) the intersection of the lines
x- y- 4 =0 and 7 x + y + 20 and
(a) parallel (b) perpendicular
to the line 6x + y-14 =0
(iii) through the intersection of the lines x + 2 y + 3 = 0 , 3x + 4 y + 7 =0
and making equal intercepts on the axes.
3. Find an equation of the line through the intersection of
16x-l0y-33 = 0 12x+ 14y + 29 = 0 and the intersection of
x-y+4=0 x-7y+2=0
4. Find the condition that the lines y = m1x+c1 ;y = m 2 x+c 2 and y = m3 x+c3
are concurrent.
5. =
Determine the value of p such that the lines 2x - 3 y - 1 0 , 3x - y - 5 = 0 and
3x + py + 8 = 0 meet at a point.
6. Show that the lines 4x - 3 y - 8 = 0 , 3x - 4 y - 6 :::: 0 and x - y - 2 = 0 are
concurrent and the third-line bisects the angle formed by the first two lines.
7. The vertices of a triangle are A( - 2, 3), B(-4, 1) and C(3, 5). Fmd coordinates of the
(i) centroid (ii) orthocentre (iii) circumcentre of the triangle
Are these three.points collinear?
8. Check whether the lines
4x-3y-8=0; 3x-4y-6 =0; x-y-2=0
are concurrent. If so, find the point where they meet.
9. Find the coordinates of the vertices of the triangle formed by the lines
x - 2y - 6 = 0 ; 3x - y + 3 = 0 ; 2x + y - 4 = 0
Also find measures of the angles of the triangle.
10. Find the angle measured from the line 11 to the line 12 where
(a) /1 : Joining (2,7) and (7, 10) (b) 11 : Joining (3, -1) and (5, 7)
12 : Joining (1, 1) and (-5, 3) 12 : Joining (2, 4) and ( -8, 2)
(c) 11 : Joining (1, -7) and (6, -4) (d) 11 : Joining (-9, -1) and (3, -5)
12 : Joining (-1, 2) and (-6, -1) 12 : Joining (2, 7) and (-6, -7)
Also find the acute angle in each case.
11. Find the interior angles of the triangle whose vertices are
(a) A(-2,11),B(-6,-3),(4,-9) (b) A(6, 1),B(2, 7),C(-6,-7)
(c) A (2, -5), B(-4,-3), (-1, 5) (d) A (2, 8), B (-5, 4), C (4,-9)
12. Find the interior angles of the quadrilateral whose vertices are A (5, 2),
B(-2,3), C (-3,-4) andD(4,-5)
13. Show that the points
A (0, O), B (2, 1), C (3, 3), D ( 1, 2) are the vertices of a rhombus and find its
interior angles.
14. Find the area of the region bounded by the triangle whose sides are
7x-y-10=0; lOx+y-41=0; 3x+2y+3=0
15. The vertices of a triangle are A( - 2, 3), B( - 4, 1) and C(3, 5). Find the centre of
the circum centre of the triangle.
16. Express the given system of equations in matrix form. Find in each case whether
the lines are concurrent.
(a) x+3y-2=0; 2x-y+4=0; x-lly+l4=0
(b) 2x + 3y + 4 = O; x - 2y - 3 = O; 3x + y - 8 = 0
(c) 3x-4y-2 = 0, x+2y-4 = 0, 3x-2y+5 = 0.
17. Find a system of linear equations corresponding to the given matrix form.
Check whether the lines represented by the system are concurrent.
(•)(~ ~I -J~1=m ~) (~ : ~~1~1=rn

4.6 HOMOGENEOUS EQUATION OF THE SECOND DEGREE
IN TWO VARIABLES
We have already seen that if a graph is a straight line, then its equation is a
linear equation in the variables x and y. Conversely, the graph of any linear
equation in x and y is a straight line.
Unit 4: Introduction to Analytic Geometry . 225
Suppose we have two straight lines represented by

a 1x + b 1y + c 1 = 0 (1)
and a 2 x+b2 y+c 2 =0 (2)
Multiplying equations (1) and (2), we have
(a 1x + b1y + c 1 )(a 2 x + b2 y + c 2 ) =0 (3)
It is a second degree equation in x and y.
Equation (3) is called joint equation of the pair of lines (1) and (2). On the other
hand, given an equation of the second degree :in x and y, say
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2.fY + c =: 0 (4)
where a"# 0, represents equations of a pair of lines if (4) can be resolved into two
Jinear factors. In this section, we shall study special joint equations of pairs of
lines which pass through the origin.
Let y = m 1x and y = m 2 x be two lines passing through the origin. Their joint
equation is: (y- m 1x)(y-m 2 x) = 0
or y 2 -(m 1 +m 2 )xy+m1m 2 x 2 =0 (5)
Equation (5) is a special type of a second degree homogeneous eq\lation.
4.6.1 Homogeneous Equation
Let f(x, y) =0 (1)
be any equation in the variables x and y . Equation (1) is called a homogeneous
equation of degree n (a positive integer) if
f(kx,ky) = e f(x,y)
for some real n1_i.~1 oer k.
1
For e'°.dmple, in equation (5) above if we replace x and y by kx and ky respectively,

'Zve have
k2y2-k2(m 1 +m2 )xy+k2m,m2 x 2 =0
or k 2 [y2 - (m 1 + m2 )xy + m1m 2 x 2 ] = 0 i.e., k2 f (x, y) =()
Thus (5) is a homogeneous equation of degree 2.
A general second degree homogeneous equation can be written as:
ax 2 + 2hxy +by
2
=0
provided a, h and b are not simultaneously zero.
- --~--- ~- ~-- -- -- ~~---~-- ~-~---

Theorem 1: Every homogenous second degree equation

2 2
a.x + 2hxy +by =0 (1)
represents a pair of lines through the origin. The lines are
(i) real and distinct, if h 2 >ab (ii) real and coincident, if h 2 =ab
(iii) imaginary, if h 2 <ab
Proof: Multiplying (1) by band re-arranging the terms, we have
b 2 y 2 +2bhxy+abx 2 =0
or b 2 y 2 + 2bhxy + h 2 x 2 -h 2 x 2 + abx 2 =0
2 2 2
or (by+hx) -x (h -ab)=O
or (by+ hx + x~ h 2 - ab )(by + hx - x~ h 2 - ab) = 0

Thus (1) represents a pair of lines whose equations are:
by+ x(h+ ~h 2 -ab)= 0 (2)

and by+ x(h-~h 2 -ab)= 0 (3)
Clearly, the lines (2) and (3) are
(i) real and distinct if h 2 > ab. (ii) real and coincident, if h 2 =ab.
(iii) imaginary, if h 2 <ab.
It is interesting to note that even in case the lines are imaginary, they intersect in a
real point viz (0, 0) since this point lies on their joint equation (1).
Example 1: Find an equation of each of the lines represented by
20x 2 +17xy-24y2 =0
Solution: The equation may be written as
2t J l; )-
-17 20 = 0
x 11±.J289+1920 17±47 4 -5
:=::} -- =
y 48 48 -3'8
3 -5
:=::} y=-x and y=-x
4 8
:=::} 4x- 3y = 0 and 5x+8y = 0
4.6.2 To Find Measure of the Angle Between the Lines Represented by

2 2
ax + 2hxy + by = 0 (1)
We have already seen that the lines represented by (1) are
by+x(h+~h 2 -ab) =0 (2)
and by +x(h- ~h 2 -ab)= b (3)

Now slopes of (2) and (3) are respectively given by:
-(h+~h 2 -ab) -(h--Jh 2 -ab)

m1 = b , and m2 = b
-2h
Therefore, m1 + m2 =- - and
b
If () is measure of the angle between the lines (2) and (3), then
tanO =
m1 -m2 ~(m 1 +m 2 ) 2 -4m1 m2 ~
= --'--------- = - - - - =----
l + m1m2 l+m 1m 2 a a+b
1+-
b
The two lines are parallel, if () = 0, so that tan() = 0 which implies h 2 - ab = 0,
which is the condition for the lines to be coincident.
If the lines are orthogonal, then () = 90° , so that tanO is not defined. This implies
a + b = 0. Hence the condition for (1) to represent a pair of orthogonal
(perpendicular) lines is that sum of the coefficients of x 2 and y 2 is 0.
Example 2: Find measure of the angle between the lines represented by
2
x 2 -xy-6y =0
1
Solution: Here a= l, h =-- b
2'
= -6
If () is measure of the angle between the given lines, then
tanO = 2-/h' -ab=

a+b
2~-5
= -1 =>II =135'
Acute angle between the lines= 180° - () = 180° -135° = 45°

Example 3: Find a joint equation of the straight lines through the origin
perpendicular to the lines represented by
x 2 +xy- 6 y 2 -o
- (1)
Solution: (1) may be written as
(x-2y)(x+3y) = 0
Thus the lines represented by ( 1) are
x-2y=O ~)
and x + 3y = 0 (3)
The line through (0, 0) and perpendicular to (2) is
y=-2x or y+2x=O (4)
Similarly, the line through (0, 0) and perpendicular to (3) is
y=3x or y-3x=O (5)
Joint equation of the lines (4) and (5) is
(y+2x)(y-3x)=O or y 2 -xy-6x 2 =0
EXERCISE 4.5
. Find the lines represented by each of the following and also find measure of
the angle between them (Problems 1-6):
1. 10x 2 -23.xy-5y 2 = 0
2. 3x 2 + 7 xy + 2 y 2 = 0
3. 9x 2 +24.xy+16y 2 = 0
4. 2x 2 +3.xy-5y 2 = 0
5. 6x 2 -19.xy+15y 2 = 0
6. x2 - 2xy sec a+ y2 = 0
7. Find a joint equation of the lines through the origin and perpendicular to the lines:
x 2 -2xytana-y2 =0
8. Find a joint equation of the lines through the origin and perpendicular to the lines:
2
ax + 2hxy +by 2 = 0
9. Find the area of the region bounded by:
2
10x -xy-21y2=0and x+y+l=O
Unit 5: Linear inequalities and Linear Programming 229
Linear Inequalities and

Unit5 Lin~ar programming
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Many real life problems involve linear inequalities. Here we shall consider
those problems (relating to trade, industry and agriculture etc.) which involve systems
of linear inequalities in two variables. Linear inequalities in such problems are used to
prescribe limitations or restrictions on allocation of available resources (material,
capital, machine capacities, labour hours, land etc.). In this chapter, our main goal
will be to optimize (maximize or minimize) a quantity under consideration subject to
certain restrictions.
The method under our discussion is called the linear programming method and
it involves solutions of certain linear inequalities.
5.2 LINEAR INEQUALITIES

Inequalities are expressed by the following four symbols;
> (greater than); < (less than); ~ (greater than or equal to); ~ (less than or
equal to)
For example (i) ax < b (ii) ax + b ~ c (iii) ax + by > c (iv) ax + by ~ c are
inequalities. Inequalities (i) and (ii) are in one variable while inequalities (iii) and (iv)
are in two variables.
The following operations will not affect the order (or sense) of inequality
while changing it to simpler equivalent form:
(i) Adding or subtracting a constant to each side of it.
(ii) Multiplying or dividing each side of it by a positive constant.
Note that the order (or sense) of an inequality is changed by multiplying or
dividing its each side by a negative constant.
Now for revision we consider inequality, x < 2_ (A)
2
All real nu~bers < 2_ are in the solution set of (A).
2
Thus the interval (- oo, ~) or - oo < x < ~ is the solution set of the inequality (A)
which is shown in the figure 5.21
3/2
••-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
I
1
0 I
2 3 4
I
5
• Fig. 5.21
We conclude that the solution set of an inequality consists of all solutions of

the inequality.
5.~1 Graphing of A Linear Inequality in Two Variables

Generally a linear inequality in two variables x and y can be one of the
following forms:
ax+by<c; ax+by>c; ax + by $ c; ax + by '?:. c
where a, b, c are constants and a, b are not both zero.

We know that the graph of linear equation of the form ax + by = c is a line
which divides the plane into two disjoint regions as stated below:
( 1) The set of ordered pairs (x, y) such that ax + by < c
(2) The set of ordered pairs (x, y) such that ax+ by> c
The regions (1) and (2) are called half planes and the line ax + by =c is
called the boundary of each half plane.
Note -that a vertical line divides the plane into left and right half planes
while a non-vertical line divides the plane into upper and lower half planes.
A solution of a linear inequality in x and y is an ordered pair of numbers
which satisfies the inequality.
For example, the ordered pair (1, 1) is a solution of the inequality x + 2y < 6
because 1 + 2(1) = 3 < 6 which is true.
There are infinitely many ordered pairs that satisfy the inequality x + 2y < 6,
so its graph will be a half plane.
Note that the linear equation ax + by = c is called "associated or

corresponding equation" of each of the above mentioned inequalities.
Procedure for Graphing a linear Inequality in two Variables

(i) The corresponding equation of the inequality is first graphed by using 'dashes'
if the inequality involves the symbols > or < and a solid line is drawn if the
inequality involves the symbols '?:. or $.
(ii) A test point (not on the graph of .the corresponding equation) is chosen which
determines that the half plane is on which side of the boundary line.
Example 1: Graph the inequality x + 2y < 6.

Solution: The associated equation of the inequality y
x + 2y < 6 (i)
is x + 2y = 6 (ii)
The line (ii) intersects the x-axis and y-axis at
... ·· ~ .,
· .. :.:- ""' 6
•••• (0, 3)
(6, 0) and (0, 3) respectively. As no point of the line (ii) x' 4-.-~ _ ·-
·. (6, 0)
__....__..,..,.;,.;.....;'-- x
is a solution of the inequality (i), so the graph of the line
(ii) is shown by using dashes. We take 0(0, 0) as a test
Fig. 5.22(a)
point because it is not on the line (ii).
y'
Substituting x = 0, y = 0 in the expression x + 2y gives 0 - 2(0) = 0 < 6, so the
point (0, 0) satisfies the inequality (i).
Any other point below the line (ii) satisfies the inequality (i), that is all points
in the half plane containing the point (0, 0) satisfy the inequality (i).
Thus the graph of the solution set of inequality (i) is the y
region on the origin-side of the line (ii), that is, the
region below the line (ii). A portion of the open half-
plane below the line (ii) is shown as shaded region in
figure 5.22(a)
All points above the dashed line satisfy the ..
x· ---~..........i........,........,.._..._.. x
...
inequality x + 2y > 6 (iii) Fig. 5.22(b)
A portion of the open half plane above the line
(ii) is shown by shading in figure 5.22(b) y'
y
Note: 1. The graph of the inequality x + 2y ~ 6 .. (iv)
includes the graph of the line (ii), so the
open half-plane below the line (ii)
including the graph of the line (ii) is the
graph of the inequality (iv). A portion of
the graph of the inequality (iv) is shown by
shading in figure 5.22(c)
y'
Note: 2. All points on the line (ii) and above the line
(ii) satisfy the inequality x + 2y ~ 6 .... (v).
This means that the solution set of the
inequality (v) consists of all points above
the line (ii) and all points on the lines (ii).
The graph of the inequality (v) is partially
shown as shaded region in figure 5.22(d)
Fig. 5.22(d)
Note: 3. The graph of x + 2y :'S 6 and x + y ~ 6 are

closed half planes. y'
Example 2: Graph the following linear inequalities in .xy-plane; y
(i) 2x ~ -3 (ii) y ~ 2
Solution: The inequality (i) in .xy-plane is considered
as 2x + Oy ~ -3 and its solution set consists of
3
all point (x, y) such that x, y E 1R.,. and x ~ - 2
Fig. 5.23(a)
The corresponding equation of the inequality (i)
is 2x =- 3 (1)
y'
which a vertical line (parallel to the y-axis) and its graph is drawn in
figure 5.23(a)
The graph of the inequality 2x > -3 is the open half plane to the right of the line (1 ).
Thus the graph of 2x ~ - 3 is the closed half-plane to the right of the line (1).
(ii) The associated equation of the inequality (ii) is
(2)
y =2 y
which is a horizontal line (parallel to the

x-axis) and its graph is shown in Figure 5.23(b)
Here the solution set of the inequality y < 2 is
the open half plane below the boundary line x' ..........-..,...,.....,.....,....,.,..._,'""""'""...........,...,...?X
y = 2. Thus the graph of y ~ 2 consists of the y<2
boundary line and the open half plane below it.

Fig. 5.23(b)
y'
y
Note that the intersection of graphs of

2x ~ -3 and y ~ 2 is partially shown in the
adjoining figure 5.23(c). x'....-.,...,........,...,.......~........,...........,......,...~x
Fig. 5.23(c)
y'
5.3 REGION BOUNDED BY 2 OR 3 SIMULTANEOUS

INEQUALITIES
The graph of a system of inequalities consists of the set of all ordered pairs
(x, y) in the .xy-plane which simultaneously satisfy all the inequalities in the system.
To find the graph of such a system, we draw the graph of each inequality in the system
on the same coordinates axes and then take intersection of all the graphs. The
common region so obtained is called the solution region for the system of
inequalities.
Example 1: Graph the system of inequalities
x-2y:::; 6
2x+y2:2 y
Solution:
The graph of the line x - 2y = 6 is drawn
by joining the point (6. 0) and (0,-3). The point
(0, 0) satisfy the inequality x - 2y < 6 because
0-2(0) =0 < 6. Thus the graph of x - 2y :5 6 is
the upper half-plane including the graph of the
linex - 2y = 6. The closed half-plane is partially
shown by shading in figure 5.3l(a). y'
y
We draw the graph of the line
2x + y = 2 joining the points (1 , 0) and
(0, 2). The point (0, 0) does not satisfy the
inequality 2x+y >2 because 2(0)+0 = 0 -:f 2. Thus
the graph of the inequality 2x + y ;;::: 2 is the
closed half-plane not on the origin-side of the
line 2x + y = 2. y'
y
Thus the closed half-plane is shown
partially as a shaded region in figure 5.31(b) The
solution region of the given system of
inequalities is the intersection of the graphs
indicated in figures 5.31(a) and 5.3l(b) and is
shown as shaded region in figure 5.31(c).
The intersection point (2, -2) can be
found by solving the equations x :- 2y = 6 and
2x+ y = 2.
y'
Note that the lines x - 2y = 6 and
2x + y = 2 divide the xy-plane into four region
bounded by these lines. These four (bounded)
regions are displayed in the adjoining figure.
y'
Example 2: Graph the solution region for the following system of inequalities.
x - 2y ~ 6, 2x + y 2: 2, x + 2y ~ 10
Solution: The graph of the
inequalities x - 2y ~ 6 and 2x + y ~ 2
have already drawn in figure 5.3l(a)
and 5.3l(b) and their intersection is
partially shown as a shaded region in
figure 5.3l(c) of the example 1
(Art 5.3). Following the procedure of
the example 1 of Art (5.3) the graph of
the inequality x + 2y ~ 10 is shown
partially in the figure 5.32(a).
The intersection of three
graphs is the required solution region
which is the shaded triangular region
PQR (including its sides) shown
partially in the figure 5.32(b).
Now we define a comer point
of a solution region.
Fig. 5.32(b)
y'
DEFINITION:
A point of a solution region where two of its boundary lines interest, is called
a corner point or vertex of the solution region.
Such points play a useful role while solving linear programming problems. In
~xample 2, the following three comer points are ·obtained by solving the
corresponding equations (?f linear inequalities given in the example 2) in pairs.
Corresponding lines of inequalities: Comer Points

x-2y = 6, 2x+y =2 P(2, -2)
x-2y = 6, x+2y = 10 Q(8, 1)
2x+y = 2, x+2y = 10 R(-2, 6)
Example 3: Graph the following systems of inequalities.
(i) 2x + y 2: 2 (ii) 2.x + y 2: 2 (iii) 2.x + y 2: 2
x + 2y :s 10 x+2y:S 10 x + 2y :s 10
y2:0 x2: 0 x 2: 0, y 2: 0,
Solution:
(i) The corresponding equations of the inequalities
2.x+y ~ 2 and x + 2y $ 10 are
2.x+y = 2 (I) and x + 2y = 10 (II)
For the partial graph of 2.x + y ~ 2 see figure 5. 31 (b) of the ex amp le 1 and the
graph of the inequality x + 2y $ 10 is partially shown in figure 5.32(a) of the example2
>
The solution region of the
inequalities 2x + y ~ 2 and x + 2y $ 10 is
the intersection .of their individual graphs.
The common region of the graphs of
inequalities is partially shown as a shaded
region in figure 5.33(a).
y'
y
The graph of y ~ 0 is the upper half

plane including the graph of the
corresponding line y = 0 (the x-axis) of the
x' .,....,..,..........,..,....,...,....,.....O
+,-,...,...-
v =....
O..,......,,........._. x
linear inequality y ~ 0. The graph of y 2: 0
is partially displayed in figure 5.33(b).
Fig. 5.33(b)
.J''
The solution region of the system of

inequalities in (i) is the intersection of the
graphs shown in figure 5.33(a) and 5.33(b)
This solution region is displayed in figure
5.33(c).
y'
(ii) See figure 5.33(a) for the graphs of the inequalities 2.x + y ~ 2 and x + 2y 5 10.
y
The graph of x ~ 0 consists of the
open half-plane to the right of the
corresponding line x = 0 (y-axis) of the
inequality x ~ 0 and its graph. See figure
5.34(a).
Fig. 5.34(a)
Thus the solution region of the

inequalities in (ii) is partially shown in figure
5.34(b). This region is the intersection of
graphs in figure 5.33(a) and 5.34(a).
y'
(iii) The graphs of the system of inequalities

in (iii) are drawn in the solution of (i) and (ii).
The solution region in this case, is shown as
shaded region ABCD in figure 5.34. (c).
EXERCISE 5.1
1. Graph the solution set of each of the following linear inequality in xy-plane:
(i) 2x + y 5 6 (ii) 3x + ?y ~ 21 (iii) 3x - 2y ~ 6
(iv) Sx - 4y 5 20 (v) 2x + 1 ~ 0 (vi) 3y - 4 5 0
2. Indicate the solution set of the following systems of linear inequalities by
shading:
(i) 2x-3y 5 6 (ii) x+y ~ 5 (iii) 3x+?y ~ 21
2x+ 3y 5 12 -y+x 5 1 x-y 5 2
(iv) 4x - 3y ~ 12 (v) 3x + ?y 2:: 21

3
x 2:: y~4
2
3. Indicate the solution region of the following systems of linear inequalities by
shading:
(i) 2x- 3y ~ 6 (ii) x + y ~ 5 (iii) x + y 2:: 5
2x + 3y ~ 12 y-2.X ~ 2 x-y2::1
y 2:: 0 x 2:: 0 y 2:: 0
(iv) 3x+7y ~ 21 (v) 3x + 7y ~ 21 (vi) 3x+7y ~ 21
x-y ~ 2 x-y ~ 2 2x- y 2:: -3
x2::0 y 2:: 0 x 2:: 0
4. Graph the solution region of the following system of linear inequalities and find
the corner points in each case.
(i) 2x - 3y ~ 6 (ii) x +y ~ 5 (iii) 3x + 7y ~ 21
2x + 3y ~ 12 -2x + y ~ 2 2x - y ~-3
x 2:: 0 y 2:: 0 y 2:: 0
(iv) 3x + 2y 2:: 6 (v) 5x + 7y ~ 35 (vi) 5x+7y ~ 35
x+ 3y ~ 6 -x+ 3y ~ 3 x-2y ~ 4
y 2:: 0 x 2'. 0 x 2:: 0
5. Graph the solution region of the following system of linear inequalities by
shading.
(i) 3x - 4y ~ 12 (ii) 3x - 4y ~ 12 (iii) 2x + y ~ 4
3x+ 2y 2:: 3 x+2y ~ 6 2x-3y 2:: 12
x+ 2y ~ 9 x+ y 2:: x+ 2y ~ 6
(iv) 2x + y ~ 10 (v) 2x+3y ~ 18 (vi) 3x - 2y 2:: 3

x+y ~ 7 2x+y ~ 10 x+4y ~ 12
-2x+y ~ 4 -2x+ y ~ 2 3x+y ~ 12
5.4 PROBLEM CONSTRAINTS

In the beginning we described that linear inequalities prescribe limitations and
restrictions on allocation of available sources. While tackling a certain problem from
every day life each linear inequality concerning the problem is named as problem
constraint. The system of linear inequalities involved in the problem concerned are
called problem constraints. The variables used in the system of linear inequalities
relating to the problems of every day life are non-negative and are called non-
.____ --- -- ~~---~--~~----- -~~~ -

negative constraints. These non-negative constraints play an important role for

taking decision. So these variables are called decision variables.
5.5 FEASIBLE SOLUTION SET y
We see that solution region of the

inequalities in example 2 of Art 5.3 is not
within the first quadrant. If the non-
negative constraints x ;::: 0 and y ;::: 0 are
included with the system of inequalities
given in the example 2, then the solution
region is restricted to the first quadrant. It
is the polygonal region ABCDE (including
Fig. 5.51
its sides) as shown in the figure 5.51.
y'
Such a region (which is restricted to the first quadrant) is referred to as a

feasible region for the set of given constraints. Each point of .the feasible region is
called a feasible solution of the system of linear inequalities (or for the set of a given
constraints). A set consisting of all the feasible solutions of the system of linear
inequalities is called a feasible solution set.
Example 1: Graph the feasible region and find the comer points for the following
system of inequalities (or subject to the following constraints).
x-y :'.S3
x + 2y :'.S 6 ' x 2: 0, y 2: 0
Solution: The associated equations for the inequalities
x-y ~ 3 (i) and x + 2y ~ 6 (ii)
y
are x-y =3 (1) and x + 2y = 6 (2)
As the point (3, 0) and (0, -3) are on the line (1),
so the graph of x - y = 3. is drawn by joining the points
(3, 0) and (0, -3) by solid line. ,
x...-..............,............,....,.-.:+-~:,...;;:o.,~:,....--+
Similarly line (2) is graphed by joining he points

(6, 0) and (0, 3) by solid line. For x = 0 and y = 0, we have;
0- 0=0~ 3 and 0 + 2(0) = 0 ~ 6, Fig. 5.52(a)
y'
so, both the closed half-planes are on the origin sides

of the lines (1) and (2). The intersection of these closed
half-planes is partially displayed as shaded region in
figure 5.52(a).
y
For the graph ofy 2: 0, see figure 5.33(b) of the

example3 ofart5.3.
The intersection of graphs shown in figures

5.52(a) and 5.33(b) is partially graphed as shaded
region in figure 5.52(b).
y'
y
The graph of x 2: 0 is drawn in figure 5.34(a).

The intersection of the graphs shown in figures 5.52(a)
x'....,....,..........,...,...,........,...,..
and 5.34(a) is graphed in figure 5.52(c).
y'
y
Finally the graph of the given system oflinear

inequalities is displayed in figure 5.52(d) which is the
x'....,,........,........,...,...,...,..~l"'l'~,...,...~..-.--x
feasible region for the given system of linear
inequalities. The points (0, 0), (3, 0), (4, 1) and (0, 3)
are comer points ofthe feasible region.
y'
Example 2: A manufacturer wants to make two types of concrete. Each bag of A-
grade concrete contains 8 kilograms of gravel (small pebbles with coarse sand) and 4
kilograms of cement while each bag of B-grade concrete contains 12 kilograms of
gravel and two kilograms of cement. If there are 1920 kilograms of gravel and 480
kilograms of cement, then graph the feasible region under the given restrictions and
find comer points of the feasible region.
Solution: Let x be the number of bags of A-grade concrete produced and y denote
the number of bags of B-grade concrete produced, then 8x kilograms of gravel will be
used for A-grade concrete and 12y kilograms of gravel will be required for B-grade
concretes so 8x + 12y should not exceed 1920, that is,
8x+ 12y:S 1920

Similarly, the linear constraint for cement will be
4x + 2y :S 480
Now we have to graph the feasible region for the linear constraints
8x + 12y :S 1920
y
4x + 2y :S 480, x~O, y ~O
Taking the one unit along x-axis and y-axis

equal to 40 we draw the graph of the feasible region
required.
The shaded region of figure 5.53(a) shows
the graph of 8x + I2y :S 1920 including the non-
negative constraints x ~ 0 and y ~ 0. Fig. S.53(a)
y'
y
In the figure 5.53(b), the graph of

4x+ 2y :S 480 including the non-negative constraints
x ~ 0 and y ~ 0 is displayed as shaded region.
Fig. S.53(b)
y'
y
The intersection of these two graphs is

shown as shaded region in figure 5.53(c), which is
the feasible region for the given linear constraints.
The point (0, 0), (120, 0), (60, 120) and (0,
160) are the comer points of the feasible region.
Fig. S.53(c)
y'
Example 3: Graph the feasible regions subject to the following constraints.

(a) 2x- 3y :S 6 (b) 2x- 3y :S 6
2x+y~2 2x+y~2
x ~ 0, y ~ 2 x + 2y :s 8 ' x ~ 0, y ~ 0
y
Solution: The graph of 2x -:- 3y 6 is ~
the closed half-plane on the origin side
of 2x - 3y = 6. The portion of the
graph of system 2x - 3y ~ 6,
x~O.y~ 0
is shown in figure 5.54(a).
Fig. 5.54(a)
Y'
The graph of 2x + y ~ 2 is the y
closed half-plane not on the origin side

of 2x + y = 2. The portion of the graph
of the system 2x + y ~ 2,
x=O X
x ;?: 0, y ~ 0
is displayed in figure 5.54(b). Fig. 5.54(b)
Y'
y
The graph of the system
2x - 3y $; 6, 2x + y $; 2,
y=O
is the intersection of the graphs shown
in figures 5.54(a) and 5.54(b) and it is
partially displayed in figure 5.54(c). Fig.5.54(c)
Y'
y
x=O
(b) The graph of system x+2y ~ 8, x;?: 0,
y ;?: 0 is a triangular region indicated in figure
5.45(d).
Thus the graph of the system
2x-3y ~ 6
2x+y;?:2
Fig. 5.54(d)
x + 2y ~ 8' x ~ 0, y ;?: 0
Y'
y
is the intersection of the graphs shown in
figures 5.54(c) and 5.54(d). It is the indicated
in the figure 5.54(e).
Note: The comer points of feasible region
for the set of constraints in (a) are (1, 0)
(3, 0) and (0, 2) while the comer points of
the feasible region for the set of constraints
36 1
in (b) are (1, 0), (3, 0), ( ,
7 7
°),
(0, 4) and
(0, 2).
Y'
We see that the feasible solution regions in example 3(a) and 3(b) are of
different types. The feasible region in example 3(a) is unbounded as it cannot be
enclosed in any circle how large it may be while the feasible region in example 3(b)
can easily be enclosed within a circle, so it is bounded. If the line segment obtained
by joining any two points of a region lies entirely within the region, then the
region is called convex.
Both the feasible regions of example
3(a) and 3(b) are convex but the ~
regions such as shown in the adjoining
figures are not convex.
EXERCISE 5.2
1. Graph the feasible region of the foil owing system of linear inequalities
and find the corner points in each case.
(i) 2x - 3y ~ 6 (ii) x + y ~ 5 (iii) x + y ~ 5
2x + 3y ~ 12 -2x + y ~ 2 -2x + y 2 2
x ~ 0, y 2 0 x 2 0, y ~ 0 x 2 0
(iv) 3x + 7y ~ 21 (v) 3x + 2y 2 6 (vi) 5x + 7y $ 35

x- y ~3 x +y $ 4 x - 2y $ 4
x 2 0, y 2 0 x 2 0, y 2 0 x 2 0, y 2 0
2. Graph the feasible region of the following system of linear inequalities
and find the corner points in each case.
(i) 2x + y ~ 10 (ii) 2x + 3y $ 18 (iii) 2x+ 3y $ 18
x + 4y ~ 12 2x + y $ 10 x + 4y $ 12
x + 2y ~ 10 x + 4y $ 12 3x + y $ 12
x 2 O,y 2 0 x 20, y 2 0 x 2 0, y 2 0
(iv) x + 2y $ 14 (v) x + 3y $ 15 (vi) 2x + y $ 20
3x + 4y$ 36 2x + y $ 12 8x +15y $ 120
2x + y $ 10 4x + 3y $ 24 x +y $ 11
x 2 O,y 2 0 x 2 0, y 2 0 x 2 0, y 2 0
5.6 LINEAR PROGRAMMING

A function which is to be maximized or minimized is called an objective function.
Note that there are infinitely many feasible solutions in the feasible region. The feasible
solution which maximizes or minimizes the objective function is called the optimal
solution. The theorem of linear programming states that the maximum and minimum
values of the objective function occur at corner points of the feasible region.
Procedure for determining optimal solution:
(i) Graph the solution set of linear inequality constraints to determine feasible region.
(ii) Find the comer points of the feasible region.
(iii) Evaluate the objective function at each corner point to find the optimal solution.
Example 1: Find the maximum and minimum values of the function defined as:
f(x, y)= 2x + 3y subject to the constraints;
x- y ~ 2 x +y ~ 4 2x - y ~ 6, x ~ 0
Solution: The graphs of x - y ~ 2 is the closed half- Y
. plane on the origin side of x - y = 2 and the graph
of x + y ~ 4 is the closed half-plane not on the
origin side of x + y = 4. The graph of the system
x - y ~ 2, x + y ~ 4
including the non-negative constraints x ~ 0 is
partially displayed in the figure 5.61. The graph of
2x - y $ 6 consists of the graph of the · line
2x - y = 6 and the half plane on the origin side
of the line 2x - y = 6. A portion of the solution
of the given system of inequalities is in the Y'
Fig. 5.61
figure 5.62.
y
We see that feasible region is unbounded
upwards and its comer points are
A(O, 4), B(3, 1) and C(4, 2). Note that the point at
which the lines x+y = 4 and 2x - y = 6 intersect is
not a comer point of the feasible region.
It is obvious that the expression 2x + 3y
does not posses a maximum value in the feasible
region because its value can be made larger than
any number by increasing x and y. We calculate the
values off at the comer points to find its minimum
value: y'
Fig. 5.62
f(0,4) = 2(0)+3x4 = 12
/(3, 1) = 2 x 3 + 3 x 1 = 6 + 3 = 9
/(4, 2) = 2 x 4 + 3 x 2 = 8 + 6 = 14
Thus the minimum value of 2x + 3y is 9 at the comer point (3, 1).
Note: If/ (x, y) = 2x + 2y, then/ (O·, 4) = 2 x 0 + 2 x 4 = 8,/(3, 1) = 2 x 3+2xl = 6+2

= 8 and/(4, 2) = 2 x 4 + 2 x 2 = 8 + 4 = 12. The minimum value of 2x + 2y is the
same at two comer points (0, 4) and (3, 1).
We observe that the minimum value of 2x + 2y at each point of the line

segment AB is 8 as: f(x, y) = 2x + 2(4-x) (°: x + y =4 =} y =4 - x)
= 2x+8-2x = 8
Example 2: Find the minimum and maximum values of/and <P defined as:
f (x, y) = 4x + 5y, <P (x, y) = 4x + 6y
under the constraints
2x-3y ~ 6 2x+y ~ 2 2x+3y ~ 12 x~O, y ~O
Solution: The graphs of 2x - 3y ~ 6, 2x + y ~ 2, are displayed in the example 3 of

Art. 5.5. Joining the points (6, 0) and (0, 4), we obtain the graph of the line
2x + 3y = 12. As 2(0) + 3(0) = 0 < 12, so the graph of 2x + 3y < 12 is the half plane
below the line 2x + 3y = 12. Thus the graph of 2x + 3y ~ 12 consists of the graph of
the line 2x+3y = 12 and the half plane below the line 2x + 3y = 12. The solution
region of 2x- 3y ~ 6, 2x + y ~ 2 and 2x + 3y ~ 12 is the triangular region PQR shown
in figure 5.63. The non-negative constraints x ~ 0, y ~ 0 indicates the first

quadrant. Thus the feasible region
y
satisfying all the constrains is shaded in the figure
5.63 and its corner points are (1, 0)
(0, 2), (0, 4), ( ~, 1) and (3, 0).
We find values off at the corner points.

Corner
f (x,y) = 4x +Sy
oint
(1, 0) f (1, 0) =4 x 1 + 5 x 0 = 4
(0, 2) f (0, 2) = 4 x 0+5x2=10
(0, 4) /(0, 4) = 4 x 0 + 5 x4 = 20
(9/2, 1) f (912, 1) = 4 x 912 + 5 x 1 = 23 y'
Fig. 5.63
(3, 0) (3, 0) = 4 x 3 + 50 x 0 = 12
From the above table, it follows that the minimum value off is 4 at the corner
point (1, 0) and the maximum value off is 23 at the comer point(~, 1). The values
of </>at the corner points are given below in tabular form
Corner point =
</J(x, y) 4x + 6y
(1, 0) </J(l,0)=4Xl +6X0=4
(0, 2) </> (0, 2) = 4 xo + 6 x 2 = 12
(0, 4) </J(O, 4) =4X0 + 6X4 = 24
(9/2, 1) </> (9/2, 1) = 4 x 912 + 6 x 1 = 24
(3, 0) </J (3, 0) = 4 x 3 + 6 x 0 = 12
The minimum value of</> is 4 at the point (1, 0) and maximum value of</> is 24
at the comer points (0, 4) and ( ~, 1). As observed in the above example, it follows
that the function </>has maximum value at all the points of the line segment between
the points (0, 4) and ( ~, I).
Note 1: Sometimes, it may happen that each point of constraint line gives the
optimal value of the objective function.
Note 2: For different values of k, the equation 4x + 5y = k represents lines parallel to
the line 4x + 5y =0. For a certain admissible value of k, the intersection of 4x + 5y = k
wi~h the feasible region gives feasible solutions for which the profit is k.
5.7 LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEMS

Convert a linear programming problem to a mathematical form by using
variables, then follow the procedure given in Art 5.6.
Example 1: A farmer possesses 100 kanals of land and wants to grow com and
wheat. Cultivation of corn requires 3 hours per kanal while cultivation of wheat
requires 2 hours per kanal. Working hours cannot exceed 240. If he gets a profit of
Rs. 20 per kanal for corn and Rs.15/- per kanal of wheat, how many kanals of each he
should cultivate to maximize his profit? y
Solution: Suppose that he cultivates x kanals of
com and y kanals of wheat. Then constraints can
be written as:
x + y ~ 100
3x+2y ~ 240 x' x
Non-negative constraints are x ~ 0, y ~ 0.
Let P(x, y) be the profit function, then
P (x, y) = 20x + 15y
Y'
Fig. 5.71
Now the problem is to maximize the profit function P under the given
constraints.
Graphing the inequalities, we obtain the feasible region which is shaded
in the figure 5. 71. Solving the equations x + y = 100 and 3x + 2y = 240 gives
x = 240 - 2(x + y) = 240 - 200 = 40 and y = 100 - 40 = 60, that is; their point of
intersection is (40, 60). The corner points of the feasible region are (0, 0), (0, 100),
(40, 60) and(80, 0). Now we find the values ofP atthe comer points.
Corner point p(x,y) = 20x + 15y
(0, 0) P(O, 0) = 20 x 0 + 15 x 0 = 0
(0, 100) P(O, 100) = 20 x 0 + 15 x 100 = lSOO
(40, 60) P(40, 60) = 20 x 40 + 15 x 60 = 1700
(80, 0) P(80, 0) = 20 x 80 + 15 x 0 = 1600
From the above table, it follows that the maximum profit is Rs. 1700 at the
comer point (40, 60). Thus the farmer will get the maximum profit if he cultivates 40
kanals of com and 60 kanals of wheat.
Example 2: A factory produces bicycles and motorcycles by using two machines A
and B. Machine A has at most 120 hours available and machine B has a maximum of
144 hours available. Manufacturing a bicycle requires 5 hours in machine A and 4
hours in machine B while manufacturing of a motorcycle requires 4 hours in machine

A and 8 hours in machine B. If he gets profit of Rs. 40 per bicycle and profit of Rs. 50
per motorcycle, how many bicycles and motorcycles should be manufactured to get
maximum profit? y
Solution: Let the number of bicycles to be
manufactured be x and the number of
motor cycles to be manufactured be y.
Then the time required to use
machine A for x bicycles and y motorcycles
is 5x + 4y (hours) and the time required to
use machine B for x bicycles and y
motorcycles in 4x+8y (hours). Thus the
problem constraints are 5x + 4y ~ 120
And 4x + 8y ~ 144
y'
::::} 2x + 4y ~ 72 Fig. 5.72
Since the number of articles to be produced cannot be negative, so x ~ 0, y ~ 0

Let P(x, y) be the profit function, then P(x, y) =40x + 50y.
Now the problem is to maximize P subject to the constraints:
5x+4y ~ 120
2x + 4y ~ 72 x ~ 0, y ~ 0
Solving 5x + 4y = 120 and 2x + 4y = 72, gives 3x = 48 ::::} x = 16 and
4y =72 - 2x = 72 - 32 =40 ::::} y = 10.
Thus their point of intersection is (16, 10). Graphing the linear inequality
constraints, the feasible region obtained is depicted in the figure 5.72 by shading. The
comer points of the feasible region are (0, 0), (0, 18), (16, 10) and (24, 0). Now we
find the values of P at the comer points.
Corner point P(x,v) = 40x + SOv
(0, 0) P(O, 0) = 40 x 0 + 50 x 0 = 0
(0, 18) P(O, 18) = 40 x 0 + 50 x 18 = 900
(16, 10) P(l6, 10) = 40 x 16 + 50 x 10 = 1140
(24, 0) P(24, 0) = 40 x 24 + 50 x 0 = 960
From the above table, it follows, that the maximum profit is Rs.1140 at the
comer point (16, 10). Manufacturer gets the maximum profit if he manufactures 16
bicycles and 10 motorcycles.
EXERCISE 5.3
1. Maximize f(x, y) = 2x + 5y
subject to the constraints
2y - x 5 8; x - y 5 4; x ;;::: O; y ;;::: 0
2. Maximizef(x, y) = x + 3y
subject to the constraints
2x+5y530; 5x+4y s 20; x;;:::O; y;;:::o
3. Maximize z = 2x + 3y; subject to the constraints:
3x + 4y s 12; 2x + y s 4; 2x - y s 4; ~;;::: 0 y~0
4. Minimize z = 2x + y ; subject to the constraints:
x + y;;::: 3; 7x + 5y 535; x;;::: 0; y;;::: 0
5. Maximize the function defined as; f(x, y) = 2x + 3y subject to the constraints:
2x + y s 8; x + 2y 5 14; x;;::: O; y;;::: 0
6. Minimize z = 3x + y; subject to the constraints:
3x + 5y;;::: 15; x + 6y;;::: 9 x;;::: O; y;;::: 0
7. Each unit of food X costs Rs.25 and contains 2 units of protein and 4 units of
iron while each unit of food Y costs Rs.30 and contains 3 units of protein and
2 unit of iron. Each animal must receive at least 12 units of protein and 16
units of iron each day. How many units of each food should be fed to each
animal at the minimum possible cost?
8. A dealer wishes to purchase a number of fans and sewing machines. He has
only Rs. 5760 to invest and has space atmost for 20 items. A fan costs him Rs.
360 and a sewing machine costs Rs. 240. His expectation is that the can sell a
fan at a profit of Rs. 22 and a sewing machine at a profit of Rs. 18. Assuming
that he can sell all the items that he can buy, how should he invest his money
in order to maximize his profit?
9. A machine can produce product A by using 2 units of chemical and 1 unit of a
compound or can produce product B by using 1 unit of chemical and 2 units of
the compound. Only 800 units of chemical and 1000 units of the compound
are available. The profits per unit of A and B are Rs. 30 and Rs. 20
respectively, maximize the profit function.
Unit 6: Conic Section 249
I unit 6 I Conic section
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Conic sections , or simply conics, are the curves obtained by cutting a
(double) right circular cone by a plane. Let RS be a line through the centre C of a
given circle and perpendicular to its plane. Let A be a fixed point on RS. All lines
through A and points on the circle generate a right circular cone. The lines are
called rulings or generators of the cone. The surface generated consists of two parts,
called nappes, meeting at the fixed point A, called the verte~ or apex of the cone.
The line RS is called axis of the cone.
If the cone is cut by a plane perpendicular to the axis of the cone, then the
section is a circle.
The size of the circle depends on how near the plane is to the vertex of the cone.
If the plane passes through the vertex A, the intersection is just a single point or a
point circle. If the cutting plane is slightly tilted and cuts only one nappe of the cone,
the resulting section is an ellipse. If the intersecting plane is parallel to a generator of
the cone, but intersects its one nappe only , the curve of intersection is a parabola. If
the cutting plane is parallel to .the axis of the cone and intersects both of its nappes,
then the curve of intersection is a hyperbola.
The Greek mathematicians Apollonius' (260 - 200 B.C.) and Pappus (early
fourth century) discovered many intersecting properties of the conic sections. They
used the methods of Euclidean geometry t_o study conics. We shall not study conics
' from the point of view stated above, but rather approach them with the more powerful
tools of analytic geometry.
The theory of conics plays an important role in modem space mechanics,
occeangraphy and many other branches of science and technology.
We first study the properties of a Circle. Other conics will be taken up later.
6.1.1 Equation of a Circle
The set of all points in the plane that are equally distant from a fixed point is
called a circle. The fixed point is called the centre of the circle and the distance from
the centre of the circle to any point on the circle is called the radius of the circle.
If C(h,k) is centre of a circle, r its radius and P(x, y) any point on the circle,
then the circle denoted S(C; r) in set notations is
S(C; r) = {P(x, y): lcPI = r}.
By the distance formula, we get
lcPI = ~(x-h) 2 +(y-k) 2

=r
or (x-h) 2 +(y-k) 2 = r 2 (1)
is an equation of the circle in standard form.
If the centre of the circle is the origin, then ( 1) reduces to

x2 + y2 = r2 (2)
If r = 0, the circle is called a point circle
}'
which consists of the centre only.
Let P(x, y) any point on the circle (2) and let
the inclination of OP be 8 as shown in the figure. It
is clear that
x = rcos8] (3)
y= rsin 8
The point P (r cos 8, r sin 8) lies on (2) for all
values of a 8. Equation (3) are called parametric
equations of the circle (2).
Example 1: Write an equation of the circle with centre (-3, 5) and radius 7.
Solution: Required equation is
2
(x + 3) + (y-5) 2 = 7 2
or x 2 +y 2 + 6x-lOy-15=0
6.1.2 General Form of an Equation of a Circle

Theorem 1: The equation
x 2 + y 2 +2gx+2fy+c =0 (1)
represents a circle g,f and c being constants.
Equation (1) can be written as:
(x2 +2gx+ g1)+(y2 +2.fy+ f2) = g1 + !2 -c
or (x-(-g)]2 +[y-(-f)]2=(~g2+ 2 -c 1 )2
which is standard form of an equation of a circle with centre (-g, - f) and
radius ~ g + f -c.
2 2
Thus equation (1) is called general form of an equation of a circle.
Note:
2
1. (1) is a second degree equation in which coefficient of each of x and y2 is 1.
2. (1) contains no term involving the product .xy.
Thus a second degree equation in which coefficients of x 2 and y2 are equal and
there is no product term .xy represents a circle.
If three non-collinear points through which a circle passes 'are known, then we
can find the three constantsf, g and c in (1).
Example 2: Show that the equations:
5x2 +5y2 +24x+36y+l0=0
represents a circle. Also find its centre and radius.
Solution: The given equation can be written as:
x2 + y2 + 24 x + 36 y + 2 = 0
5 5
which is an equation of a circle in the general form. Here
12 18
g =s,f =-s,c='],
Thus centre of the circle= (-g,-f) = --12

- ,-18)
--
( 5 5
• • / 2 2 144 324
Radms of the crrcle = 'V g +f - c = - +- - 2
25 25
=J418 = .J418
25 5
6.1.3 Equations of Circles Determined by Given Conditions

The general equation of a circle x 2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 contains three
independent constants g, f and c , which can be found if the equation satisfies three
given conditions. We discuss different cases in the following paragraphs.
1. A Circle Passing Through Three Non-collinear Points.
If three non-collinear points, through which a circle passes, are known, then
we can find the three independent constants f, g and c occurring in the general
equation of a circle.
Example 3: Find an equation of the circle which passes through the points A (5,10),
B (6,9) and C ( - 2, 3).
Solution: Suppose equation of the required circle is
x2 + y 2 +2gx+2.fy+c = 0 (1)
Since the three given points lie on the circle, they all satisfy (1). Substituting
the three points into (1 ), we get
25 + 100 + 10 g + 20 f + c = 0
~ 10g+20f +c+125 = 0 (2)
36+81+12g + 18/ +c = 0
~ 12g+18/+c+117=0 (3)
4+9-4g +6f +c = 0
-4g+6f +c+13 =,0 (4)
Now we solve the equations (2), (3) and (4).
Subtracting (3) from (2), we have
-2g+2f +8=0
or g-f-4=0 (5)
Subtracting (4) from (2), we have.
14g+14/+112=0
or g + f +8 = 0
(6)
From (5) and (6), we have
f =6 and g =2.
Inserting the values off and g into (2), we get c = 15
Thus equation of the circle is : x 2 + y2 + 4x + 12 y + 15 = O
2. A circle passing through two points and having its centre on a given line.
Example 4: Find an equation of the circle having the join of A (x1 , y1 ) and B (x2 , y 2)
as a diameter.
Solution: Since AB is a diameter of
the circle, its midpoint is the centre of the
circle. The radius of the circle is known
and standard form of an equation of the
circle may be easily written. However, a
more elegant procedure is to make use of
the plane geometry. If P(x,y) is any point
on the circle, then mLAPB =90
Thus the lines AP and BP are perpendicular to each other.

y-y 1 y-y 2
Slope of AP = and Slope of BP = - -
x-~ x-~
By the condition of perpendicularity of two lines, we get

y- Y1 x Y - Y2 = -1
x-x1 x-x2
or (X-X1)(X-X2) +(y-yl)(y- Y2) =0
This is required equation of the circle.
3. A circle passing through two points and having tangent at one of these
points is known.
Example 5: Find an equation of the Circle passing through the point (-2, -5) and
touching the line 3x + 4y - 24 = 0 at the point (4, 3).
Solution: Let the circle be
2
x2 + y +2gx + 2fy + c = 0 (1)
The points (-2, -5) and (4, 3) lie on it. Therefore
- 4 g - 10 f + c + 29 = 0 (2)
8g + 6f + c + 25 = 0 (3)
The line
3x+ 4y - 24 =0 (4)
Touches the circle at (3, 4).
A line through (4, 3) and perpendicular to (4) is

4
y-3= - (x-4) or 4x- 3y -7 = 0
3
This line being a normal through (4, 3) passes through the centre (-g, -j) of
the circle (1). Therefore
-4g + 3f - 7 = 0 (5)
From (2) - (3), we get
-12g-16f+4=0
or 3g + 4 f -1 =0 (6)
Solving (5) and (6), we have g =-1, f = 1. Inserting these values of g andf
into (3), we find c=-23. Equation of the requested circle is
x
2
+ y2 - 2x + 2 y - 23 =0
4. A circle passing through two points and touching a given line.
Example 6: Find an equation of the circle passing through the points A(l, 2) and
B(l, -2) and touching to the line x + 2 y + 5 = 0.
Solution: Let 0( h, k) be the centre of the required circle. Then
IOA I=IOB I= radius of the circle.

2
i.e., (h-1) + (k - 2) 2 = (h -1) 2 + (k + 2) 2
or 8k = 0 i.e., k = 0
I =I OBI
Hence OAI
=~(h-1) 2 +4
Now length of perpendicular from (h,k) i.e.,(h,0) to the line x+ 2y +5 = 0
equals the radius of the circle and is given by
lh+5I
-JS
Therefore, ih;/I =[oA[=)(h-1) 2
+4
52
or (h+ ) =(h-1) 2 +4 or 4h 2 -20h=O i.e., h = 0,5
5
Thus centres of the two circles are at (0, 0) and (5, 0)
Radius of the first circle = JS ; Radius of the second circle = .fiO

Equations of the circles are
x 2 +y 2 =5 and (x-5) 2 +y2=20
2
i.e., x + y2 = 5 and x 2 + y2 -10x + 5 = 0
EXERCISE 6.1
1. In each of the following, find an equation of the circle with
(a) centre at (5, - 2) and radius 4
(b) centre at ( fi., - 3.j3) and radius 2.fi.
(c) ends of a diameter at ( -3, 2) and (5,-6 ).
2. Find the centre and radius of the circle with the given equation
2
(a) x +y 2 +12x-l0y=O
(b) 5x 2 +5y2+14x+I2y-10=0
(c) x 2 + y2 - 6x + 4 y + 13 = 0
4x +4y2-Sx+12y-25 =0
2
(d)
3. Write an equation of the circle that passes through the given points
(a) A(4,5),B(-4,-3),C(8, -3)
(b) A(-7, 7), B(5,-l), C (10, 0)
(c) A(a, 0), B(O, b,), C (0, 0)
(d) A(5, 6), B( - 3, 2), C (3, -4)
4. In each of the following, find an equation of the circle passing through
(a) A(3, -1), B(O, 1) and having centre at 4x-3y-3 =0
(b) A(-3, 1) withradius2andcentreat 2x-3y+3=0
(c) A(5, 1) and tangent to the line 2x- y-10 =0 at B (3, -4)
(d) A(I, 4), B(-1, 8) and tangent to the line x+3y-3 = 0
5. Find an equation of a circle of radius a and lying in the second quadrant such
that it is tangent to both the axes.
6. Show that the lines 3x - 2 y = 0 and 2x + 3 y -13 = 0 are tangents to the circle
x 2 + y2 +6x-4y =0
7. Show that the circles
x 2 + y 2 + 2x - 2 y - 7 = 0 and x 2 + y2 - 6x + 4 y - 9 = 0 touch externally.
8. Show that the circles
x 2 + y2 + 2x-8 =0 and x2 + y2 - 6x + 6y-46 = 0 touch internally
9. Find equations of the circle of radius 2 and tangent to the line
x-y-4=0 at A(l,-3).
6.2 TANGENTS AND NORMALS

A tangent to a curve is a line that touches the curve without cutting through it.
We know that for any curve whose equation is given by y = f(x) or
f(x, y) = 0.
the derivative dy is slope of the tangent at any point P(x, y) to the
dx
curve. The equation of the tangent to the curve can easily be written by the point-
slope formula. The normal to the curve at P is the line through P perpendicular to the
tangent to the curve at P. This method can be very conveniently employed to find
equations of tangent and normal to the circle x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c =0 at the point
P(x1 ' Yi).
Here f(x, y) =x 2 + y2 +2gx+ 2fy + c = 0 (1)
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. x, we get

dy x+g
-=---
dx y+ f
dy] = x, + g = Slope of the tangent at (x , y )

1 1
dx cx1,y1) Y1 +f
Equation of the Tangent at P is given by
Xi +g
y-y, =- (x-x 1) (Point-Slope form)
y, + f
or y(y 1 + f)-yt-yJ =-x(x1 + g)+x~ +x 1g
or xx1 + yy 1 + gx+ fy+ gx1 + fy, +c= x~ + y~ + gx 1 + fy, + gx, + fy 1 +c

(adding gx1 + fy 1 + c to both sides)
or xx, +yy 1 +g(x+x1 )+ f(y+y 1 )+c=O
Since (xp y 1 ) lies on (1) and so
x~ + y~ + 2gx1 + 2fy 1 + c = 0
Thus lxx + yy
1 1+ g(x+ x 1 )+ f (y + y + c= ol, is the required equation of
1)
the tangent.
To find an equation of the normal at P ,we note that slope of the normal is
Yi +f
(negative reciprocal of slope of the tangents)
x, +g
Equation of the normal at P(x,, y,) is
or j (y-y 1 )(x1 + g)=(x-x1 )(y, + /). j is an equation of the normal at (xpy 1 ).
Theorem 1: The point P(x1 , y 1 ) lies outside, on or inside the circle

2 2
x + y + 2gx + 2/y + c =0 according as
x 12 + y 12 +2gx1 +2fy1 +c >} 0

<
Proof: Radius r of the given circle is
r=~g2+f2-c.
The point P(x1 , y,) lies outside, on or inside the circle, according as:
mlcPJ ~}r
1.e., according as: ~(x 1 + g) 2 +(y 1 + /) 2 ~}~g 2 + f 2 -c
2
according as: x[+2gx1 +g +yf+J 2 +2fy1 ~}g +f -c
2 2
or
or according as : x[ + y 12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c ~}o.
Example 1: Determine whether the point P (-5, 6) lies outside, on or inside the
2
circle: x 2 + y +4x-6y-12= 0
Solution: Putting x =-5 and y =6 in the left hand member of the equation of the
circle, we get
25 + 36-20-36-12 = -7 < 0
Thus the point P (-5, 6) lies inside the circle.
Theorem 2: The line y = mx + c intersects the
circle x 2 + y2 = a 2 at the most two points.
Proof: It is known from plane geometry that a line
can meet a circle in at the most two points.
To prove it analytically, we note that the
coordinates of the points where the line
y=mx+c (1)
intersects the circle
x2 + y2 = a2 (2)
are the simultaneous solutions of the equations (1) and (2). Substituting the value
of y from equation (1) into equation (2), we get
x 2 +(mx+c) 2 =a 2
or (3)
This being quadratic in x, gives two values of x say x 1 and x~. Thus the line
intersects the circle at the most two points. For nature of the points we examine the
discriminate of (3 ).
The discriminate of (3) is (2mc) 2 -4(1 + m 2 ) (c 2 - a 2 )
=4m 2 c 2 -4(1+ m2 )(c 2 -a 2 )
= 4m 2 c 2 -4m 2 c 2 -4(c 2 -a 2 -a 2 m 2 )
= 4[-c 2 +a 2 (l+m 2 )]
These points are:
(i) Real and distinct, if
(ii) Real and coincident, if a 2 (1+m 2 ) - c
2
=O
(iii) Imaginary if
Condition that the line may be a tangent to the circle.
The line (1) is tangent to the circle (2) if it meets the circle at one point.
=a\l + m2 ) c = ±a~l + m 2
2
1.e., if c or
is the condition for (1) to be a tangent to (2).
Unit 6: Conic Section
259
Example 2: Find the co-ordinates of the points of intersection of the line 2x + y =5

2
and the circle x + y2 + 2x - 9 =0 . Also find the length of the intercepted chord.
Solution: From 2x+ y = 5, we have
y = (5-2x).
Inserting this value of y into the equation of the circle, we get
x 2 + (5- 2x) 2 + 2x - 9 = 0
or 5x 2 -18x+16=0
18 ± .J324-320 - 18±2 - 2 8
x=------
10 -10- '5
When x =2, y =5 -' 4 = 1
. 8 16 9
When x=
5 , y=5-s=s·
Thus the points of intersection are P(2,1) and ~ !,: J
Length of the chord intercepted
Theorem 3: Two tangents can be drawn to a circle from any point P(x 1 , y 1 ) • The
tangents are real and distinct, coincident or imaginary according to the point lies
outside, on or inside the circle.
Proof: Let an equation of the circle be x 2 + y2 =a 2
We have already seen that the line
y = mx+ a.JI+ m 2 (1)
is a tangent to the given circle for all values of m. If it passes through the point
P(x1 , yi), then
Y1 = mx1 +a.J1+m2
or (Y1 -mxi)2 =a2(1+m2)
or m 2(x 12 -a 2) - 2mx1 y 1 +y,2 -a=
2 0 (2)
This being quadratic in m, gives two values of m and so there are two tangents
from P(x1 , y 1 ) to the circle. These tangents are real and distinct, coincident or
imaginary according as the roots of (2) are real and distinct, coincident or
imaginary
i.e., according as xf yf -(xf - a 2 )(yf -a 2 ) ~ }o
or xf a 2 + yf a 2 + a 4 ~}o or x~ + yf ~a 2 ~} 0
i.e., according as the point P(x 1 , y 1 ) lies outside, on or inside the circle
x2+y2-a2=0
Example 3: Write equations of two tangents from (2, 3) to the circle x 2 + y2 =9.
Solution: Any tangent to the circle is:
y = mx + 3~1+ m 2
If it passes through (2, 3), then
3 = 2m+3.Jl + m 2 (1)
or (3-2m) 2 = 9(1 + m2 )
or 9 -12m + 4m 2 = 9 + 9m 2
-12
or 5m 2 +12m=O i.e., m=0,--
5
Inserting these values of m into (1), we have equations of the tangents from (2,3)
to the circle as :
For m=O:y=O.x+3.Jl+O
ory= 3
-12 -12 ~ -12 39
For y=--x+3~1+lS
m=--:
5 5 =--x+-
5 5
or Sy +12x-39 = 0.
Example 4: Write equations of the tangents to the circle
x 2 +y2-4x+6y+9=0 (1)
at the points on the circle whose ordinate is -2.
Solution: Substituting y = -2 into (1), we get
x 2 -4x+1=0
or
4±.J16-4
x=---- =2±/3
2
The points on the circle with ordinate -2 are
(2 + .J3, - 2), (2- J3,-2)
Equations of the tangents to (1) at these points are
(2 + J3 ~ - 2 y - 2 ~ + 2 + J3) + 3(y - 2)+ 9 =0
and (2 - J3 ~ - 2 y - 2 (x + 2 - J3) + 3(y - 2 )+ 9 = 0
i.e., J3 x + y - 2J3 - 1 = 0
and - J3 x + y + 2J3 - 1 = 0
Example 5: Find a joint equation to the pair of tangents drawn from (5, 0) to the
circle:
xi+ y2= 9
Solution: Let P(h, k) be any point on .either' of the two tangents drawn from
A(5,0) to the given circle (1). Equation of PA is
k-0
y-0= --(x-5) or kx-(h-5)y-5h = 0 (2)
h 5
Since (2) is tangent to the circle (1), the perpendicular distance of (2) from the centre
of the circle equals the radius of the circle.
i.e., 1-Sk I =3
~e +Ch-s) 2
or 25k2=9[k2+(h-5) 2 ] or 16k2-9(h-5) 2 =0
Thus ( h, k) lies on
9(x-5) 2 -16y 2 =0 (3)
But (h, k) is any point of either of circle of the two tangents.
Hence (3) is the joint equations of the two tangents.
6.2.1 Length of the Tangent to a Circle (Tangential Distance)
Let P (x 1 , y 1 ) be a point outside the circle
x 2 + y2 +2gx+2fy+c =0 (1)
We know that two real and distinct tangents can be drawn to the circle from an
external point P. If the points of contact of these tangents with the circle are S and T,
then each of the length PS and PT is called length of the tangent or tangential
distance from P to the circle (1).
The centre of the circle has
coordinates (-g ,-f).Join PO and
OT. From the right triangle 0 PT
we have,
length of the tangent= jnj = ~OP 2 - OT

2
=~(X1 + g)2 +(Y1 + f)2 -(g2 + f2 -c)
=~x~ + y~ +2gx1 +2fy 1 +c (2)
It is easy to see that length of the second tangent PS also equals (2).
Example 6: Find the length of the tangent from the point P ( - 5 , 10) to the circle
5x 2 +5y2 +14x+12y-10 =0
Solution: Equation of the given circle in standard form is
14 12 '
x 2 +y 2 +-x+-y-2=0 (1)
5 5
Square of the length of the tangent from P ( - 5 , 10) to the circle ( 1) is obtained by
substituting-5 for x and 10 for yin the left hand member of (1)
.. Required length =~(-5) 2 +(10) 2 -14+24-2 =.Jlii

Example 7: Write equations of the tangent lines to the circle x 2 + y 2 + 4x + 2y = O
drawn from P( -1,2) . Also find the tangential distance.
Solution: An equation of the line through P(-1,2) having slope m is:
y-2 = m(x+l) or mx- y +m+2 =0. (1)
Centre of the circle is C(-2,-1).
Radius= .J4+ 1 = J5
If (1) is tangent to the circle, then its distance from the centre of the circle
equals the radius of the circle. Therefore,
l-2m+l+m+21 ~
'-------===------'- - v5
~m 2 +1 -
or (-m+3) 2 =5(m 2 +1)
2
or 4m +6m-4=0 or 2m 2 +3m-2=0
m= -3±.J9+.16 = -3±5 =-2 _1

4 4 ' 2
Equations of the tangents are from equation ( 1)
For m = -2: :.. . 2x - y = 0 or 2x + y = 0

1 1 5
Form = - : - x - y + - = 0 or x - 2 y + 5 = 0
2 2 2
Tangential distance = .J1+4 - 4 + 4 = JS.

Example 8: Tangents are drawn from ( - 3, 4) to the circle x 2 + y2 = 21. Find an
equation of the line joining the points of contact (The line is called the chord of
contact).
Solution: Let the points of contact of the two tangents be P (x 1 , Yi) and Q(x 2 , y 2 )
An equation of the tangent at Pis
XX1 + YY1 = 21 (1)
An equation of the tangent at Q is
XX2 + YY2 = 21 (2)
Since (1) and (2) pass through ( - 3 ,4)-, so
-3xi + 4y1 = 21 (3)
and -3x2 +4y 2 =21 (4)
(3) and (4) show that both the points P(xi, Yi), Q (x 2 , y 2 ) lie on -3x + 4y = 21
and so it is the required equation of the chord of contact.
EXERCISE 6.2
1. Write down equations of the tangent and normal to the circle
(i) x 2 +y 2 =25 at(4,3)andat(5cos e,5sin 8)
(ii) 3x 2 +3y 2 +5x-13y + 2 ~ 0 at (1.

1
~)
2. Write down equations of the tangent and normal to the circle
4x 2 +4y 2 -16x+24y-117 =0
at the points on the circle whose abscissa is -4.
3 Check the position of the point (5 , 6) with respect to the circle
2 2
(i) x 2 + y 2 =81 (ii) 2x +2y +12x-8y+l=O
4. Find the length of the tangent drawn from the point ( -5, 4) to the circle
5x 2 +5y2-lOx+15y-131=0
5. Find the length of the chord cut off from the line 2x + 3 y = 13 by the circle
2
x + y2 = 26
6. Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the line x +2 y =6 with the
circle: x 2 + y2-2x-2y-39=0
7. Find equations of the tangents to the circle x 2 + y2 =2

(i) parallelto the x-2y + 1=0
(ii) perpendicular to the line 3x + 2y =6
8. Find equations of the tangents drawn from
(i) (0 , 5) to x 2 + y2 =16
(ii) ( -1,2) to x 2 + y2 + 4x + 2 y = 0
(iii) (-7 ,-2) to (x+l) 2 +(y-2) 2 = 26
Also find the points of contact.
9. Find an equation of the chord of contact of the tangents drawn from (4,5) to the circle
2x 2 +2y 2 -8x+l2y+21=0
6.3 ANALYTIC PROOFS OF IMPORTANT
PROPERTIES OF A CIRCLE
A line segment whose end points lie on a circle is called a chord of the
circle. A diameter of a circle is a chord containing the centre of the circle.
Theorem 1: Length of a diameter of the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 is 2a.
Proof: Let AOB be a diameter of the circle

x2 + y2 = a1 (1)
0(0, 0) is centre of (1).
Let the coordinates of A be (x 1 , y 1 ). 0 (0,0)
A(xp Y1) t - - - - - + - - - - - i B
Equation of AOB is
(2)
Substituting the value of y from (2) into (1 ), we have

2
X2 + 21_ x 2 = a 2 or x 2 ( x 12 + y 2) = a 2 x 2
2 1 1
X1
or a 2x 2 = a 2 x~
i.e,. x =±xi
If x = x1, then y = y1
Similarly when x = -x1 , then y = -y1

Thus B has coordinates (-x 1 , - Yi).
Length of the diameter AB= ~(x 1 + x 1) +(Yi +Yi )

2 2
=~4(x~ + y:) =..J4a 2 =2a

Theorem 2: Perpendicular dropped t'rom the centre of a circle on a chord bisects
y
the chord.
Proof: Let x 2 + y 2 = a 2 be a circle, in which
AB is a chord with end points A(x1 , y 1 ) B(x 2 , y 2 )
on the circle and OM is perpendicular from the centre
to the chord. We need to show that OM bisects the
chord AB.
Slope of AB = Y 2 - Yi
X2 -XI
-(x2 -x)
1 x 1 -x2
Slope of perpendicular to AB= = = m (say)
Y2 - Y1 Y2 - Y1
So equation of OM with slope m and point 0(0,0) on it, is given by
y-0 = (X1 -X2) (x-0)

(Y2 - Y1)
or y = ( X1 - X2 lx (1)
Y2 - Yi)
(1) is the equation of the perpendicular OM from centre to the chord. We will show
that it bisects the chord i.e., intersection of OM and AB is the midpoint of AB.
Equation of AB is
(2)
The foot of the perpendicular OM is the point of intersection of (1) and (2).
putting the value of y from (1) into (2), we have
- x, -x2 x- y, = y, - Y2 (x-x,)
y, - Y2 x, -x2
or x
Y1 - Y2
( x 1 -x2
+Xi -x2
y 1 -y 2
J-
-
x,(y, -y2) _
x 1 -x2
Yi
or
x[y~ + Yi-2Y1Y2 +x,2 +xi-2x1x2] _ X2Y1 -x,y2
(x, -x2HY1 -y2) x, -x2
2 2
. or x(2a -2x1x 2 -2y,y 2)=X2Y1 -X1Y1Y2 -X2Y1Y2 +X1Yi
2
or 2x(a -x,x 2 - y 1y 2) =x (a -x~)- y 1y 2 (x1 + x + x 1(a xi)
2
2
2)
2
-
= a 2 (x1 +x2 )-x1x 2 (x 1 +x2 )-y1y 2 (:x 1 +x 2)

= (x, +x2)(a 2 -X1X2 -YiY2)
(Thepoints (xpy 1 ) and (x2 ,y 2 ) lieonthecircle)
or
Putting x = X1 +X2 into (1), we get

2
(x1 -x2)
y=---
(x 1 +x2) _ x~ -xi
Yi -yl 2 2(Ji -yl)
==:}
So, x1 +x2 , Y1 + Y2 )·is the pomt

· of intersection
( 2 2
of OM and AB which is the midpoint of AB.
Theorem3:
The perpendicular bisector of any chord of a circle
passes through the centre of the circle.
2
Proof: Let x + y 2 = a 2 be a circle and A(x1 , y 1),
B(x2 ,y 2 ) be the end points of a chord of this
~-------~
circle. Let M be the mid point of AB , i.e., M( x, : x, , Y1 : Y2 }
The slope of AB = Y2 - Yi .
X2 -XI
The slope of perpendicular bisector of AB is
-(;: =;: J
So, equations of perpendicular bisector in point-slope form is
y-Y1: Y2 ~ -(;:=;:Jr- x, :x, J (l)
We check whether the centre (0,0) of the circle lies on ( l) or not
0
_ Y1 + Y2 = - (x2 - x1)
2 (y2-Y1)
(o- x1 + x2 )
2 )
Y1 + Y2 )( _ )_ ( _ ) (X1 + X2)
or - ( ) Y2 Y1 - X2 Xi
2 2
or a 2 = a 2 which is true.
Hence the perpendicular bisector of any chord passes through the centre of the circle.
Theorem 4:
The line joining the centre of a circle to the
midpoint of a chord is perpendicular to the chord.
Proof: Let A(x1 ,y1 ),B(x1 ,y2 ) be the end points of A
2 2
any chord the circle x + y2 = a . 0(0, 0) is centre of the
circle and M (Xi ~x, ,Yi : y, Jis the midpoint of AB. Join
the centre O with the mid point M We need to show
that OM is perpendicular to AB i.e., product of slopes of _____________,)
AB and OM is -1.
----~---------------------------------~
Y2 + Y1 -O
Slope of AB = m 1 = Y2 - Y1
; Slope of OM = m 2 = 2 Yi -
=- + Y1
-
~ -~ ~+~-0 ~+~
2
. Y2 -y1
.. m1m2=--- (1)
X2 -XI
As A and B lie on the circle, so
x12 + y~ =a 2 and
Their subtraction gives
~ Y22 - Y12 = X12 - X22 =- ( X22 - X12)

Putting this value in (1), we get
-
m1m2 --
(xi-x~)
2 2
-
--
1
(x2 -xi)
So OM is perpendicular to AB .
Theorem 5: Congruent chords of a circle are
equidistant from the centre.
Proof: Let x 2 + y 2 = a 2 be the circle in which
AB and CD are two congruent chords i.e., A
I AB I= ICD I and the coordinates of A, B, C and (x,, y,)
0 (0,0)
D be as in the figure. Also let OM and ON be the
perpendicular distances_of the chords from the
centre (0, 0) of the circle.
We know from theorem 2 that M and N
are the midpoints of AB and CD respectively.
\OM\2 = ( Yt: Y2 -O )' +( x,: x, -O )' = yf +Yi +xf +x~ +2x x2 +2y y 1 1 2
(·.·A and B lie on the circle.)

IOMI 2 = 2a2 + 2x1X2 + 2Y1Y2

4
(1)
2
Similarly IONl2 =a + X3X4 + Y3Y4 (2)
2
2 2
We know that IABl = ICDl (·:chords are congruent)
2 2 2
or (X2 -X1) 2 +(Y2 -y1) = (X4 -X3) +(y4 -y3)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
or X2+X1 +y2+Y1 -2x1X2- Y1Y2=x4+x3-2X3X4+y4+y3-2y3y4
2 2
or a 2 + a 2 -2x1x 2 -2y 1y 2 = a 2 + a 2 -2x3x 4 -2y 3y 4 (·: x~ + y1 = a etc)
or 2a 2 -2x1x 2 -2y 1y 2 =2a 2 -2x3x 4 -2y 3y 4 Challenge!
or x1x2 + y 1y 2 = x 3 x 4 + Y3Y 4 (3) State and prove the
converse of this theorem.
using (3), we note from (1) and (2) that
or IOM 12 =I ON 12 (using (1) and (2))

Theorem 6: Show that measure of the central
)'
angle of a minor arc is double the measure of the
angle subtended in the corresponding major arc.
2 2 2
Proof: Let the circle be x + y = a .
A(acose1'asin 0 1 ) and B(acose2 , a sin e1 ) be
end points of a minor arc AB. Let
x
P(acose,asinB) be a point on the major arc.
Central angle subtended by minor arc
AB isLAOB = B2 -el.
1
We need to show mLAPB=2<B2 -81)
2cos e +el sine-el

a(sine-sinB 1 ) 2 2
m1 =slope of AP = a(cos e - cos B ) = · + 1 · - e1
e e e
1 - 2 szn--szn--
2 2
=-co{ e:e1) =ta{~+ 8 : 81)

Similarly, (be symmetry)
m, =slope of BP=tan( ~ + 8 ~8' J

8 8 8 8
tan(!'._+ + '
_ tan(!'._+ + • J-: J
tan LAPB = m2 m1 = - 2 2 2 2 J - J
1 + m1m2 1 +tan ( -
n +B- +B -1 ) . tan ( -n +B- 2
+ B- J
2 2 2 2
=tan(~+ 8+82 -~- B+Bi )=

2 2 2 2 )
tan(B2 -81)
2
1
Hence mLAPB = -(82 -81)
2
Theorem 7: An angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.
Proof: Let x 2 + y 2 = a 2 be a circle, ~ith
centre 0. Let AOB be any diameter of the circle
and P(x 2, y 2) be any point on the circle.
We have to show that mLAPB = 90° .
BF--------~ (x,,y, )
Suppose the coordinates of A are (x1 , y 1 ) • (-x, .-y,
Then B has coordinates

(-xp-y 1). (Theorem 1)
y 1 -y 2
Slope of AP= = m1 , (say)
X1 -X2 Challenge!
State and prove the converse
Slope of BP= Yi+ Y2 = m2, (say)
X1 +X2 of this Theorem
2 2
mm = Y1 -y2 (1)
1 2 2 2
X1 -X2
Since A(x1 , y 1 ) and P(x 2 , y 2 ) lie on the circle, we have
X12 + Y12 =a 2 ~ X12 =a 2 - Yi2]
2 2 2 2 2 2 (2)
X2 + Y2 = a ~ X2 = a - Y2
Substituting the values of x; and x~ from (2) into (1), we get
1 2
1' - y
= _:_! __ . 2 - = -1
2 ?
-(yl -y;)
Thus AP .l_ BP and so mLAPB =90
Theorem 8: The tangent to a circle at any point of
the circle is ·perpendicular to the radial segment at
that point.
Proof: Let PT be the tangent to the circle 0
x
2 2
+ y2 = a at any point P( x 1 .J'i) lying on it. We
have to show that the radial segment OP
Differentiating x + y 2 2
=a 2
J_
,
PT .
we have
._l__
p T
dy dy x
2x+2y.-- =0 ~ - = - -
dx dx y
Slope of the tangent at P = dyl = - Xi

dx P Y1
Slope of OP°=- Yi - O = 11_

x 1 -0 x 1
Product of slopes of OP and PT = - Xi • 2i =-1

Y1 X1
Thus OP .l_ PT.

Theorem 9: The perpendicular at the outer end of a
radial segment is tangent to the circle.
Proof: Let PT be the perpendicular to the outer
end of the radial segment OP of the circle
2
x + y2 = a 2 . We have to show that PT is
tangent to the circle at P . Suppose the coordinates
of Pare (xpy 1 ).
Since PT is perpendicular to OP so
.'
Slope of PT = -l = =-!_ = - Xi
Slopeof OP Y1 Y1
XI
Equation of PT is y - y 1 = - Xi (x - x 1 )
Y1
2
or YY1 - y = -xx1 +x12
or YY1 + XX1 = Y12 + X12 = a 2 (·:Plies on the circle)
or yy 1 +xx1 -a 2 =0
Distance of PT from 0 (centre of the circle)
JY1 (0) + X1 (O)-a2J Ja2J a2

= = G =- =a (radius of the circle)
~x2 + y2 -va- a
Thus PT is tangent to the circle at P(x 1 , y 1 )
EXERCISE 6.3
1. Prove that normal lines of a circle pass through the centre of the circle.
2. Prove that the straight line drawn from the centre of a circle perpendicular to a
tangent passes through the point of tangency.
3. Prove that the mid point of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is the circumcentre
of the triangle.
4. Prove that the perpendicular dropped from a point of a circle on a diameter is a
mean proportional between the segments into which it divides the diameter.
6.4 CONIC SECTION

In the following pages we shall study the remaining three conics.
Let L be a fixed line in a plane and F be a fixed point not on the line L.
Suppose jP¥1 denotes the distance of a point P(x, y) from the line L. The set of
all points P in the plane such that
jPFj
jPMj = e (a positive constant)
is called a conic section.

(i) If e = 1, then the conic is a parabola.
(ii) If 0 < e < 1, then the conic is an ellipse.
(iii) If e > 1, then the conic is a hyperbola.
The fixed line L is called a directrix and the fixed point F is called a focus of
the conic. The number e is called the eccentricity of the conic.
6.4.1 PARABOLA
We have already stated that a conic section is a parabola if e = I
We shall first derive an equation of a parabola in the standard form and study
its important properties.
If we take the focus of the parabola as F(a,O), a > 0 and its directrix as line L
whose equation is x =-a, then its equation becomes very simple.
Let P(x. y) be a point on the parabola. So, by definition
jPFj = 1. or jPFj=jPMj
IPM j
Now jPMj=x+a
and iPFj =~(x-a) 2 +(y-0)2

Substituting into (l), we get
~(x-a) 2 + y2 = x+a
or (x-a) 2 + y2 = (x+a) 2
or Iy 2 = (x + a) 2 - (x
2
- a) = 4ax or y
2
=4ax I (2)
which is standard equation of the parabola.
Definitions
(i) The line through the focus and perpendicular to the directrix is called axis
of the parabola. In case of (2), the axis is y = 0.
(ii) The point where the axis meets the parabola is called vertex of the parabola.
Clearly the equation (2) has vertex A(0,0). The line through A and
perpendicular to the axis of the parabola has equation x = 0 . It meets the
parabola at coincident points and so it is a tangent to the curve at A.
(iii) A Jine joining two distinct points on a parabola is called a chord of the
parabola. A chord passing through the focus of a parabola is called a focal
chord of the parabola. The focal chord perpendicular to the axis of the parabola
( l) j s called latusrectum of the parabola. It has an equation x = a and it
intersects the curve at the points where
)'2 = 4a2 or y=±2a

Thus coordinates of the end points L and L' of the latusrectum are
'L(a,2a) and L'(a,-2a).
The length of the latusrectum is ILL'I =4a.

(iv) The point (at 2 , 2at) lies on the parabola y2 = 4a.x for any real t.
x = at 2 , y = 2at
are called parametric equation& of the parabola y 2 = 4ax .
6.4.2 General Form of an Equation of a Parabola.

Let F(h,k) be the focus and the line lx+my+n =0 be the directrix of a
parabola. An equation of the parabola can be derived by the definition of the
parabola . Let P(x, y) be a point on the parabola. Length of the perpendicular PM
from P(x, y) to the directix is given by;
Jlx+my+nJ 2
IPMI-- .J12 +m2 .

Le.,
(
X
-/) 2
'l + ( Y -k)2 -_ (lx+my+n)
2
l +m
2
is an equation of the required parabola.
A second degree equation of the form

2 2
ax + by + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0
with either a= 0 or b = 0 but not both zero, represents a parabola. The equation can
be analyzed by completing the square.
6.4.3 Other Standard parabolas

There are other choices for the focus and directrix which also give standard
equations of parabolas.
(i) If the focus lies on the y-axis with coordinates F(O,a) and directrix of the
parabola is y = -a, then equation of the parabola is
2
x = 4ay (3)
The equation can be derived by definition
(ii) If the focus is F(O,-a) and directrix is the line y =a, then equation of the
parabola is
x 2 = -4ay (4)
Opening of the parabola is upwards in case of (3) and downwards in case
of (4). Both the curves are symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
The graphs of (3) and (4) are shown below.
y y
0
F(O, a)
F(O,-a)
(iii) If the focus of the parabola is F(-a,0), and its directrix is the line x =a, then
equation of the parabola is
y2 = -4ax.
The curve is symmetric with
respect to the x-axis and lies in the
second and third quadrants only.
Opening of the parabola is to the left as
shown in the figure
6.4.4 Graph the Parabola

y 2 = 4ax (1)
We note that corresponding to each positive value of x there are two equal
and opposite values of y. Thus the curve is symmetric with respect to the x-axis.
The curve passes through the origin and x =0 is y
tangent to the curve at (0,0). If xis negative, then
y2 is negative and so y is imaginary. Thus no
portion of the curve lies on the left of the y - axis.
As x increases, y also increases numerically so
that the curve extends to infinity and lies in the
first and fourth quadrants. Opening of the --~~~~~~~~~~--
parabola is to the right of y - axis.

Sketching graphs of other standard parabolas is similar and is left as an exercise.
Summary of Standard Parabolas
Sr.No. 1 2 3 4
Equation y
2
= 4ax 2
y =-4ax x 2 =4ay x 2 = -4ay
Focus (a, o) (-a, o) (o, a) (o. -a)
Directrix x=-a x=a y =-a y=a
Vertex (o,o) (o,o) (0,0) (o,o)
Axis y=O y=O x=O x=O
Latusrectum x=a x=-a y =a y =-a
-~)'
\:' )
+E·
I
Graph
~
0
x
0 '
;\ '
Example 1: Analyze the parabola x 2 = -16 y and draw its graph.

Solution: We compare the given equation
with x 2 = -4ay )'
Here 4a =16 or a=4.

0
The focus of the parabola lies on the
y-axis and its opening is downward.
Coordinates of the focus= (0, -4). F(0,-4)
Equation of axis is x =0
Length of the latusrectum is 16 and y = 0 is tangent to the parabola at its vertex.
The shape of the curve is as shown in the figure.
Example 2: Find an equation of the parabola whose focus is F (-3, 4) and directrix
is 3x-4y+5 =0.
Solution: Let P (x, y) be a -point on the parabola. Lentgh of the perpendicular
/PM/ from P(x,y)tothedirectrix 3x-4y+5=0 is
/PM/= /3x-4y+5/
~3 2 +(-4)2
2 2
By definition, /PF/ =/PM/ or /PF / =/PM1
2
or (x+ 3) 2 + ( y- 4 )2 = (3x-4v+5)
-
25
or 25(x 2 +6x+9+ y 2 -8y+16)= 9x 2 +16y 2 +25-24.xy+30x-40y
or 16x 2 +24.xy+9y 2 +120x-160y+600=0

is an equation of the required parabola.
Example 3: Analyze the parabola
x
2
- 4x - 3 y + 13 = 0 (1)
and sketch its graph

Solution: The given equation may be written as
x2 - 4x + 4 = 3 y - 9
or (x - 2)
2
=3(y - 3). (2)
Let x-2=X, y-3=Y
The equation (2) becomes X 2 = 3Y (3)

3
which is a parabola whose focus lies on X = 0 and whose directrix is Y = - .
4
Thus coordinates of the focus of (3) are
-3 .
X=O Y= -
' 4
3
i.e., x-2= 0 and y-3= -
4
15
or x = 2, )' = -
4
y
Thus coordinates of the focus of the -F(2, 15/4)
parabola (1) are (2. 1:) A (2.3) y = 914
Z(2,9/4)
Axis of (3) is X =0 or x-2 = 0 ---0-l----+--x-=~2=-----x
is the axis of (I)
Vertex of (3) has coordinates
x = 0, y = 0
or x - 2 = 0, y - 3 = 0
i.e., x = 2, y = 3 are coordinates of the vertex of (1 ).

Equation of the directrix of (3) is
3 . 3
y = -- 1.e., y- 3 = -- or y = -9 . of the ct•irectnx
. an equation
is . of (1)
· .
4 4 4
Magnitude of the latusrectum of the parabola (3) and also of (1) is 3.
The graph of (1) can easily be sketched and is as shown in the above figure.
Theorem 1: The point of a parabola which is closest to the focus is the vertex
of the parabola
Proof: Let the parabola be y
x
2
= 4ay ,a > 0
with focus at F (0, a) and P(x, y) be any
point on the parabola.
---"'--+--===------- x
0
jPFI = ,jx2 +(y-a)2
A (0,0)
= ~4ay+(y-a) 2
= y+a
Since y can take up only non-negative values, jPFI is minimum when y = 0.
Thus P coincides with A so that all points on the parabola, its vertex A it is closest
to the focus.
Example 4: A comet has a parabolic orbit with the sun at the focus . When the comet
is 100 million km from the sun, the line joining the sun and the comet makes an angle
of 60° with the axis of the parabola. How close will the comet get to the sun?
Solution: Let the sun S be the origin. If the vertex A of the parabola ZM has
coordinates (-a, 0) then directrix
of the parabola is
x =-2a, (a >O)
if the comet is at P(x, y). then
z
by definition IPsj;,,, jPMI
i.e., x 2 +y 2 =(x+2a) 2
or y
2
· = 4ax + 4a2 is orbit of the comet
jPsl =~ x2 + y 2
Now = x+2a = 100,000,000
The comet is closest to the sun when it is at A.
Now x = PScos60°
= jPsj = x+2a
Ix I 2 2
x+2a 2 x+2a
or or ~ = 2, (lxl = l-2al = 2a)
x 1
or
100,000,000 =2
2a
or a =25,000,000
Thus the comet is closet to the sun when it is 25,000,000 km from the sun.
Reflecting Property of the parabola.
A frequently used property of a parabola is its reflecting property. If a light
source is placed at the focus of a parabolic reflecting surface then a light ray
travelling from F to a point Pon the parabola will be reflected in the direction PR
parallel to the axes of the parabola.
The designs of searchlights, reflecting telescopes and microwave antenas are

based on reflecting property of the parabola.
Another application of the
parabola is in a suspension bridge.
The main cables are of parabolic
shape. The total weight of the bridge
is uniformly distributed along its
length if the shape of the cables is
parabolic. Cables in any other shape
will not carry the weight evenly.
Example 5: A suspension bridge with weight uniformly distributed along the
length has two towers of 100 m height above the road surface and are 400 m apart.
The cables are parabolic in shape and are tangent to road surface at the centre of
the btidge. Find the height of the cables at a point 100 m from the centre.
Solution: The parabola formed by the

cables has A(O,O) as vertex and focus p (~ ' ] ~200, 100)
on the y-axis. An equation of this
parabola is x 2 = 4ay .
A (0 , 0)
The point Q(200,100) lies on the parabola and so
(200) 2 = 4a x 100
or a =100
Thus an equation of the parabola is
2
x = 400y. (1)
To find the height of the cables when x = 100, we have from (1)
(100) 2 = 400y
or y=25
Thus required height = 25 m
EXERCISE 6.4
1. Find the focus. vertex and directix of the parabola sketch its graph.
2
(i) y =8x (ii) x 2 =-16y (iii) x 2 =5y
(iv) y
2
= -12x (v) x 2 = 4(y -1) (vi) y2 = -8(x-3)
(vii) (x-1) 2 =8(y+2) (viii) y = 6x 2 -J (ix) x+8-y2+2y=O
(x) x 2 -4x-8y+4=0
2. Write an equation of the parabola with given elements.
(i) Focus ( - 3, l); directrix x =3 (ii) Focus (2, 5); directrix y =1

(iii) Focus ( -3, l); directrix x-2y-3 = 0 (iv) Focus (1, 2); vertex (3, 2)
(v) Focus (-1, 0); vertex (-1. 2) (vi) Directrix x = -2, Focus (2. 2)
(vii)Directrix y = 3 ; vertex (2, 2)
(viii) Directrix y = 1, length of latusrectum is 8. Opens downward.
(ix) Axis y = 0, through (2, 1) and (11, -2)
(x) Axis parallal to y-axis, the points (0, 3), (3, 4) and (4, 11) lie on the graph.
3. Find an equation of the parabola having its focus at the origin and directrix
parallel to the (i) the x-axis (ii) they - axis.
Show that an equation of the parabola with focus at (a cos a, a sin a) and directrix
xcosa+ysina + a=Ois
2
(xsina - ycosa) = 4a(xcosa+ysina)
,. Show that the ordinate at any point P of the parabola is a mean proportional
between the length of the latusrectum and the abscissa of P.
6. A comet has a parabolic orbit with the earth at the focus. When the comet is
150,000 km from the earth, the line joining the comet and the earth makes an
angle of 30 with the axis of the parabola. How dose will the comet come to·
the earth?
7. Find an equation of the parabola formed by the cables of a suspension bridge
whose span is a m and the vertical height of the supporting towers is b m.
8. A parabolic arch has a 100 m base and height 25 m. Find the height of the arch
at the point 30 m from the centre of the base.
9. Show that tangent at any point P of a parabola makes equal angles with the line
PF and the line through P parallel to the axis of the parabola, F being focus.
(These angles are called respectively angle of incidence and angle of
reflection).
6.5 ELLIPSE AND ITS ELEMENTS

We have already stated that a conic section is an ellipse if e < 1.
Let 0 < e < 1 and F be a fixed point and L be a fixed line not containing F. Let
P(x, y) be a point in the plane and IPMI be the perpendicular distance of P from L.
The set of all points P such that
is called an ellipse.
The number e is eccentricity of the ellipse, Fa focus and La directrix.
6.5.1 Standard Form of an Ellipse
Let F(-c,0) be the focus and the line x =- ~
be the directrix of an ellipse
e
with eccentricity e, (0<e<1). Let P(x, y) be any point on the ellipse and
suppose that IPMI is the perpendicular distance of P from the directrix. Then
IPMj=x+~
e
The condition IPFI = elPMI takes the analytic form
.-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--.
J y
M p (x,y)
J
2
(x+c) + y' =e'( x+ :,
z
0
x=~
e2
I
F(-c,O)
~ x
--- -- --~---- -
2
2 2
or x +2cx+c +y 2 =e 2 x 2 +2cx+; or
e
or x\1-e 2)+y 2 =a 2(1-e 2), where ~=a
e
x2 y2
or -+ =1 (I)
0 2 a2(1-e2)
If we write b 2 =a 2 (1-e 2 ), then(l)takestheform
£+L=1
a2 b2 (2)
wh~ch is an equation of the ellipse in the standard form.
Moreover, eccertricity of the ellipse is e = ..!:__ •
a
We have b 2 = a\l-e 2 )
= az -a2e2 =a2 -c2
(i) From the relation b 2 = a 2(l-e 2), we note that b <a
(ii) Since we set ~ = a, the focus F has coordinates (-ae,0) and equation
e
of the directrix is x = - a .
e
(iii) If we take the point (ae,O) as focus and the line x = !!:... as directrix, it
e
can be seen easily that we again obtain equation (2). Thus the ellipse (2) has two foci
(-ae,O) and (ae,O) and two directrices x = ±!!:....
e
(iv) The point (acosB,bsinB) lies on (2) for all real 0. x = acosB,
y = b sin() are called parametric equations of the ellipse (2).
(v) If in (2), b =a then it becomes
x2 + y2 = a2
2
which is a circle. In this case b = a 2 (l-e 2 ) = a 2 and so e = 0. Thus circle is a
special case of an ellipse with eccenctricty 0 and foci tending to the centre.
Definitions: Let F' and F be two foci of the ellipse
x2 y2
-+-=1 (1)
a2 b2
284 Cairn/us and Analytic Geometry
\I
M B (Q, b) M'
x =-c
-,
e-
z Z'
L
8(0. -b)
(i) The midpoint C of FF' is called the centre of the ellipse. In case of (1)
coordinates of Care (0. 0).
(ii) The Intersections of (I) with the line joining the foci -are obtained by
settingy= 0 into (I). These are the pointsA'(-a, 0) andA(a, 0). The points
A and A' are called vertices of the ellipse.
(iii) The line segment A A'= 2a is called the major axis of the ellipse. The line
through the centre of ( 1) and perpendicular to the major axis has its
equation as x = 0 . lt meets (1) at points B'(O, b) and B(O, -b) . The
line segment BB' = 2b is called the minor axis of the ellipse and B', B
1 ? ~
are sometimes called the covertices of the ellipse. Since b- =a- (1 - e-)
and e < 1, the length of the major axis is greater than the length of the
minor axis. (See figure)
(iv) Foci of an ellipse always lie on the major axis.
(v) Each of the focal chords LF L' and NF'N' perpendicular to the major
axis of an ellipse is called a latusrectum of the ellipse. Thus there are
two laterarecta of an ellipse. It is an easy exercise to find the
2b 2
length of each latusrectum is - - . {See problem 5}
a
(vi) If the foci lie on the y-axis with coordinates (0, -ae) and (0, ae), then
equation of the ellipse is.
x2 y2
- , + -, = 1. a > b.
b- a-
The reader is urged to derive this equation.

6.5.2 Graph of an Ellipse

Let an equation of the ellipse be
x2 y 2
-2+- 2 =1. (1)
a b
Since only even powers of both x and y occur in (1), the curve is symmetric
with respect to both the axes.
From (1 ), we note that
x2 y2
-
2
~ 1 and - 2 ~ 1
a b
I.e., x2 ~ a2 and y 2 ~ b 2
or -a~ x ~a and -b ~ y ~ b (2)
Thus all points of the ellipse lie on or within the rectangle (2). The curve meets
the ~-axis at A(-a, 0) and A'(-a, 0) and it meets the y-axis at B(O,-b ), B' (0, b) .
The graph of the ellipse can easily be drawn as shown in the following figure.
)'
B'(O , b)
F(-c , 0) F'(c , 0 )
A (-a , 0) A'(a , 0)
c (0 , 0)
B x
C(O, 0) B' (b, 0)
(-b, 0) B (0,-b ) (i)
(ii)
A (O,-a)
4
The graph of the ellipse

2 2
x y
- + - = 1 a>b
b2 a2 '
can be sketched as in the case of (1). Its shape is shown in above figure (ii).
Summary of standard Ellipses

Equation x2 Y2 x2 )'2
-, +-, = 1,a > b
a- b- I
I
-,+-
b" a 2
=1,a>b
c2 = a2 -b2 I c2=a2-b2
Focus (±c, 0) (0, ±c)
Directrices c c
x=±-., v=+-
- - 2
e e
:M ajor axis y=O x=O
· Vertices (±a, 0) (0, ±a)
Covertices (0, ±b) (±b, 0)
Centre (0, 0) (0, 0)
c c
Eccentricity e=-<1 e=-<I
a a
y
I y
'
/\
.r:
B'
Graph c ~A' x B
c -x
-~ _/
B'
Fig. l B Fig.2 \_cJ A
Note: In each ellipse

Length of major axis = 2a, Length of minor axis= 2b.
Length of Latusrectum ~ - - , Foc1- r1e on the major axis.

2b2
a
Example 1: Find an equation of the ellipse having centre at (0,0), focus at (0,-3)
and one vertex at (0,4). Sketch its graph.
Solution: The second vertex has coordinates (0, -4).
Length of the semi-major axis is
,.-------------------.
y
a=4 A'(O, 4)
Also c=3
From p2 = a2 - c 2 , we have F'( 0,-3)

2
b =16-9=7
B(-J7, 0) B'( fi,O)
b= .J7 which is length of x
c
the semi-minor axis.
Since the foci lie on the y-axis, F(O, 3)
equation of the el1ipse is
y2 x2
-+-=l. A (0,-4)
16 7
The graph is as shown above
Example 2: , Analyze the equation
4x 2 +9y 2 = 36 (1)
and sketch its graph

Solution: The given equation may be written as
x2 y2
,.-----------------"\
y
-+-=1 B'(O, 2)
9 4
which is standard form of an ellipse.
F ( .JS,O) F '( .JS,O)
Semi-major axis a =3 A~~-3~·~0)~--1-----1-------+---+---+X
11'(3,0)
Semi-minor axis b =2 c (0' 0)
From b 2 = a 2 -c 2 we have B (0,-2)
'
c =b - a = 9- 4 = 5 '---------~------_...;
2 2 2
or c =±JS
Foci: F(-J5,0), F'(J5,0); Vertices: A( - 3,0), A'(3,0)
Covertices: B(0,-2),B'(0,2) ; . . c
Eccentnc1ty = - = - -..
f5
a 3
Directrices:
c .[5 9 2b 2
x = + - 2 = + - = +--; Length of latusrectum = -
4
=- .
- e - 519 - f5 a 3
The graph is as shown above.
Example 3: Show that the equation

9x -18x+4y 2 +Sy-23 =0
2
(1)
represents an ellipse. Find its elements and sketch its graph.
Solution: We complete the squares in ( 1) and it becomes
(9x 2 -18x+9)+(4y 2 +8y+4)-36=0
or 9(x-1) 2 +4(y+l) 2 =36
(x-1)2 + (y+l)2 · =l
or (2)
4 9
If we set x - 1 = X, y + 1 = Y in (2), it becomes
x2 y2
-+-=1 (3)
22 32
which is an ellipse with major axis along X = 0 i.e., along the line x-1=0 (i.e., a
line parallel to the y-axis)
Semi-major axis= 3, Semi-minor axis = 2
c = .J9 - 4 = J5, Eccentricity = .!!.._ = J5 .

a 3
Centre of (2) is X = 0, Y = O
or x=l, y=-1 i.e., (1,-l)iscentreof(l)
The foci of (2) are
x =0, y =±JS
i.e., .X-1 =0, y + 1 =±.JS

i.e., (1,-l+.J5) and (1,-1-JS) arefociof(l).
Vertices of (2) are
X =0, Y = ±3 i.e., x = 1, y =-1±3
or (1,-4) and (1, 2)
y
are the vertices of (1).
Covertices of (2) are
x =±2, Y=O
i.e., x -1 = ±2, y + 1 = 0 B
(-1,-1)
or (-1,-1) and (3,-1)
are the covertices of (1 ).
A (1 , -4)
The graph of (1) is as shown
Example 4: An arch in the form of half an ellipse is 40 m wide and 15 m high at

the centre. Find the height of the arch at a distance of 10 m from its centre.
Solution: Let the x-axis be along the base of the arch and the y-axis pass through its
centre. An equation of the ellipse representing the arch is
__£_+L=1
2 2
(1)
20 15
.Let the height of arch at a distance of 10 m from the centre bey. Then the points
(10, y) lies on (1 ).
For. x = 10, we have

B(O, 15)
P(l 0, 0)
15./3
so that y = - - A(-20, 0) C A'(20, 0)
2
. d heig
Require . ht =-152./3- m.
EXERCISE 6.5
1. Find an equation of the ellipse with given data and sketch its graph:
(i) Foci (±3,0) and minor axis of length 10
(ii) Foci (0,-1) and (0,-5) and major axis of length 6.
(iii) Foci (-3J3,0) and vertices (±6,0)
(iv) Verti~s (-1, J ), (5, I); foci (4, 1) and (0, 1)
(v) Foci (±J5,0) and passing through the point ( %,J3)

(vi) Vertic•s (0, ± 5), eccentricity ~.
' 5
(vii) Centri (0,0), focus (0, - 3 ), vertex (0,4)
(viii) Centre (2, 2), major axis parallel to y-axis and of length 8 units, minor
axis parallel to x -axis and of length 6 units.
(ix) Centre (0, 0), symmetric with respect to both the axes and passing
through the points (2, 3) and (6, 1).
(x) Centre (0, 0), major axis horizontal, the points (3, 1), (4, 0) lie on the
graph.
2. Find the centre, foci, eccentricity, vertices and directrices of the ellipse
whose equation is given:
(i)
2
'
x +4y 2 =16 2
(i) 9x + y = 18
2
2 (2x -1) 2 (y + 2) 2
(iii) 25x + 9y 2 = 225 (iv) + =1
4 16
2 2
(v) x +16x+4y -16y+76=0 (vi) 25x 2 +4y 2 -250x-16y+541=0
3. Letabeapositivenumberand O<c<a. Let F(-c,O) and F'(c,O) be two
given points. Prove that the locus of points P(x, y) such that
jPFj + jPF1=2a, is an ellipse.
4. Use problem Jto find equation of the ellipse as locus of points P(x, y) such that
the sum of the distances from P to the points (0,0) and ( 1, 1) is 2.
5. Prove that the lactusrectum of the ellipse.

x2 2 2b2
-+L=1
2 2
is
a b a
6. The major axis of an ellipse in standard form lies along the x-axis and has length
4/2. The distance between the foci equals the length of the minor axis. Write
an equation of the ellipse.
7. An astroid has elliptic orbit with the sun at one focus. Its distance from the sun
ranges from 17 million miles to 183 million miles. Write an equation of the orbit
of the astroid.
8. An arch in the shape of a semi-ellipse is 90m wide at the base and 30m high at
the centre. At what distance from the centre is the arch 20/2 m high?
9. The moon orbits. the earth in an elliptic path ·with earth at one focus. The major
and minor axes of the orbit are 768,806 km and 767,746 km respectively. Find the
greatest and least distances (in Astronomy called the apogee and perigee
respectively) of the moon from the earth.
6.6 HYPERBOLA AND ITS ELEMENTS

We have already stated that a conic section is a hyperbola if e > 1. Let e > 1
and F be a fixed point and L be a line not containing F. Also let P(x, y) be a point in
the plane and jPMj be the perpendicular distance of P from L.
The set of all points P(x, y) such that
(1)
is called a hyperbola.
F and L are respectively focus and directrix of the hyperbola e is the
eccentricity.
6.6.1 Standard Equation of Hyperbola
Let F(c, 0) be the focus with c > 0 and x =~ be the directrix of the hyperbola.
e
Also let P(x, y) be a point on the hyperbola, then by definition
y
c
x=7
jPFj M p (x,y)
--=e
jPMj
0 (0, 0) z
\F (c , 0)
x
2 2
. 2 2 2( x--;zc )
i.e.,(x-c) +y =e or x 2 -2cx+c 2 + y 2 = e 2 x 2 -2cx+~
e
2
or x 2 (e 2 -1)-y 2 =c 2(
1 -1-) =-(e
c 2
-1) (2)
e1 e1
c
Let us set a = - , so that (2) becomes
e
x2 y2
or -2- -2- = 1
a2 a (e -1)
x2 y2
or ---=1 (3)
a1 b2 ·
where b 2 =a 2 (e-i -l)=c 2 -a 2 ·: c = ae
(3) is standard equation of the hyperbola.
It is clear that the curve is symmetric with respect to both the axes.
If we take the point ( - c , 0)
-c
as focus and the line x = - -
e2
as directrix, then it is easy to see
that the set of all points
P(x, y) such that
IPFl=elPMI
is hyperbola with (3) as its
equation.
Thus a hyperbola has two foci and two directrices.
If the foci lie on the y-axis , then roles of x and y are interchanged in (3) and the
equation of the hyperbola becomes
y2 x2
-
a1
- - b2
=1.
Definition: The hyperbola

x2 y2
---=1 (1)
a1 b2 •.
meets the x-axis atpoints with y = 0 and x =±a. The points A(-a,0) and A'(a,0)
are called vertices of the hyperbola. The line s.egament AA' = 2a is called the
transverse (or focal) axis of the hyperbola (3). The equation (3) does not meet the
y-axis in real points. However the line segment joining the points B(O,-b) and
B'(0, b) is called the conjugate axis of the hyperbola. The midpoint (0, 0) of AA' is
called the centre of the hype~bola.
In case of hyperbola (3), we have
b =a (e -l)=c -a 2 • The eccentricity e=~> 1.

2 2 2 2
a
so that, unlike the ellipse, we may have b >a or b <a or . b =a
2 2
(ii) The point (a sec(), b tan B) lies on the hyperbola ~ --;- = 1 for all real values of
a b
0. The equations x = a sec() , y = b tan a are called parametric equations of the
hyperbola. ·
(iii) Since y = ±!!_..Jx 2 - a

2
, when jxj is very large, so that x 2 -a
2
~ x 2 , we have
a
b . x2 y2
y=±- x. i.e., 2 - 2 (2)
a a b
The lines (2) do not meet the curve but distance of any point on the curve from
any of the two lines approaches zero. Such lines are called asymptotes of a curve.
Joint equation of the asymptotes of (3) is obtained by writing 0 instead of 1 on the
right hand side of the standard form (3). Asymptotes are very helpful in graphing a
hyperbola.
The ellipse and hyperbola are called central conics because each has a centre of
symmetry.
6.6.2 Graph of the Hyperbola.
x2 y2
---=1 (1)
a2 b2
The curve is symmetric with respect to both the axes. We rewrite (1) as
y2 x2 2 b 2
2
2
-=--1 or y =-(x -a)
b2 a2 a2
or b
y=±-x 2
-a 2 .J (2)
a
If JxJ < a, then y is imaginary so that no portion of the curve lies between
-a<x<a. For xC::.a,y=!!_~x 2 -a 2 $bx

a a
b
so that points on the curve lie below the corresponding points on the line y =- x
a
in first quadrant.
y=-!!_~x 2 -a 2 C::. -bx, if x?:.a
a a
and in this case the points on the curve lie above the line y = - b x in fourth
quadrant a
If x $ -a, then by similar arguments, y = !!_ ~ x 2 - a 2 lies below the corresponding
a
.
pomt on y =--b x. in second y
a
y= ~ x
quadrant. If y = -b ~x 2 -a 2 ,
a
then points on the curve lie
above the correspondent point
F(c,0)
on y =b x in third quadrant.
a
Thus there are two branches of
the curve. Moreover, from (2) we
see that as !xi ~ oo I YI ~ oo
so that the two branches extend
to infinity
Summary of Standard Hyperbolas

Equation y2 x2
x2 y2
---=1 ---=1
a2 b2 ai b2
Foci (±c, 0) (0, ±c)
Directrices c c
x=+-
- 2 y=+-
e - e2
Transverse y=O x=O

axis
Vertices (±a, 0) (0, ±a)

c c
Eccentricity e=->1 e=->1
a a
Centre (0, 0) (0, 0)
y
M' y M
P(x. y)
A
M
F' A' z A F
x z x
Graph Z' C C(O. 0)
CO, O
M'
Fig. 1
Example 1: Find an equation of the hyperbola whose foci are (±4,0) and vertices
(±2,0). Sketch its graph. )'
Solution: The centre of the hyperbola

is the origin and the transverse axis is
along the x-axis. Here c = 4 and a = 2
so that b 2 =c -a 2 =16-4 = 12.
2
x'---:-:--=*c:-----:)IE---:t------ -+ x
Therefore, the equation is
x2 y2
---=l.
4 12
The graph of the curve is as shown
Example 2: Discuss and sketch the graph of the equation

25x 2 -16y 2 = 400 (1)
Solution: The given equation is
x2 y2 x2 y2
---=1 or ---=1
16 25 42 52
which is an equation of the hyperbola with transverse axis along the x-axis.
Here a = 4, b = 5
From b
2
=c 2 - a 2 , we have
= 34 or c = ±J34
2 y
c
Foci of the hyperbola are: (±J34,o)
Vertices: (±4,0)
Ends of the conjugate axes are the points (0,±5)
. . c J34
Eccentnc1ty: e = - = - - _v'
a 4
b 5
The curve is below the lines y = ±- x = ±-x which are its asymptotes. The
a 4
sketch of the curve is as shown.
Example 3. Find the eccentricity, the coordinates of the vertices and foci of the
asymptotes of the hyperbola
y2 x2
---=l (1)
16 49
Also sketch its graph.
Solution. The transverse axis of (I) lies along the y-axis. Coordinates of the vertices
are (0,±4). y
.Here a=4, b=7 so that from c 2 =a 2 +b~ we get F(0 • ./65
c
2
= 16 + 49 or c= J65
Foci are: ( 0,±J65)
Ends of the conjugate axis are (± 7, 0)
. . c
Eccentnc1ty = - = - -
J65 F'(0,-./65
a 4 y'
x=±7, y=±4
The graph of the curve is as shown.
Example 4. Discuss and sketch the graph of the equation
4x 2 - 8x - y2 - 2 y -1 = 0 (1)
Solution: Completing the squares in x and y in the given equation, we have
2
4(x - 2x + 1) - (y2 + 2 y + 1) = 4
2
or 4(x -1) - (y + 1) 2 = 4
(x-1)2 - (y+l)2 =1
or (2)
12 22
We write x-1 = X, y + 1 = Y in (2), to have
x2 y2
---=1 (3)
12 22
so that it is a hyperbola with centre at X = 0, Y = 0 i.e., the centre of (1) is
(1, -1 ). The transverse axis of (3) is Y = 0 i.e., y + 1 = 0 is the transverse axis of
(1). Vertices of (3) are: X = ±1, y = 0
i.e., x-1=±1, y+l=O or (0, -1) and(2,-1)
Here a= 1 and b = 2 so that, we have c = .Jc 2 +b 2 = .J5

Eccentricity e = ~ = .J5
a
Foci of (3) are : X =±.JS, Y = 0

i.e., x = 1 ± .J5 and y = -1
i.e., (1+.J5,-1) and (1-.J5,-1)
are foci of (1).
Equations of the directrices of (3) are: X = ±~ = ± .J5 = ± ~

e 5 "1/5
1 1 1
or x-1 =± .J5 or x=l+- and x=l--
.J5 .J5
The sketch of the curve is as shown.
EXERCISE 6.6
1. Find an equation of the hyperbola with the given data. Sketch the graph of each.
(i) Centre (0, 0), focus (6, 0), vertex (4, 0)
(ii) Foci (±5,0), vertex (3, 0)
(iii) Foci (2 ± 5Ji,-7), length of the transverse axis 10.
(iv) Foci (0, ± 6), e = 2
(v) Foci (0,±9), directrices y = ±4.

(vi) Centre (2, 2), horizontal transverse axis of length 6 and eccentricity e = 2.
(vii) Vertices (2, ± 3), (0, 5) lies on the curve.
(viii) Foci (5, -2), (5, 4) and one vertex (5, 3).
2. Find the centre, foci, eccentricity. vertices and equations of diretrices of each of the
following:
x2 )'2
(i) x2 -y2 = 9 (ii) ---=1
4 9
2 2
v2
(iii) L-~=1 (iv) _.--x2 =l
16 9 4
(x-1)2 (y-1)2 =l (y + 2)2 (x-2)2 =l
(v) (vi)
2 9 9 16
(vii) 9x 2 -12x - y 2 - 2y + 2 = 0 (viii) 4y2+12y-x 2 +4x+1=0
9x -/-~6x-6y+l8=0
2
(ix) x 2 -y 2 +8x-2y-10=0 (x)
3. Let 0 <a< c and F'(-c, 0), F(c,0) be two fixed points. Show that the set of
points P(x, y) such that
2
IPFl-IPF1 = ±2a, is the hyperbola~a
-
(F, F' are foci of the hyperbola)

4. Using Problem 3, find an equation of the hyperbola with foci (-5, -5) and (5, 5),
vertices ( - 3./2,-3./2) and (3./2,3./2 ).
5. For any point on the hyperbola the difference of its distances from the points
(2, 2) and (10, 2) is 6. Find an equation of the hyperbola.
6. Two listening posts hear the sound of an enemy gun. The difference in time is
one second. If the listening posts are 1400 feet apart, write an equation of the
hyperbola passing through the position of the enemy gum. (Sound travels at
1080 ft/sec).
6.7 TANGENTS AND NORMALS

We have already seen in the geometrical interpretation of the derivative of a
dy
curve y =ft..x) or f (x, y) =0 that - represents the slope of the tangent line to the
dx
cu(ve at the point (x, y). In order to find an equation of the tangent to a given conic
at some point on the conic, we shall first find the slope of the tangent at the given
point by calculating dy from the equation of the conic at that point and then using
dx
the point - slope form of a line it will be quite simple to write an equation of the
tangent. Since the normal to a curve at a point on the curve is perpendicular to the
tangent through the point of tangency, its equation can be easily written.
Example 1: Find equations of the tangent and normal to
2
(i) y = 4ax (1)
x2 y2
(ii) -+-=l (2)
a2 b2
x2 y2
(iii) ---=1 (3)
02 b2
at the point (x" Y1 ).

Solution: (i). Differentiating (I) w .r.t. x, we get
2y dy = 4a or
dy 2a
dx dx y
-dy] = -2a = Slope of the tangent at (x 1 , y 1 )

dx (x,.y,) Y·
Equation of the tangent to (I) at (xi' y 1 ) is
2a 2
y- y 1 = -(x-x 1) or yy 1 - y 1 = 2ax-2ax1 or yy 1 -2ax = yf -2ax1
Yi
Adding - 2ax 1 to both sides of the above equation, we obtain
yy 1 -2a(x+x 1 ) = y~ -4ax 1
since (x 1 , y 1 ) lies on y2 = 4ax and so y~ -4ax1 = 0
Thus equation of the required tangent is
yy 1 =2a(x+x1 ).
Slope of the normal = - Yi (negative reciprocal of slope of the tangent)

2a
Equation of the normal is
x2 y2
(ii) - 2 + - 2. = 1
a b
Differentiating the above equation, w.r.t. x, we have
2x + 2y dy =0 or dy _!!___!._
a 2 b 2 dx dx a2 y
2
or dy] =--b_ _x1
dx <x,.y,J a1 Y1
Equation of the tangent to (2), at (x 1 , y 1) is

2
-b x
y-y1 = - - - 1 (x-x1)
2
a Y1
2 2
or YY1 _ 2'..!_ = - XX1 + _3_ or
b2 b2 a2 a2
2 2
x Y1
Since (x 1 , y 1 ) lie on (2) so, - + - = 1
a2 b2
Hence an equation of the tangent to (2) at (x1 , y 1) is xx;

a
+ ~1 = 1
b
2
· -a -Y1.
Slope of the normal at ( x 1 , y 1 ) 1s
b2x 1
Equation of the normal at (x 1 , y 1) is
2
a Y1
Y -y I =--(x-x)
b2 I
X1
Dividing both sides of the above equation by x1 y 1 , we get
a 2x b2 y 2 2
- - - = a - .b , as an equation of the normal.
X1 Y1
(iii) Proceeding as in (ii), it is easy to see that equations of the tangent and
normal to (3) at (x 1, y 1) are
XX1 YY1 a 2x b2 Y 2 2 .
- - - = 1 and - + - = a +b ,respectively.
a2 . b2 x, Y1
Remarks
An equation of the tangent at the point (x 1 , y 1 ) of any conic can be written
by making replacements in the equation of the conic as under:
Replace x2 by xx,
y2 by YY1
1
x by -(x+ x1)
2
1
y by 2<y+ y,)
2
Example 2:Write equations of the tangent and normal to the parabola x =16y at the
point whose abscissa is 8.
Solution: Since x = 8 lies on the parabola, substituting this value of x into the given
equation, we find
64 =16 y or y =4
Thus we have to find equations of tangents and normal at (8, 4 ).
Slope qf the tangent to the parabola at (8, 4) is 1. An equation of the tangent the
parabola at (8, 4) is
y-4=x-8
or x-y-4=0
Slope of the normal at (8, 4) is -1. Therefore, equation of the normal at the given
point is
y-4 = -(x-8)
or x+ y-12=0
2 2
Example 3: Write equations of the tangent and normal to the conic .::__ + L =1 at
8 9
Solution: The given equation is

9x 2 + 8y 2 - 72 = 0 (1)
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. x, we have
dy
18x+16y-=0 dy= --9x
or - - o r -dy] = -3
dx dx Sy dx ffi)
This is slope of the tangent to ( 1) at ( ~, 1}
Equation of the tangent at this point is
y-1=-3.(x-fl=-3x+8 or 3x+y-9=0
The nonnal at G, 1) has the slope ~.

Equation of the normal is
y -1 = ~ (x -fl or
8
3y - 3 = x - - or
3
3x- 9y + 1 =0
Theorem: To show that a straight line cuts a conic, in general, in two points and to
find the condition that the line be a tangent to the conic.
Let a line y = mx + c cut the conics
x2 y2 2 2 .
(i) y2 = 4ax (ii) -+-=I (iii) ~-L=t
a2 b2 a2 b2
We shall discuss each case separately.
(i) The points of intersection of
y=mx+c (1)
and y2 = 4ax (2)
are obtained by solving (1) and (2) simultaneously for x and y. Inserting the value
of y from (1) into (2), we get
(mx + c) 2 = 4ax
2 2 J
or m x +(2mc-4a)x+c- =0 (3)
which being a quadratic in x gives two values of x. These values are the x coordinates
of the common points of (1) and (2). Setting these values in (1), we obtain the
corresponding ordinates of the points of intersection. Thus the line (1) cuts the
parabola (2) in two points. ·
In order that (1) is a tangent to (2), the points of intersection of a line and the
parabola must be coincident. In this case, the roots of (3) should be .real and equal.
This means that the discriminant of (3) is zero. Thus
4(mc- 2a) 2 -4m 2c 2 = 0 i.e., -4mca + 4a 2 =0
or c =!!:.._, is the required condition for (I) to be a tangent to (2). Hence

m
- y = mx + !!:.._,
m
is a tangent to y 2 = 4ax for all non-zero values of m.
(ii) To determine the points of intersection of

y=mx+c (1)
x2 y2
· and -+-=1 (2)
a2 b2
we solve (I) and (2) simultaneous~y. Putting the value of y from (1) into (2),
we have
2
x (mc+c) 2
-+
a2 b2
=1
2 2 2
or (a m +b 2)x 2 +2mca 2x-+a 2c 2 -a 2b =0 (3)
which is a quardratic in x and it gives the abscissas of the two points where (I)
and (2) intersect. The corresponding values of y are obtained by setting the values
of x obtained from (3) into (I). Thus (I) and (2) intersect in two points. Now (I) «
is a tangent' to (2) if the point of intersection is a single point.

This requires (3) to have equal roots. Hence (1) is a tangent to (2) if
(2mca 2) 2 -4(a 2m 2 +b 2)(a 2c 2 -a 2b 2) =0
I.e.,
or m2c2a2 -a2m2c2 +a2m2b2 -b2c2 +b4 = 0
or c2 = a2m2 +b2
or c= ±~a 2 m 2 +b 2
Putting the value of c into (1), we have
Hence Iy = mx ± .Ja 2 m 2 + b2 \
which are tangents to (2) for all non-zero values of m.
(iii) We replace b
2
- by -b
2
in (ii) and the line y = mx + c is a tangent to
2 2
~-L = 1 if c = ±.Ja2 m2 -b 2
a2 b2
2
I 2 2 2 x y2
Thus y = mx±"IJa m -b are tangents to the hyperbola: - - - = 1
a 2 b2
for all non-zero values of m.
Example 4: Find an equation of the tangent to the parabola y 2 = -6x which is
parallel to the line 2x + y. + 1=0. Also find the point of tangency.
Solution: Slope of the required tangent is m = -2
In the parabola y
2
= -6x (1)
-6 -3
a=-=-
4 2
Equation of the tangent is
a 3
y = mx+- =-2x+-
m 4
i.e., 8x+4y-3 =0 (2)
. th e vaIue o f y from
In sertmg . (2) viz
. y = - Sx + 3 mto
. (1), we have
4
(-8: 3)' ~
+ -6x
or 64x 2 -48x + 9 = -96x or 2

64x +48x+9 = 0
or (8x + 3)2 = 0 i.e.,

-3
x=-
8
Putting this value of x into (2), we get
y= fil 4
3
. =1
3
The point of tangency is(- ,

8
3
~J
Example 5. Find equations of the tangents of the ellipse
x2 y2
-+-=) (1)
128 18
which are parallel to the line 3x + 8y + 1=0. Also find the points of contact.
3
Solution: The slope of the required tangents is - . Equations of the tangents are
8
3
y = 8 x ± 128 .
(312
8 ) + 18
-3
=-x±6
8
Thus the two fangents are
3x+8y+48 =0 (2)
and 3x+8y-48=0 (3)
We solve (1) and (3) simultaneously to find the point of contact. Inserting the
value of y from (3) into (1 ), we get
9 2 9
2- x +36--x
~+64 2 =1
128 18
2 2 2
x x x x x
or -+-+2--=1 or ---+1=0
128 128 4 64 4
or ( ~- I J
=0 i.e., x = 8 and so
-3
-x+6=3
8
Thus (8, 3) is the point of tangency of (3).
It can be seen in a similar manner that point of contact of (2) is (-8,-3).
Example 6. Show that the product of the distances from the foci to any tangent to
the hyperbola
x2 y2
- - - =1 (1)
a2 b2
is constant.
Solution: The line
y = mx+~a 2 m 2 -b 2 (2)
is a tangent to (1).
Foci of (1) are F(-c,O) and F'(c,O).
Distance of F(-c,O) from (2) is
l-cm+~a2m2 -b21
d1=
. .J1 +m 2
Distance of F'(c,O) from (2) is
lcm+~a2m2 -b21
d1 = ~l+m2
=c 2 -a 2 since c >a
which is constant.
6.7.1 Intersection of Two Conics •
Suppose we are given two conics
x2 y2
---=l (1)
a2 b2
and y2 =4ax (2)

To find the points common to both (1) and (2), we need to solve (1) and (2)
simultaneously. It is known from algebra, that the simultaneous solution set of two
equations of the second degree consists of four points. Thus two conics will always
intersect in four points. These points may be all real and distinct, two real and two
imaginary or all imaginary. Two or more points may also coincide. Two conics are
said to touch each other if they intersect in two or more coincident points.
Example 7: Find the points of intersection of the ellipse.

x2 y2 x2 2
- - + - - =1 (1) and the hyperbola - _ 2'_ = 1 (2)
43/3 43/ 4 7 14
Also sketch the grapp of the two conics.
Solution: The two equations may be written as

2 2
3x +4y = 43 (1) • and 2x 2 -y2 =14 (2)
Multiplying (2) by 4 and adding the result into ( 1), we get
llx 2 = 99 or x = ±3
· Setting x,;,, 3 into (2), we have 18-y2 = 14 or y = ±2
Thus (3, 2) and (3, - 2) are two points, of intersection of the two conics.
y
Putting x = -3 into (2), we get
y=±2
Therefore, (-3, 2) and (-3, -2) are
also points of intersection of ( 1) and (2).
The four points of intersection are as
shown in the figure.
Example 8: Find the points of intersection of the conics
y = 1f.x 2 (1)
and y=1+4x-x 2 (2)

Also draw the graph of the conics.
Solution: F!om (1), we have
x=±;y::i
Inserting these values of x into (2), we get
y = 1±4;y::l - (y -1)
or 2y-2 =±4~y-1 or (y -1) 2 = 4(y -1)

or (y-l)(y-1-4)=0
Therefore, y = 1, 5
When y =1,x =0
When y =5,x =±2
. But ( - 2, 5) does not satisfy (2). Thus )'
(0, 1) and (2, 5) are the points of (2, 5)

2
intersections of (1) and (2). y = 1 + x
is a parabola with vertex at (0, 1)
2
and opening upward. y = I + 4x - x
2 x=2
may be written as y - 5 = -(x - 2) 0
which is a parabola with vertex (2, 5)

and opening downward.
Example 9: Find equations of the common tangents to the two conics
y2
x2
-+-=1 and ~+L=1
16 25 25 9
Solution: The tangents with slope m, to the two conics are respectively given by
y = mx ± .JI6m 2 +25 . and y=mx±.J25m2 +9

For a tangent to be common, we must have
16m +25
2
=25m 2 +9
2 4
or 9m =16 or m=±-
3
Using these values of m, equations of the four commo~ tangents are:
4
y = ± x ± .J 481.
3
EXERCISE 6.7
1. Find equations of the tangent 3!1d normal to each of the following at the indicated
point:
(i) y2 =4ax at (at
2
, 2at)
x2 y2
(ii) -+-=l at (acosO,b sinO)
a1 b2
x2 y2
(iii) --- = 1 at (asec8,btan8)
a2 b2
2. Write equation of the tangent to the given conic at the indicated point
2
(i) 3x = -16y at the points whose ordinate is -3.'
(ii) 3x 2 - 7 y2 = 20 at the points where y = -1.

(iii) 3x 2 -7 y2 + 2x-y-48 = 0 at the point where x = 4.
3. Find equations of the tangents to each of the following through the given point:
(i) x 2 + y2 = 25 through (7, -1)
(ii) y 2 = l2x through (1, 4)
(iii) 2
x -2y
2
=2 through (1, -2)
4. Find equations of the normals to the parabola y 2• = 8x which are parallel to the
line 2x + 3y = 10.
2
5. Find equations of the tangents to the ellipse ~ + y 2 =1which are parallel to the
4
line 2x-4y.+5=0.
6. Find equations of the tangents to the . conic 9x 2 - 4 y 2 = 36 parallel to

5x-2y+7 =0.
7. Find equations of the common tangents to the given conics
2
(i) x =80y and x 2 +y2=81
2
(ii) y2=16x and x =2y
8. Find the points of int~rsection of the given conics

x2 y2 x2 y2
(i) -+-=1 and ---=1
18 8 3 3
2 x2 - y2=1
(ii) x + y2 = 8 and
(iii) 3x 2 -4y 2 =12 and 3y2-2x 2 = 7

2
3x +5y 2 =60
2
(iv) and 9x + y2 = i24
(v) 2 2
4 x +l =16 and x + y2 + y + 8 = 0
31 O Calculus and Analytic Geometry
6.8 TRANSLATION AND ROTATION OF AXES

Translation of Axes
fu order to facilitate the investigation of properties of a curve with a given
equation, it is sometimes necessary to shift the origin 0(0, 0) to some other point
O' (h, k) . The axes O'X, O'Y drawn through O' remain parallel to the original axes
Ox and Oy. The process is called translation of axes.
¥/e have already
obtained in Chapter 4 formulas y r
showing relationships between
P(x,y) or
the two sets of coordinates of a p ex.Y)
point referred to the two sets of
coordinates axes.
--+----------- x
Recall that if a point P O' (h, k)
has coordinates (x, y) referred
to the xy-system and has
coordinates (X, Y) referred to
the translated axes O'X, O'Y 0 (0, 0)
through O'(h, k), then
x= X +h} (1)
y=Y+k ·
These are called equations of transformatiOn.
From (1), we have
X =x-h}
(2)
Y=y-k
(1) and (2) will be used to transform an equation in one system into the other
system.
The axes Ox and Oy are referred to as the original (or old) axes and O'X, O'Y
are called the translated axes (or new axes).
Example 1: Transform the equation x 2 + 6x - 8y+17 = O (1)
referred to 0'(-3, l)as origin, axes remaining parallel to the old axes.
Solution: Equations of transformation are
x=X-3
y=Y+l
Substituting these values of x, y into (1), we have

(X -3) 2 + 6(X -3)-8(Y + 1) + 17 = 0
or X -6X +9+6X -18-8Y-8+17 =0
or X2 - 8Y = 0 is the required transformed equation.

Example 2: By transforming the equation
x
2
+4y 2 -4x+8y+4=0 (1)
referred to a new origin and axes remaining parallel to the original axes, the first
degree terms are removed. Find the coordinates of the new origin and the transformed
·equation.
Solution: Let the coordinates of the new origin be (h, k). Equations of
transformation are
x=X+h , y=Y+k
Substituting these values of x, y into (1 ), we get
(X-h) 2 +4(Y +k) 2. -4(X +h)+8(Y +k)+4=0
or X 2 +4Y 2 +X(2h-4)+Y(8k+8)+h 2 +4k2-4h+8k+4=0 · (2)

(h, k) is to be so chosen that first degree terms are removed from the
transformed equation.
Therefore, 2h - 4 = 0 and 8k + 8 = 0 giving h = 2 and k = -1. New origin is
0'(2,-1). Putting h = 2, k = -1 into (2), the transformed equation is
X 2 +4Y 2 -4=0.
Rotation of Axes
To find equations ·for a rotation of axes about the origin through an angle
· 8(0°< B< 90°), (origin remaining unaltered).
Let the axes be rotated about the origin through an angle 8. The new axes
OX, OY are as shown in the figure. Y
Let P be any point in the plane y P(x,y) or

x
with coordinates P (x, y) referred to the P(X, Y)
xy-system and P(X, Y) referred to the

XY-system. In either system the distance
r between P and 0 is the same. Draw 0 M
PM J_ Ox and PQ J_ OX . Let a be the

inclination of OP with OX. From the figure, we have

X = OQ = r cos a, Y = QP = r sin a (1)
and x=rcos(B+a>', y·=rsin(B+a)

or x = rcosBcosa-rsin e sin a} (2)
y =.r sine cos a - r cos e sin a
Substituting the values of r cos a, r sin a from (1) into (2), we get
x = X cosB-Y sin BJ
y=XsinB+Ycose
as the required equations of transformation for a rotation of axes through an angle e.
•
Example 3: Find an equation of 5x 2 - 6.xy + 5 y 2 - 8 = 0 with respect to new axes
obtained by rotation of axes about the origin through an angle of 135°.
Solution: Here 8 = 135°. Equations of transformation are
-x y -1
x = X cos135° -Y sinl35° = J2 - J2 = J2 (X + Y)
• 0 0 x y 1
x=Xszn135 -Ycos135 = J2- J2= J2(X-Y)
Substituting these expressions for x, y into the given equation, we have
s(- xJ{)'- 6(- xJiY. x;/}s(xiiYJ-s~o

5 2 . 5
or -(X +2XY+Y 2 )+3(X 2 -Y 2 )+-(X 2 -2XY+Y 2 )-8=0
2 2
or 8X 2 +2Y 2 -8=0 or 4X 2 +Y 2 =4
is the required transformed equation.
Example 4: Find the angle through which the axes be rotated about the origin so
that the product term XY is removed from the transformed equation of
2
5x + 2.fjxy + 7 y2 -16 = 0 . Also find the transformed equation.
Solution: Let the axes be rotated through an angle e. Equations of transformation are
x= x cos e - y sine ; y = x sine + y cos e
Substituting into the given equation, we get
5(X cos e-Y sine) 2 + 2.J3cx cose-Y sine) (X sine+ Y case)
+ 7(X sine+ Y cos e) 2 -16 = 0 (1)

Since this equation is to be free from the product term XY, the coefficient of
Xf is zero, i.e., -10 sine case+ 2.J3(cos 2 e- sin 2 e)+14 sine cos e = 0
or 2 sin 2e + 2.J3 cos2e = 0

-2.J3
or tan2e=--=tan120° or e=60°.
2
Thus axes be rotated through an angle of 60° so that XY term is removed from
the transformed equation.
Setting e = 60° in (1), the transformed equation is (after simplification)
8X 2 +4Y 2 -16=0 or2X 2 +Y 2 -4=0
EXERCISE·6.8
1. Find an equation of each of the following with respect to new parallel axes
obtained by shifting the origin to the indicated point:
(i) x 2 +16y-16 = 0, O'(O, 1)
(ii) 4x 2 +y2+16x-10y + 37 = 0, 0'(-2, 5)
(iii) 9x 2 +4y 2 +18x-16y-11 =0, 0'(-1, 2)
'iv) x 2 -y 2 +4x+8y-11 =0, 0'(-2, 4)

;
(v) 9x 2 -4y 2 +36x+8y-4 =0, 0'(-2, 1)

2. Find coordinates of the new origin (axes remaining parallel) so that first degree
terms are removed from the transformed equation of each of the following.
Also find the transformed equation:
(i) 3x 2 -2y 2 +24x+12y+24=0 (ii) 25x 2 + 9y 2 + 50x-36y-164 = 0
(iii) x 2 -y 2 -6x+2y+7=0
3. In each of the following, find an equation referred to the new axes obtained by
rotation of axes about the origin through the given angle:
(i) xy = 1, e = 45°
(ii) 7x 2 -8.xy + y2 -9 = 0, e = arctan 2
2
(iii) 9x2+12.xy +4y2 -x- y = 0, e =arctan3 /
(iv) x -2.xy + y -2.fix-2.fiy + 2 = 0'

2 2
e = 45
4. Find measure of the angle through which the axes be rotated so that the
product term XY is removed from the transformed equation. · Also find the
transformed equation:
(i) 2x 2 +6xy+10y 2 -11 =0 (ii) xy + 4x- 3y -10 = 0
(ii) 5x 2 -6xy+5y 2 -8 =0
6.9 THE GENERAL EQUATION OF SECOND DEGREE

Standard equations of conic sections, namely circle parabola, ellipse and
hyperbola have already been studied in the previous sections. Now we shall take up
the general equation of second degree viz.
2 2
Ax + By + Gx + Fy + C =0 (1)
The nature of the curve represented by (1) can be determined by examining
the coefficients A, B in the above equation. The following cases arise:
(i) If A = B -:t 0, equation (1) may be written as
2 2 2 2 G F C
A (x + y ) + Gx + Fy + C = 0 or x + y + A. x +A y + A =0
. h . 1 'th ( G F) - G2 p2
whic represents a clfc e w1 centre at - 2A , - 2A) and radius -\j A 2 + A 2
I -
c
A·
4 4
(ii) If A -:t B and both are of the .same sign, then we have
(Ax2 + Gx) + (By2 + Fy) + C = 0
or A
2
:;2
(x + ~ x+ ~2J+ B (i + ~ y + J = ~~ + :: - C
2
2
G )2 ( F) G p2
or A ( x + 2A) + B y + 2B) = 4A + 4B - C (2)
If we ·x = x + 2A
' wnte G , Y =y + FB , then (2) can be written as
2
2 2
G2 p2 X2 y2
AX + BY = 4A + 4B - C = K (say) or ( '1KJA) 2 + (1K/B) 2 =1
which is standard equation of an ellipse in XY-coordinate system;

. (iii) If A :t Band both have opposite signs (say A is positive and Bis negative),
we can write (1) as
Ax 2 -B y 2 + Gx + Fy + C= 0, where B = -B' and'B'is positive.
2
G . G2 ) ( F F2 l G2 F2 . .
or A (x +Ax+ A2 -B' / - B,y+ 4 B,z) = 4A - 4B' -C =M (say)
+ ~J-
4
or + B'(y- :S,) = M
2 2 G F
or AX -B'Y = M , where X = x + 2A , Y = y - B,
2
i xz y2
or '1
( MI A )2 - ( '1M I B') 2 = 1
and this is standard equation of a hyperbola in XY-coordinates system.

(iv) If A = 0 or B = 0 (both cannot be zero since in that case the ·equation (1)
reduces to a linear equation). Assume A 0 and B = 0.*
The equation ( 1) becomes
2
Ax + Gx + Fy + C =0
2 2
2 G G ) G
or A .(x + A x + 4A 2 = - Fy - C + 4A
or A(x+ ~J = -F(y + ; - Z~J

.G C G2
2
or AX = - FY, where X = x + 2A , Y = Y + F - 4AF ·
which is standard equation of a parabola in XY-coordinates system.
We _summarize these results as under:
Let an equation of second degree be of the form Ax + B/ + Gx + Fy + C =O·.
2
It represents:
(i) a circle if A = B :t 0
*
(ii) an ellipse if A B and both are of the same sign
*
(iii) a hyperbola if A B and both are of opposite signs
(iv) a parabola if either A= 0 or B = 0.
6.9.1 Classification of Conics by the Discriminant
The most general equation of the second degree
ru:2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 (1)
represents a conic. The quantity h 2 - ab is called the discriminant of (1). Nature of

the conic can be determined by the discriminant as follows. (1) represents:
2
(i) an ellipse or a circle if h - ab < 0
2
(ii) a parabola if h - ab = 0
2
(iii) a hyperbola if h - ab > 0
The equation (1) can be transformed to the form
2 2
AX + BY + 2GX + 2Fy + C = 0 (2)
if the axes are rotated about the 01igin through an angle e, (0 < e < 90°) where e is
given by
2h
tan 28 = a-b
If a= b or a = 0 = b, then the axes are to be rotated t~ough an angle of 45°.

Equations of transformation (as already found) are
x = x cos e- y sin e ]
(3)
y = x sine+ y cos e
Substitution of these values of x, y into (1) will result in an equation of the
form (2) in which product term XY will be missing. Nature of the conic (2) has
already been discussed in the last article.
Solving equations (3) for X, Y we find
x = x cos e+ y sin e J (4)
y = - x sin e+ y cos e
These equations will be useful in numerical problems.
Note: Under certain conditions equation (1) may not represent any conic. In such a_
case we say (1) represents a degenerate conic.
_One such degenerate conic is a pair of straight lines represented by (I) if
a h g
h b f = 0.
g f c
The _proofs of the above observations are beyond our scope and are omitted.
6°'13 xy + 13y2- 16 =O
2
Example 1: . Discuss the conic 7x - (1)
and find its elements.
Solution: In order to remove the term involving xy, the angle through which axes
be rotated is given by ·
tan 20 = 7 - 13
-613 = \J3
_r:;
or e = 30°.
Equations of transformation are
y
= X cos 30° ~ Y sin 30° = j3 ~ -
= X sin 30° + Y cos 30° = x+13 Y
y l (2)
2
Substituting these expressions into the equation (1), we get
7(:f3;-YJ - 6:}3 (fi;-Yw+t y)+u(X+f YJ = 16

which simplifies to
xz yz
2
4X + 16Y
2
= 16 or -
4
+ -
1
= 1 (3)
This is an ellipse.
Solving equations (2) for X and Y,(or as already found in (4) of 7.7.1) we have
j3x+y -x+j3y
X= 2 , Y= 2
Centre of the ellipse is X = 0, Y = 0
i.e., {3 x + y = 0 and - x + {3 y = 0
giving x =0, y =0. Thus centre of (1) is (0, 0)
Length of the major axis = 4, length of minor axis = 2
Vertices of (3) are: X = ± 2, Y =0
. j3x+y - -x+j3y
i.e., = ±2 and . 2 = 0
2
Solving these equations for x, y, we have
({3 , 1) , ( - {3 , - 1) , as vertices of (1).
·
Ends of the mmor · are X =0 an d Y =± 1. i.e.;
axis · j3x+y = 0
2
and - x + -}3 y = ± 1.
2
So~ving these equations, we get (k, -r) (-k, ~)
and
as ends of the minor axis.
Equation of the major axis: Y = 0, i.e., - x + {3 y =0
Equation of the minor axis: X = 0, i.e., {3 x +y =0
Example2: Analyze the conic xy = 4 and write its elements.

Solution: Equation of the conic is
xy-4 = 0 (1)
Here a = 0 = b, so we rotate the axes through an angle of 45°. Equations of
transformation are
x = X cos 45° - Y sin 45° =

X-Y
~
(2)
X+Y
y = X sin 45° - Y cos 45° = ~
Substituting into (1 ), we have
(X~Y) (XfiY)- 4= 0
or x2_ y2 = 8
x2 y2 (3)
or g--g- = 1
which is a hyperbola.
Solving equations (2) for X, Y, we have
x+y -x+y
X=~, Y=~
Centre of the hyperbola (3) is
x = 0, y=0
£.±2 -x+y
i.e., ~ = 0, and ~ =0 or x =0, y =0
or x=O, y=O isthecentreof(l)
Equation of the focal axis: Y = 0 i.e., y = x
Equation of the conjugate axis: X = 0 i.e., y = - x.
Eccentricity =~
Foci of (3): X = ± 2~ . ~ Y=O
x+y -x+y
or
~ = ±4, =0
~
or x+y = ±4~
and -x+ y = 0
Solving the above equations for x, y, we have the foci of ( 1) as ( 2fi , 2fi)
and ( -2 fi , - 2fi)
Vertices of (3) X = ± 2 fi, Y =0
i.e., :{iy = ± 2fi, and -x+ ·y =0
Solving these equations, we have
(2, 2) , (-2, - 2) as vertices of (1).
Asymptotes of the hyperbola (3) are given by
x2_ y2 = o
or X-Y = 0 and X+Y =0
i.e.,
1.e., x=0 and y = 0 are equations of the asymptotes of (1).

Example3: By a rotation of axes, eliminate the xy-term in the equation
9x2 + 12xy + 4/ + 2x - 3y =0 (1)
Identify the conic and find its elements.
Solution: Here a =9, b = 4, 2h = 12 the angle e through which axes be
12 12
rotated to given by tan 28 -- 9-4 - -
- 5
2 tan(} 12
or
1 - tan2 fJ = -5
or 5 tan fJ = 6-6 tan2 fJ
or 6 tan2 fJ + 5 tan fJ - 6 = 0
tan fJ = -5 ±'125
12
+ 144
=
-5±13
12 = -2
3'
-3
2
Since fJ lies in the first quadrant, tan fJ =- ~ is not admissible.
2 2 3
tan fJ =3 => sin fJ = '113 , cos (J = '113
Equations of transformation become
y
~
=
X cos 8- Y sin 8 =
X sin 8 + Y cos 8
~X-
2 3
Y
= '113 X + -{13 Y
.Ju l (2)
Substituting these expressions for x and y into (1 ), we get

9 12 4
'( 113 ) 2 (3X - 2Y)
2
+ii (3X - 2Y) (2X + 3Y) + l3 (2X +3Y)
2
+ '1213 3
(3X - 2Y)- -{13 (2X + 3Y) = 0
9 12
13 (9X - 12XY +4Y ) + -13 (6X 2 +5XY - 6Y 2 )
2 2
or -
+ l~ 2
(4X + 12XY + 9Y
2
)-'113 Y = 0
81 72 16) 2 ( 108 60 48)
or (ii + 13 +ii X + -13 +ii+ ii XY
36 72 36) 2 • ,..,-;;
+ ( 13 - 13 + 13 y - \J 13 y =0
or 13X
2
- ffi Y = 0 or X
2
= Ju Y
which is a parabola.
. .
Solvmg equation (2) for X, Y, we have X = 3x+ 2y
-{13 ,
y
-2x+ 3y
= ffi
Elements of the parabola are:
1
. Focus: X = 0, Y = 4-{13
3x+ 2y _ -2x + 3y 1
i.e.,
ffi - 0 ffi = 4-{13 and
SI . these equations,
o vmg . we have x =- 1 , y = 3 . 1.e.,
. Focus = (- 1 , 3)
2
26 52 26 5
Vertex:X = 0, Y=0 i.e., 3x + 2y = 0 and - 2x + 3y = 0
i.e., x = 0, y =0 i.e., (0, 0)
Axis: X = 0 i.e., 3x + 2y = 0
~---~--~---~--------~------~~--~~-----
. 2 3
x-mtercept = -9, y-intercept =
4
.
Example 4: Show that 2x2 - xy + 5x - 2y + 2 =0 represents a pair of lines. Also

fmd an equation of each line.
1 5
Solution: Here a= 2, b =0, h = - 2, g = 2 , f = -1, c = 2.
2 -1 -5
a h g 2 2
1
f 0 -1
h b = 2
g f c 5
-1 2
2
= k(-1+~)+1 (-2 + %)
3 3
=4-4= 0
The given equation represents a degenerate conic which is a pair of lines. The
given equation is
2x2 +x(5-y) + (-2y+2) =0
2
y- 5 ± j(y- 5) - 8 (-2y + 2)
or x = 4
y - 5 ±Ji - 10y + 25 + l 6y - 16
= 4
y-5 ± (y + 3)
= 4
2y-2
= 4 '-2
Equations of the lines are 2x - y + 1 =0 and x + 2 = 0.
Tangent
Find an equation of the tangent to the conic
ax
2
+ 2hxy+by 2 + 2gx+ 2.fy +c =0 (1)
at the point (x1. Yi)

Differentiating (1) w.r.t. x, we have
2ax + 2hy + 2hx dy + 2by dy + 2g + 2f dy =0

dx dx dx
dy ax+hy+g
or =
dx hx+by+ f
dy] ax 1+ hy 1 + g
or
dx (x,,y, ) = hx1 +byl + f
= slope of the tangent at (x 1, Yi)
Equation of the tangent at (x 1 , y 1 ) is
ax1 + hy1 + g ( )
y - Y1 = - hx1 + byl + f x - Xi
or (x-x1)(ax1 + hy 1+ g) +(y- y 1)(hx1+by 1+f)=0

·or axx1 +hxy1 +gx+hx1y+bY1Y+ fy
=ax~ + 2hx 1y 1 + gx1 +by[ + fy 1
Adding gx1 + fy 1 + c to both sides of the above equation and regrouping the
terms" we have
ax:x1 + h(xyi + yx1) + hw1+ g(x + x1) + f(y + Y1) + c
=ax; + 2hx1y1+by; + 2gx1 + 2fy 1 + c
=0
since the point (x 1 , y 1 ) lies on (1).
Hence an equation of the tangent to (1) at (x 1 , y 1 ) is
axx1 + h(xy1 + YX1) + hw1+ g(x+ x1) + f(y + Y1) + c = 0
Note: An equation of the tangent to the general equation of the second degree at
the point (x 1 , y 1 ) may be obtained by replacing
x2 by XX1
y2 by YY1
2xy by xyl + YX1
2x by x+x1
2y by y+yl
in the equation of the conic.
~
2
Example 5: Find an equation of the tangent to the conic x 2 -xy + y -2 = 0 at the
point whose ordinate is .J2, .
Solution: Putting y = .J2 into the given equation, we have
x 2 -.J2x = 0
x(x-../2) = 0 x = 0, .J2
The two points on the conic are (0, .J2) and (../2, .J2) .
Tangent at (0, .J2) is
O.x-__!_(x .../2 + O.y) + ../2y-2 = 0
2
or x - 2 y + 2../2 =0
Tangent at (.J2, .J2) is
.J2 x-__!_(.J2 x+../2 y)+../2 y-2=0

2
or .J2 x + .J2 y - 4 = 0
EX-ERCISE 6.9
1. By a rotation of axes, eliminate the xy-term in each of the following equations.
Identify the conic and find its elements:
(i) 4.x2 - 4.xy + y2 - 6 = 0
(ii) .x2 - 2xy + y2 - 8x - 8y =0
(iii) x 2 + 2.xy + y 2 + 2.J2x-2../2y + 2 = 0
(iv) .x2 + xy + y2 - 4 =0
2
(v) 7x 2 -6.J3xy+13y -16 = 0
(vi) 4x2 - 4.xy + 1y2 + 12x + 6y - 9 = 0

(vii) xy-4x-2y =0
(viii) x 2 +4xy-2y 2 -6=0

(ix) x 2 -4.xy-2y 2 + lOx+ 4y = 0
2. Show that (i) 10 xy + Sx - 15y - 12 = 0 and
(ii) 6x 2 +xy-y2 -21x-8y +9 = 0

each represents a pair of straight lines and find an equation of each line . .
3. Find an equation of the tangent to each of the given conics at the indicated
point.
(i) 3x 2 - 7 y2 + 2x - y - 48 = 0 , at (4, 1)
(ii) x
2
+ 5.xy - 4 y2 + 4 =0 , at y =-1
(iii) x 2 +4.xy-3y 2 -5x-9y+6=0, at x=3.
Unit 7: Vectors 325
Junit 11 Vectors
7.1 INTRODUCTION
In physics, mathematics and engineering, we encounter with two important
quantities, known as "Scalars and Vectors".
A scalar quantity, or simply a scalar, is one that possesses only magnitude.
It can be specified by a number alongwith unit. In Physics, the quantities like mass,
time, density, temperature, length, volume, speed and work are examples of scalars.
A vector quantity, or simply a vector, is one that possesses both magnitude
and direction. In Physics, the quantities like displacement, velocity, acceleration,
weight, force, momentum, electric and magnetic fields are examples of vectors.
In this section, we introduce vectors and their fundamental operations we
begin with a geometric interpretation of vector in the plane and in space.
(;,al flil)
7.1.1 Geometric Interpretation of Vector

Geometrically, a vector is represented by a directed line segment AB with A
its initial point and B its terminal point. It is often found 1convenient to denote a vector
by an arrow and is written either as AB or as a boldface symbol like v or in
underlined form.!:'.·
(i) The magnitude or length or norm of a vector AB or .!'.'., is its absolute value
and is written as IAB I or simply AB or l.!:'.I ·
(ii) A unit vector is defined as a vector whose magnitude is unity.

Unit vector of vector.!:'. is written as Q(read as .!:'. hat) and is defined by Q= I~ I
(iii) If terminal point B of a vector AB coincides with its initial point A, then
magnitude AB = 0 and AB =Q, which is called zero or null vector.
(iv) Two vectors are said to be negative of each other
if they have same magnitude but opposite direction.
If AB=!'.. then BA=-AB=-v
and IBA I=I- AB I

7.1.2 Multiplication of Vector by a Scalar
We use the word scalar to mean a real number. Multiplication of a vector !'.
by a scalar 'k ' is a vector whose magnitude is k times that of !'. . It is denoted by k!'. .
i) If k is +ve, then !'. and k!'. are in the same direction.
(ii) If k is -ve, then !'. and k!'. are in the opposite direction.
(a) Equal vectors
Two vectors AB and CD are said to be
equal, if they have the same magnitude and same
I I
direction i.e., AB = j CD j
(b) Parallel vectors

Two vectors are parallel if and only if they are non-zero scalar
multiple of each other. (see figure).
7 .1.3 Addition and Subtraction of Two Vectors
Addition of two vectors is explained by the following
two laws:
a. (i) Triangle Law of Addition
If two vectors !! and }'. are represented by the c
A~
two sides AB and BC of a triangle such that
the terminal point of ~ coincides with the
initial point of~. then the third side AC of
the triangle gives vector sum ~ + ~, that is !!..
AB+BC=AC ==> !!+!:=AC

Unit 7: Vectors 327
(ii) Parallelogram Law of Addition

D
If two vectors ~ and .!:'. are represented by two I
I
adjacent sides AB and AC of a parallelogram as
\ shown in the figure, then diagonal AD give the ~
I
I AD=AB+AC
sum or resultant of AB and AC , I
I
that is 'c
A
AD= AB+AC=u+v
I Note: This law was used by Aristotle to describe the combined action of two forces. I
b. Subtraction of two vectors
The difference of two vectors AB and AC is defined by
AB-AC= AB+(-AC)
In figure, this difference is interpreted as the main diagonal of the

- -
parallelogram with sides AB and -AC. We can also interpret the same vector
difference as the third side of a triangle with sides AB and AC. In this second
interpretation, the vector difference AB - AC = CB points the terminal point of the
vector from which we are subtracting the second vector.
y
p
7 .1.4 Position Vector
The vector, whose initial point is the origin 0 and
whose terminal point is P; is called the position vector of
0 x
the point P and is written as OP.
The position vectors of the points A and B relative to the origin 0 are defined
by OA =f! and OB ='2_ respectively.
In the figure, by triangle law of addition, B
OA+AB=OB
-a+AB=b-
==> AB= b-a
7 .1.5 Vectors in a Plane

Let R be the set of real numbers. The Cartesian plane is defined to be the
2
R = {(x, y) : x, y E R}.
An element (x, y) E R 2 represents a point P(x, y) y

P(x , y)
which is uniquely determined by its coordinate x and y. Given
a vector ~ in the plane, there exists a unique point P(x, y) in
the plane such that the vector OP is equal to ~ (see figure). So
0
we can use rectangular coordinates (x, y) for P to associate a
unique ordered pair [x, y] to vector ~ .
We define addition and scalar multiplication in R 2 by:
(i) Addition: For any two vectors ~ = [x, y] and ~ = [x', y'], we have
~ + ~ = [x, y]+ [x', y'] = [x + x', y + y']
(ii) Scalar Multiplication: For ~ = [x: y] and a E R , we have
a~ =a[x, y]= [ax,ay]
Definition: The set of all ordered pairs [x, y] of real numbers, together with
the rules of addition and scalar multiplication, is called the set of vectors in R 2 •
For the vector ~ = [x, y], x and y are called the components of ~ .
Note: The vector [x, y] is an ordered pair of numbers, not a point (x, y) in the plane.
(a) Negative of a Vector
In scalar multiplication (ii), if a = -1 and ~ = [x, y], then
a~=(-1) [x, y] = [-x,-y]
which is denoted by-~ and is called the additive inverse of ~ or negative vector of ~.
(b) Difference of two Vectors
We define~-~ as~+(-~)
If~= [x, y] and ~ = [x', y'], then
~-~=~+(-~)
= [x, y]+ [- x',-y'].= [x- x', y- y']
Unit 7: Vectors 329
(c) Zero Vector

Clearly ~ + (-~)= [x, y ]+ [-x,-y ]= [x-x, y- y ]= [0,0]= Q
Q= [0,0] is called the Zero (Null) vector.
(d) Equal Vectors
Two vectors ~ = [x, y] and .!:'. = [x', y'] of R 1 are said to be equal if and only if
they have the same components. That is,
[x, y] = [x', y'] if and only if x = x' and y = y'
and we write !:!: =.!:'.
(e) Position Vector
For any point P(x, y) in R1 a vector ~ = [x, y] is represented by a directed
line segment OP, whose initial point is at origin. Such vectors are called position
vectors because they provide a unique correspondence between the points (positions)
and vectors.
(f) Magnitude of a Vector

y
For any vector ~ = [x, y] in R 1 , we define the P(x , y)

magnitude or norm or length of the vector as the distance y
of the point P(x, y) from the origin 0.
0
.. Magnitude of OP = JoPJ =l~I =~ x + y

2 2
7.1.6 Properties of Magnitude of a Vector

Let .!:'. be a vector in the plane or in space and let c be a real number, then
(i) I.!:'. I ;;:::o, and l.!:'.I =O if and only if v =0
(ii) ic.!:'.i = lei i.!:'.I

Proof: (i) We write vector .!:'. in component form as .!:'. = [x, y], then
l.!:'.I= ~x 2 + y 2 ;;:::o for all x and y.
Further l.!:'.I= ~x 2 + y 2 = 0 if and only if x=O, y =0
In this case _!:'.=[0,0] = Q
-- -- -- ~ -- --~ --- ---

330 Calculus and Analytic Geo"!fletry
(ii)
7.1.7 Another Notation for Representing Vector in Plane

We introduce two special vectors y
·~
i = [l, 0], j = [O, I] in R 2
j (0, I)
As magnitude of i = ..J1 2 + 0 2 = 1
• x
magnitude of l · =-vO
I 2
+ 12 = 1 0 "!. (1 , 0) -
So ! and j are called unit vectors along x-axis, and along y-axis
respectively. Using the definition of addition and scalar multiplication, the vector
[x, y] can be written as
y
!:! =[x,y] = [x, O]+[O, y]
= x[l, O] + y[O, I]
= x! + yj
Thus each vector [x, y] in R 2 can be uniquely represented by x! + y j.
In terms of unit vector ! and 1 , the sum ~ + !: of two vectors

!:! = [x, y] and !: = [x', y'] is written as
!:
~ + = [x + x', y + y']
= (x + x') ! + (y + y')j
7.1.8 A Unit Vector in the Direction of Another Given Vector
A vector His called a unit vector, if 1~ I= 1
Now we find a unit vector H in the direction of any other given vector.!::'.·
We can do by the use of property (ii) of magnitude of vector, as follows:
1 1
l!:I !: = l!:l l!:I =1
the vector ~ = l~I !: is the required unit vector
Unit 7: Vectors 331
It points in the same direction as~. because it is a positive scalar multiple of~-
Example 1:
For v=[l,-3] and w=[2,5]
(i) }:'. + w=[l,-3]+[2,5]=[1+2,-3+5]= [3,2]
(ii) 4}:'. + 2w = [4,-12]+ [4,10]= [8,-2]

(iii) }:'.- w = [1,-3 ]-[2,5 ]= [1-2,-3-5 ]= [-1,-8]
(iv) }:'.-}:'.=[1-1,-3+3]= [o,O]=Q
(v) l}:'.l=~(1) 2 +c-3) 2 =./1+9=Jl0

Example 2: Find the unit vector in the same direction as the vector v = [3, - 4] .
Solution: }:'. = [3, -4] = 3!-4 j
'}:'.' = ~3 + (-4)
2 2
=Es.=5
1 1
Now ~ =r~f =5 [3, - 4] (!!is unit vector in the direction of v)
~=[+·~]
= ~16
2 2
Verification: lul=
- (-53J + r-4J
-
5
-+-=1
25 25
Example3: Find a unit vector in the direction of the vector

(i) }:'.=2t+6j (ii) }:'.=[-2,4]
Solution: (i) }:'.=2!+6j
l}:'.1=~(2)2 +(6)2 = ,J4+36 = J40

. . h d. . f 2 . 6 . 1 . 3 .
:. Aurutvector mt e irect10no }:'. =-,-,vv = -v40
~!+ ~J= ~!+ ~J
-v40 - -vlO -vlO -
(ii) . }:'.=[-2,4]=-2! + 41 -
'}:'.' =~(-2)2 + (4) = ,J4+ 16 = .JW
2
. . h d' . f v - 2 . 4 . -1 . 2 .
:. Aumtvector mt e irectiono v =-=-=--t+--1=-t+-1
1~1 Ea- En- JS- JS-
Example 4: If ABCD is a parallelogram such that the points A, B and C are

respectively (-2, -3), (1, 4) and (0, -5). Find the coordinates of D.
Solution: Suppose the coordinates of D are (x, y) ,,----------------..
7
•~----YC
As ABCD is a parallelogram
·: AB=DC and AB// DC A_/_D----=•
~ AB=DC
:. (l+ 2)! + (4+ 3)j = (0-x)t +(-5- y)j
- -
~ 3! + 7 j =- x! + (-5 - y) j
Equating horizontal and vertical components, we have
-x=3 ~ x=-3
and -5-y=1 ~ y=-12
Hence coordinates of Dare (-3, 12).
7.1.9 The Ratio Formula
Let A and B be two points whose position vectors (p.v.) are g and p_
respectively. If a point P divides AB in the ratio p: q, then the position vector of P
is given by
qa+pb-
r= -
- p+q
Proof: Given f! and /2. are position vectors of the points A and B respectively. Let r be
the position vector of the point P which divides the line segment AB in the ratio
p : q . That is A
mAP: mPB = p : q
mAP p
So, ~=-
mPB q
q(mAP )= p(mPB)
Unit 7: Vectors 333
Thus q(AP )= p(PB)

q(r. - f!) = p('2_- r.).
qr_-qf! =pl]_- P!.
pr..+qr.=qf!+ pl]_
r_(p + q) = q{!: +pl]_
qa+ pb
r= - -
- q+ p
Corollary: If P is the mid point of AB, then p : q =1 : 1

..
:. pos1t1ve vector of p = r = =----=
a+b
- 2
7!1.10 Vector Geometry
Let us now use the concepts of vectors discussed so far in proving
Geometrical Theorems. A few examples are being solved here to i11ustrate the
method.
Example 5: If a and!!. be the p.vs of A and B respectively w.r.t. origin 0 and C be a
point on AB such that OC = a+ b , then show that C is the mid-point of AB.
2
- 1
Solution: Given OA=a , OB=b_ and OC=-(a+b)
2 - -
Now 20C=a+b
A
~ OC+OC=OA+OB
~ OC-OA=OB-OC
~ OC+AO=OB+CO
~ AO+OC=CO+OB
:. AC=CB
Thus mAC;;;; mCB

~ C is equidistant from A and B, But A, B, C are collinear.
Hence C is the mid point of AB.
Example 6: Use vectors, to prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each
other.
Solution: Let the vertices of the parallelogram be A, B, C and D (see figure)
Since AC= AB+ AD, the vector from A to the mid point of diagonal AC is
}::'.=
1(- -)
AB+AD
2
Since DB = AB - AD, the vector from A to the mid point of diagonal DB is
~=AD+~(AB-AD)
=AD +_!_AB-_!_AD
2 2
=_!_(AB+ AD)
2
=v
Since :!::'.=~,these mid points of the diagonals AC and DB are the same.
Thus the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
EXERCISE 7.1
1. Write the vector PQ in the form xi+ y j.
(i) p =(2,3), Q(6,-2) (ii) p =(0,5), Q(-1,-6)
2. Find the magnitude of the vector Y:. :
(i) y_ = 2! - 7j (ii) y_ = ! + j_ (iii) y__= [3, - 4]
3. If Y:. = 2! - 7 j , :!: '. = ! - 61 and ~= -! + 1· Find the following vectors:
(1.) Y:.+}:'.-w c··)n 2Y:.- 3}::'.+ 4 w c·· .)

111 i i i
-u+-v+-w
2- 2- 2-
4. Find the sum of the vectors AB and CD, given the four points A(l, -1),
B(2, 0), C(-1, 3) and D(-2, 2).
5. Find the vector from the point A to the origin where AB= 4! - 2 j and B is the
point (-2, 5).
Unit 7: Vectors 335
6. • of the vector given below:

Find a unit vector in the direction
1. fj .
(i) (ii) v=-t+-1 (iii)
- 2- 2 -
7. If A, Band Care respectively the points (2, -4), (4, 0) and (1, 6). Use vector
method to find the coordinates of the point D if:
(i) ABCD is a parallelogram (ii) ADBC is a parallelogram
8. If B, C and Dare respectively (4, 1), (-2, 3) and (-8, 0). Use vector method to
find the coordinates of the point:
(i) A if ABCD is a parallelogram. (ii) E if AEBD is a parallelogram.
9. If 0 is the origin and OP= AB , find the point P when A and B are (-3, 7) and
(1,0) respectively.
10. Use vectors, to show that ABCD is a parallelogram, when the points A, B, C
and Dare respectively (0, 0), (a, 0), (b, c) and (b - a, c).
11. If AB =CD. Find the coordinates of the point A when points B, C, D are
(I, 2), (-2, 5), (4, 11) respectively.
12. Find the position vectors of the point of division of the line segments joining
the following pair of points, in the given ratio:
(i) Point C with position vector 2! - 3 j and point D with position vector
3{+2j in the ratio 4: 3
(ii) Point E with position vector Si and point F with position vector 4!+ j_
in ratio 2 : 5 ·
14. Prove that the line segment joining the mid points of two sides of a triangle is
parallel to the third side and half as long.
15. Prove that the line segments joining the mid points of the sides of a
quadrilateral taken in order form a paral1elogram.
7.2 INTRODUCTION OF VECTOR IN SPACE

z
In space, a rectangular coordinate system is
x'
constructed using three mutually orthogonal /
/
/
(perpendicular) axes, which have origin as their /

/
' /
Y ------~--- Y
common point of intersection. When sketching figures, we ,o
follow the convention that the positive x-axis points I
I
I
towards the reader, the positive y-axis to the right and the X I
I
positive z-axis points upwards. z'
These axis are also labeled in accordance with the

right hand rule. If fingers of the right hand, pointing in the
direction of positive x-axis, are curled toward the positive y-axis,
then the thumb will point in the direction of positive z-axis,
perpendicular to the xy-plane. The broken lines in the figure
right hand rule
represent the negative axes.
A point P in space has three coordinates, one z P(a,b,c)
along x-axis, the second along y-axis and the third along
z-axis. If the distances along x-axis, y-axis and z -axis
•! !
JC
respectively are a, b, and c, then the point P is written I
I
with a unique triple of real numbers as P = (a,b,c) 0
I
I /
,
y
(see figure). ____________ y
! ,./a
"
b
7.2.1 Concept of a Vector in Space
The set R 3 = { (x, y, z):x, y, z E R} is called z P(x, ', z)
3-dimensional space. An element (x, y, z) of !
3 H. !
R represents a point P(x, y, z), which is I
Jz
uniquely determined by its coordinates x, y and z. I
>-----.-~~-y
Given a vector !:!. in space, there exists a unique I /
_________ __y,/'X I
point P(x, y, z) in space such that the vector OP y
x
is equal to ~ (see figure).
Now each element (x, y, z) E R 3 is associated with a unique ordered triple

[x, y, z], which represents the vector ~=OP= [x, y, z].
W~ define addition and scalar multiplication in R 3 by:

(i) Addition: For any two vectors ~ = [x, y, z] and !'.'. = [x', y', z'], we have
~ + !'.'. = [x, y, z]+ [x', y', z']= [x + x', y + y', z + z']
(ii) Scalar Multiplication: For ~ = [x, y, z] and a E R, we have
a~ =a[x,y,z]= [ax,ay,az]
Definition: The set of all ordered triples [x, y, z] of real numbers, together with
the rules of addition and scalar multiplication, is called the set of vectors in R 3 •
For the vector ~ = [x, y, z], x, y and z are called the components of ~.
Unit 7: Vectors 337
The definition of vectors in R 3 states that vector addition and scalar

multiplication are to be carried out also for vectors in space just as for vectors in the
plane. Similarly we define in R 3 :
a) Thenegativeofthevector !i=[x,y,z] as -!!=(-1)!!=[-x,-y,-z].
b) The difference of two vectors .!: = [x', y', z'] and ~ = [x . ., y ..., z'] as
_!:- w = .!: + {- !!:'.) = [x' - x. ., y' - y ... , z' - z']
c) The zero vector as Q= [0,0,0]
d) Equality of two vectors ~ = [x', y', z'] and ~ = [x . ., y", z'] by .!: = w if and
on1y i"f xI = x# , y I = y # an d z I = z I
e) Position Vector
For any point P(x, y, z) in R 3 , a vector !! = [x, y, z] is represented by a
directed line segment OP, whose initial point is at origin. Such vectors are
called position vectors in R 3 •
f) Magnitude of a vector : We define the magnitude or norm or length of a
vector !! in space by the distance of the point P(x, y, z) from the origin 0.
:. loPI = l!!I = ~x2 + Y2 + z2
Example 1: For the vectors, .!: = [2,1,3] and !!:'. = [-1,4,0], we have the following:
(i) .!: + w=[2-1,1+4,3 + 0]= [1,5,3]
(ii) .!: - w = [2 + 1,1- 4, 3 - 0] = [3,-3, 3]
(iii) 2w=2[-l,4,0]= [-2,8,0]
(iv) 1_!:-2~ I= ![2+ 2,1-s,3-o]l=l[4,-1,3]1=~(4) 2 + {-1)2 + (3)2 =-J16+ 49+9 =.fi4
7.2.2 Properties of Vectors

Vectors, both in the plane and in space, have the following properties:
Let ~.!'. and !'.!:'. be vectors in the plane or in space and let a,bE R, then
they have the following properties:
(i) ~ + !'. = !'. + ~ (Commutative Property)
(ii) ~ + ~) + !!'. = ~ + ~ + !!'.) (Associative Property)
(iii) ~+(-1)~=!:'_-!:'_=Q (Inverse for vector addition)
(iv) a{!i +!!'.)=a~+ a!!'. (Distributive Property)
(v) a(b!:l_)= (ab)!'.'. (Scalar Multiplication)
Proof: Each statement is proved by writing the vector/vectors in component form in

R 2 I R 3 and using the prop.e rties of real numbers. We give the proofs of
properties (i) and (ii) as follows:
(i) Since for any two real numbers a and b
a + b == b +a , it follows, that
for any two vectors ~ = [x, y] and ~ = [x', y'] in R 2 , we have
g + ~ = [x, y] +[x' + y']
= [x+x' , y+ y']
= [x' +x,y' + y]
= [x', y'] +[x, y]
=~+~
So addition of vectors in R 2 in commutative.

(ii) Since for any three real numbers a, b, c,
(a +b)+c = a+(b+c) it follows that
for any three vectors, ~ = [x, y], ~ = [x', y'] and w = [x", y"] in R 2 , we have
(~ + ~) + w = [x +·x', y + y'] + [x', y"]
= [(x+x')+x",(y+ y')+ y"]

= [x+ (x' + x"), y + (y' + y")]
= [x, y]+[x' + x', y' + y"]
= ~+(~+w)
So addition of vectors in R 2 is associative.

The proofs of the other parts are left as an exercise for the students.
Unit 7: Vectors 339
7.2.3 Another Notation for Representing Vectors in Space

As in plane, similarly we introduce three special vectors
£= [1,0,0], j = [0,1,0] and !_ = [0,0,1] in R 3 (0, 0, ll
As magnitude of i. = ,J1 2 + 0 2 + 0 2 =1 j (0, I, 0)
magnitude of l=.Jo 2 2
+1 +0 =1 2
and magnitude of !_ = ,Joi + 0 2 + 12 =1 So L j and k are called unit vectors

along x-axis, along y-axis and along z-axis respectively. Using the definition of
addition and scalar multiplication, the vector [x, y, z] can be written as
~ = [x, y,z] = [x,O,O]+ [O, y,O]+ [o,o, z]
= x[l,0,0] + y[0,1,0] + z[0,0,1]
= x£ + yj + z!_
Thus each vector [x, y, z] in R 3 can be uniquely represented by x£ + y j + z!_.
In terms of unit vector £ , j and !_ , the sum ~ + .!:'. of two vectors
~=[x,y,z] and ,!:'.=[x',y',z'] is written as
~ + .!:'. = [x + x', y + y', z + z']
=(x + x')! + (y + y')l + (z + z')!_
7.2.4 Distance Between Two Points in Space
If Ofi and0P2 are the position vectors of the points
fi (x1, Y1, Z1) and P2 (x2. Y2, Z2)
The vector fi P2 , is given by

fiP2 = OP2 - Ofi = [x2-X1,Y2 - Yi· Z2-z1]
y
:. Distance between. fi and P2 = j fiP2 j
= ~(x2 - X1 )i + (Yi - Y1 )i + (zi - zi)i

This is called distance formula between tWo points fi and P2 in R 3 •
--~----------~-
Example 2: If ~ = 2! + 31 + k, ~ = 4£ + 61 + 21.i and ~ = -6! - 91- 31.i, then

(a) Find
(i) u+2v (ii)
(b) Show that g, }:'., and w are parallel to each other.

Solution: (a)
(i) ~ + 2~ = 2! + 3-j + k + 2( 4i + 6-j + 2k_)
= 2! + 3-j + k + 8! + 12-j + 4k
= 10! + 15 j + 51.i
(ii) ~ - ~ - ~ = (2! + 31 + k_) - (4! + 61 + 2k_) - (-6! - 91- 31.i)
= (2 - 4 + 6)! + (3 - 6 + 9) j + (1- 2 + 3)1.i
= 4! +6j +2k
(b) ~ = 4! + 6 j + 21.i =2(2! + 3 j + k)
:. v = 2u
=::} Y: and }:'. are parallel vectors and have same direction.
Again w= -6! - 9 j - 3k_
= -3(2! + 3 j + k)
:. w=-3u
=::} Y: and w are parallel vectors and have opposite direction.
Hence M, .!:'. and w are parallel to each other.
7 .2.S Direction Angles and Direction Cosines of a Vector
Let r. = OP= x! + yj + zk:_ be a non-zero vector, let
z p
a , fJ and y denote the angles formed between r and the
unit coordinate vectors i, l and If respectively,
such that
(i) the angles a , fJ, y are called the direction .......................................J..·············..··· y
angles.
Unit 7: Vectors 341
(ii) the numbers cos a' cos fJ and cos y are called direction cosines
of the vector r_.
z
Important Result:
Prove that cos 2 a + cos 2 p + cos 2 'Y =1
Proof:
l~~:.__-~B -•y
Let r = [x, y, z ]= xt + y j + zl.i (O,y. 0)
A
Id= ~x2 + y2 + z2 =r x
(x, O. 0)
then l~I =[:,~,-;.]is the unit vector in the direction of the vector r= OP.
It can be visualized that the triangle OAP is a right triangle with LA = 90 .
Therefore in right triangle OAP,
.. I
OA
cos a = = = -x , sum1ar y
OP r
cos fJ =L, cosy=!:._

r r
x
The numbers cos a = - , cos p =y and cosy=!:_ are called the direction
r r r
cosines of 0 P .
x2 y2 2 x2 + y2 + z2 r2
cos 2 a+cos 2 p+cos 2 y=- +- +~ r2
=1
r 2
r2 r r
2
EXERCISE 7.2
1. Let A= (2, 5), B = (-1, 1) and C = (2, -6). Find
(i)AB (ii) 2AB-CB (iii) 2 CB -2 CA
2. Let !i = ! + 2j_ - l.i , !:'. = 3! - 2 j_ + 2/i , w = 5! - j_ + 3/i . Find the indicated vector
or number.
(ii) _!:'.-3!!:'. (iii) j 3}::'.+ !!:'.!

3. Find the magnitude of the vector l'. and write the direction cosines of .!'. •
(i) y_=2£+31+4k (ii) y_=t-1-k (iii) y_=4t-sL
4. Find a, so that ja£+(a+1)_L+2kl=3.
5. Find a unit vector in the direction of y_ = £+ 2j-k.
6. If g_=3{-j-4k, '2_=-2£-4_L-3k and f=!+21-k·
Find a unit vector para1lel to 3g_ - 21z + 4f .
7. Find a vector whose
(i) magnitude is 4 and is parallel to 2! - 3 j + 6k
(ii) magnitude is 2 and is parallel to - ! + j + k·
8. If !! = 2! + 3 j + 415:_, y_ = -! + 3_L - k and ~ = ! + 6_L + zk represent the sides of
a triangle. Find the value of z.
9. The position vectors of the points A, B, C and D are 2! - 1+ k, 3£ + l •
2! + 4 j- 215:_ and
-
-! -2j- + k respectively. Show that AB is parallel to CD.
10. We say that two vectors l'. and win space are parallel if there is a scalar c such
that l'. = c~. The vectors point in the same direction if c > 0 and the vectors
point in the opposite direction if c < 0
(a) Find two vectors of length 2 parallel to the vector y_ = 2! - 4 j + 4k.
(b) Find the constant a so that the vectors !'. = ! - 3 j + 4k and

~ =at + 9 j -12k are parallel.
(c) Find a vector of length 5 in the direction opposite that of !'. = ! - 2 j + 3k .
(d) Find a and b so that the vectors 3!-1+4k and a!+ b j-2k are parallel.
11. Find the direction cosines for the given vector:

(i) }:'. = 3! - j + 2k (ii) 6!-2j + k
(iii) PQ, where P = (2, 1, 5) and Q = (1, 3, 1).
12. Which of the fo11owing triples can be the direction angles of a single vector:
(i) 45° ,45° ,60° (ii) 30° ,45° ,60° (iii) 45° ,60° ,60°.
Unit 7: Vectors 343
7.3 THE SCALAR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS

We shall now consider products of two vectors that originated in the study of
Physics and Engineering. The concept of angle between two vectors is expressed in
terms of a scalar product of two vectors.
Definition 1:
Let two non-zero vectors!:!. and}:'., in the plane or in space, have same initial
point. The dot product of Y:. and }:'., written as y_.}:'., is defined by
?.!. •~ = ?!.
I II~ Icos e
.
where ()in the angle between Y:. and .!:'. and
Definition 2:
(a) If~= a,!+b 1 j and ~ = a2 !+b 2 j
- -
are two non-zero vectors in the plane. The dot product Y:.·.!:'. is defined by
~-~ = a 1a2 +b1b2
(b) If~= a 1!+b11+c 1k and ~ = a 2 !+b2 1+c2 k
are two non-zero vectors in space. The dot product Y:.·.!:'. is defined by
?.!.·~ = a 1a2 +b1b2 +c 1c 2
I Note: The dot product is also referred to the scalar product or the inner product. I
.3.1 Deductions of the Important Results
By Applying the definition of dot product to unit vectors !, j, j, we have,
(a) !-!= l!l l!I cos0°=1 (b) !·1= I! 111 J cos9o· =0
1·1=/11111 cos0°=1 1·k=l11 lkl cos90° =0
k·k=lkl lkl cos0°=1 k·! =lkl l!I cos90° =0
(c) ?.!.·~=1?.!.11~1 cos(}

=1~11?.!.1 cos(-(})
=1~11?.!.1 cos(}
-u.v=v.u
- - -
x
.. Dot product of two vectors is commutative.

7.3.2 Perpendicular (Orthogonal) Vectors
Definition: Two non-zero vectors ~ and .!:'. are perpendicular if and only
if u. v = 0.
Since angle between u and v is .!!_ and cos.!!_ = 0
- - 2 2
7C
!i·~ = l!il 1~1 cos 2
:. ~.~=0
Note: As Q•!z = 0, for every vector Q . So the zero vector is regarded to be
perpendicular to every vector.
7.3.3 Properties of Dot Product
Let~ • .!:'. and w be vectors and let c be a real number, then
(i) u. v = 0 ==> ~ = 0 or ~ =0
(ii) u.v=v.u (commutative property)
(iii) ~· (~+w) = ~·~ + ~·!!'.' (distributive property)
(iv) (c ~).~ = c (~.~) (c is scalar)
~ ·~ = l!il
2
(v)
The proofs of the properties are left as an exercise for the students.
7.3.4 Analytical Expression of Dot Product "·!:'..
(Dot product of vectors in their components form)
Let
be two non-zero vectors.
From distributive Law we can write:
·· !i ·~ = ( a1! + b1i_ + c1k).( a2! + b2j_ + c2kJ
= a1a2(!.!) + a1b2(!.j_) + a1c2(!.k) -.·!.!=j_.j_=k.k=l
+ b1a2 (j_ •D + b1b2 (j_ • j_) + b1c2 (j_ • k) !.j_ = j_.k = k·! = 0
+c1a2(k.D+ C1b2(k.j_)+ C1C2(k.k)
==> !i·~ = a1a2 +b1b2 +c1c2
Hence the dot product of two vectors is the sum of the product of their
corresponding components.
Equivalence of two definitions of dot product of two vectors has been proved
in the following example.
Example 1: (i) If ~ = [x 1 , Y1 ] and w = [x 2 , Y2 ] are two vectors in the plane, then
~.w = X1X2 + Y1Y2
Unit 7: Vectors 345
(ii) If r and w are two non-zero vectors in the plane, then
!'.·~=l~l l~Jcose
where () is the angle between !'. and w and 0 5 e 5 7r •
Proof: Let r and w determine the sides of a triangle then the third side, opposite to
the angle 9, has length I!'. - ~I (by triangle law of addition of vectors)
By law of cosines,
if
I!'. - w I2 = I!'. I2 +I ~I 2
~
-
= [xp y 1 ] and~= [x 2 , y 2 ], then

_!!'- w = [x 1 - x 2, Yi - Y2]
21 !'.I I~I cos e (1)
Ls
w
()
- -
So equation (1) becomes:

=Ix~+ y~j+j xi+ Yij-21 !'.I I~lease
2
I x 1 -x2 l +I Y 1 - yJ
-2x1x 2 -2y 1 y 2 =-21!'.l I wlcose
=> x 1x 2 + y 1 y 2 =I!'. I I~lease= !'.·w
Example 2: If !± = 3! - j - 2k and !'. = ! + 2j - k, then

- -
!±·!'. = (-3)(1)+(-1)(2)+(-2)(-1)=3
Example 3: If !± = 2! - 4 j + 5k and !'. - 4! - 3 j - 4k , then
- -
!±. !'. = (2)(4) + (-4)(-3) + (5)(-4) = 0
=> !± and !'. are perpendicular
7.3.5 Angle Between Two Vectors ..
The angle between two vectors !± and !'. is determined from the definition of
iot product, that is
{a) !±·!'. = 1!±11!'.lcose, where 05e57r
u. v
e
:. cos = 1;11~1
(b) If!±= a1£+b1 j_+c 1k and _!:'.=a 2 !+b2 j_+c2 !s_, then
!± • !'. = a1a 2 + b1b2 + c1c 2
I!± I=~ a12 + b12 + C12 and I!'. I=~ ai + bJ + ci
Corollaries:
(i) If () = 0 or n , the vectors y_ and .!:'. are collinear.
7r
(ii) If () = - ' cos() = 0 ~ u . v = 0
2 - ~
So the vectors y_ and .!:'. are perpendicular or orthogonal.

Example 4: Find the angle between the vectors
Y:= 2i - j_ + Ii and .!:'. =- i + j_
Solution: Y: . .!:'. = (2i - j_ + /i) . (-i + j_ + 0/i)
= (2) (-1) + (-1)(1) + (1)(0) =-3
1~1=I2!-1 +kl= ~(2)2 + (-1)2 + (1)2 = J6
and
u.v
Now ()
cos =I ~1-1~ I
-3 fj
cos()= J6J2 = - 2
. ()=Sn
.. 6
Example 5: Find a scalar a so that the vectors

2! +a j + 5k and 3! + j + ak are perpendicular.
Solution:
Let Y: =2!+a1+5k and .!:'. =3!+ 1 + ak
It is given that Y: and .!:'. are perpendicular

:. Y: . .!:'. = 0
~ (2! +a 1+5k) . (3! + j + ak_) = 0
~ 6+a+5a=O
a =-1
Unit 7: Vectors 347
Example 6:
Show that the vectors 2! - 1 + k , ! - 31- 5k and 3! - 41- 4k form the sides
of a right triangle.
Solution: c
Let AB = 2! - j + k and BC =! - 3 j - 5k_
Now AB+ BC= (2! - j + k_) + (! - 3 j - 5k_)

- -
=3£-4j-4k_ =AC (third side)
· AB, BC and AC form a triangle ABC.

Further we prove that MBC is a right triangle
AB. BC = (2!- j +k).(£-3j-5k_)
= (2)(1) + (-1)(-3) + (1)(-5)

= 2 + 3-5
- =O
.. AB 1- BC
Hence MBC is a right triangle.
7.3.6 Projection of One Vector Upon Another Vector ~~~~~~~~~~
B
In many physical applications, it is required
to know "how much" of a vector is applied along a
given direction. For this purpose we find the
projection of one vector along the other vector.
Let OA = !:!. and OB = !:'.

Let () be the angle between them,
l.!!.lcosO
such that 0 ~ fJ ~ ir .
Draw BM J_ OA. Then OM is called the projection of .r along H·
Now OM = COS () , that IS,

-=- .
OB
OM =IOBicosfJ =l_!:'.icosfJ (1)

u.v
By definition, cos e = I;, ,~ I (2)
-- u.v
From (1) and (2), OM =I y I· I;II~ I
. . f 1 u.v
:. ProJection o }:'.a ong !! = ~ ll
Similarly, projection of ff: along l'. = l~J
Example 7: Show that the components of a vector are the projections of that vector
along f:. , j and Is. respectively.
Solution: Let y = a!+ b j +els:_ , then
Projection of l'. along f:. = fif= (a!+ b1+els:_).!= a

Projection Of E along j_ = f~i = (ai + b j_ + c/£). j_ = b
Projection of}:'. along Is.= fk1=(a!+b1 + c!s:_).k:_ = c
Hence components a, b and e of vector y = a!+ b j +ck:_ are projections of vector l'.
along !, j and Is. respectively
Example 8: Prove that in any triangle ABC

2
(i) a = b 2 + c 2 - 2bc cos A (Cosine Law)
(ii) a = b cos C + c cos B (Projection Law)
Solution: Let the vectors ~, "Q and c be along
the sides BC, CA and AB of the
triangle ABC as shown in the figure.
(i) a+b+c=O
=> ~ =-(Q+f)
B~--------c
Now ~-~ = (Q+f).(Q+f) Q.
Unit 7: Vectors 349
==:} =b.b+b.c+c.b+c.c
a 2 =b 2 +2b.c+c 2 (:. !z.q_=q_.!z)
a2 = b 2 + c 2 + 2bc .cos(n - A) A
a' =b' +c' -2bccosA
(ii) a+b+c=O
a =-b-c 7C-C
B "'--_ _ _ _ ___..___,_ __..
Take dot product with ~ c
7C-B
a.a= -a.b-a.c
= -ab cos( n - C) - ac cos( n - B)
a ' = abcosC+ac cosB

==:}a= bcosC + c cosB
Example 9: Prove that: cos(a - fi) = cos a cos P +sin as in p
Solution: Let OA and OB be the unit vectors in the .xy-plane making angles a
and p with the positive x-axis.
y
A
So that LAOB = a - p
Now OA= cosa!+sinaj
and OB= cosP!+sinP!
:. OA.OB= (cosa!+sinaj). (cosfi!+sinfij)

- -
==:} joAl!osJ cos(a-P)=cosacosp+sinasinp
:. cos(a - fi) .= cos a cos p +sin a sin P
EXERCISE 7.3
1. Find the cosine of the angle (} between !:!:. and ~:
(i) l_i = 3! + j_ - k , Y. = 2! - j_ + k (ii) l_i = ! - 3j_ + 4k, Y. = 4! - j + 3k
(iii) -u=[-3,5], -v=[6,-2] (iv) !i = [2,-3, l] , ~ = [2, 4, I]
2. Calculate the projection of £!along '2. and projection of '2. along £! when:
(i) (ii)
3. Find a real number a so that the vectors Y: and ~ are perpendicular.

(i) !_!_ =2a!+ j-k_, ~ = ! +aj +4k
(ii) I_!_= a.£+ 2a.j -k ' ~ = ! +aj + 3k_
4. Find the number z so that the triangle with vertices A(l,-1,0), B(-2,2,1) and
C(0,2, z) is a right triangle with right angle at C.
5. If~ is a vector for which
~. ! = 0, ~. j = 0, ~. k = 0, find~·
6. (i) Show that the vectors 3£ - 2 j + k, £- 3 j + 5/s_ and 2£ + j - 4/s_ form a

- -
right angle.
(ii) Show that the set of points P = (1,3,2), Q( 4,1,4) and R = (6,5,5) form
a right triangle.
7. Show that mid point of hypotenuse a right triangle is equidistant from its
vertices.
8. Prove that perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle are concurrent.
9. Prove that the altitudes of a triangle are concurrent.
10. Prove that the angle in a semi circle is a right angle.
11. Prove that cos( a.+ /J) =cos a. cos /3- sin a. sin fJ
12. Prove that in any triangle ABC.
(i) b = c cos A+ a cos C (ii) c = a cos B + b cos A
(iii) b2 =c2 + a 2 - 2cacos B (iv)
2 2
c = a +b 2 -2abcosC.
7.4 THE CROSS PRODUCT OR VECTOR PRODUCT

OF TWO VECTORS
The vector product of two vectors is widely used in Physics, particularly
Mechanics and Electricity. It is only defined for vector in space.
Unit 7: Vectors 351
Let ~ and .!:'.

be two non-zero vectors. The cross or vector product of
~ and.!:'., written as ~ x .!:'., is defined by
~X_!:'. = (1~11.!:'.1 sinO) fl:

where () is the angle between the vectors, such that 0 ~ 0 ~ 7t: and is a unit a
vector perpendicular to the plane of ~ and .!:'. with direction given by the right hand rule.
Figure (a) Figure (b)
Right hand rule

(i) If the fingers of the right hand point along the vector ~ and then curl
towards the vector .!:'.' then the thumb will give the direction of which is u xv. a
It is shown in the figure (a).
(ii) In figure (b), the right hand rule shows the direction of .!:'. x ~.
7.4.1 Derivation of Useful Results of Cross Products
(a) By applying the definition of cross product to unit vectors i,j and Is:, we have:
z
(a) !X!=l!Jl!lsinD° fl=O
_Lx_L=llllllsinD° fl=O
k
kxk=lkJlklsinD° fl=O o~-----•y
j
(b) !X_L=J!lillsin90°k=k x
_L xk =I.L 11 k Isin 90° !=!
kX!=JkJj!Jsin90°_L=_L
(c) ~X.!:'. = 1~11.!:'.J sin() fl = J.!:'.11~1 sin(-{}) fl= -1_!:'.11~1 sinO fl
=> UXV=-VXU
(d) ~X~=1~11~1sin0° fl=O

Note: The cross product. of !, j and k are written in the cyclic

pattern. The given figure is helpful in remembering this pattern.
7.4.2 Properties of Cross Product

The cross product possesses the following properties:
(i) !!:. X~ = Q if !!:. = Q or ~ = Q
-uxv - =-vxu
(ii)
- -
(iii) !!:.X(~+ W) = !!:.X~+!!:.XW (Distributive property)
(iv) !!:.X(k~) = (k!!:.)X~ = k(!!:.X~) , k is scalar
(v) ~X!!:.=Q
The proofs of these properties are left as an exercise for the students.
7.4.3 Analytical Expression of ~x ~
(Determinant formula for u xv )

Let !f:.=a 1!+b11+c1k_ and· ~=a 2 !+b2 1+c 2 k_, then
!!:.X~ = (a 1 ! + b1 1 +c1 k_)x(a 2 ! +b2 1 + c 2 k_)
= a 1a 2 (!x!) + a 1b2 (!x D+ a 1c 2 (!xk_) (by distributive property)
+~~vxo+~~vxD+~~vx~ '.·fXj=k_=-jXf
- -
+ c1a 2 (k_x!) + c1b2 (k_x D+ c1c2 (k_xk_)
=~~k-~~1-~~k.+~~!+~~1-~~!
=> !f:.X~=(b 1 c 2 -c1b2 )!-(a 1c 2 -c1a 2 )1+(a1b 2 -b1a 2 )k_ (i)
The expansion of 3x3 determinant
i j k
=a 1 b1 c 1 =(b1c 2 -c1b2 )!-(a 1c 2 -c1 a )1+(a b
2 1 2
-b,a 2 )k
a2 b2 C2
The terms on R.H.S of equation (i) are the ·same as the terms in the expansion of the
above determinant .
l j k
Hence ~x~ = a 1 b1 c1 (ii)
az bz Cz
Unit 7: Vectors 353
which is known as determinant formula for uxv.

Note: The expression on R.H.S. of equation (ii) is not an actual detenninant, since
its entries are not all scalars. It is simply a way of remembering the complicated
expression on R.H.S. of equation (i).
7.4.4 Parallel Vectors
If Y: and .!:' are parallel vectors, ( () = 0 :::::} sin 0 = 0 ) 1 then
~ x ~ = 1~11~1 sin 8 fl
!! x ~ =Q or I!! x ~ I =0
And if gx~ = Q, then
either sin () = 0 or I!! I= 0 or I~ I= 0
(i) If sin()= 0 :::::} () = 0° or 180°, which shows that the vectors Y: and .!:'. are
parallel.
(ii) If Y: = Q or .!:'. = Q , then since the zero vector has no specific direction, we
adopt the convention that the zero vector is parallel to every vector.
Note: Zero vector is both parallel and perpendicular to every vector. This apparent
contradiction will cause no trouble, since the angle between two vectors is never
applied when one of them is zero vector.
Example 1: . Find a vector perpendicular to each of the vectors
~ = 2! + j + k and q_ =4! + 2 j - k
- -
Solution: A vector perpendicular to both the vectors f! and Q is ~ x q_
i j k
... axb= 2 -1 1 =-!+6j+8k
4 2 -1
Verification: ~.~xq_ = (2!- j + k_).(-! + 6j + 8k_) = (2)(-1) + (-1)(6) + (1)(8) = 0

- -
and q_.~XQ = (4! + 21-k_).(-! + 61+8/s) = (4)(-1) + (2)(6) + (-1)(8) =0
Hence ~ x q_ is perpendicular to both the vectors g_ and l2. .
Example 2: If f! =4! + 3J.. + Ii and q_ =2i - j + 2k . Find a unit vector perpendicular
to both g and b_. Also find the sine of the angle between the vectors g and l2. •
l j k
Solution: axb= 4 3 1 = 7!-6j-10!
2 -1 2
and
A unit vector fl: Iaxb I

perpendicular to f! and Q = ~ x ~
1
= --(7i-6j-10k)
JIBs- - -
Now 1£!1=~(4)2+(3)2+(1)2 =J26
IQl=J<2) 2 +(-1) 2+<2r =3
If e is the angle between f! and "12. • then I f! x QI = I f! 11 QI sine

. 8 lgxQI J185
::::} I II I 3J26
sm = f! Q =
Example 3: Prove that sin(a+ f3) =sin a cos p +cos a sin p

-
Solution: Let OA and OB be unit vectors in the xy-plane making angles a and -/3 with
the positive x-axis respectively
y
So that LAOB = a+ /3
A
Now OA=cosa.f:_+sinaj
and OB =cos(-P)! + sin(-/3)j
=cos p ! - sin f3 j
:. OBxOA =(cos P!-sinf31)x(cosai + sinaD
i j k
loBlloA\sin(a+P)k= co~p -sinp o
cosa sina 0
sin( a+ P)k =(sin a cos p + cosasinp) k
Unit 7: Vectors 355
sin( a +fl) = sin a cos fl+ cos a sin fl

Example 4: In any triangle ABC, prove that
_a_= _b_ = _c_ (Law of Sines)

sinA sinB sinC
Solution: Suppose vectors Q, !2. and £ are along the
sides BC, CA and AB respectively of the triangle
ABC.
=> b+c =-a (i)
Take cross product with f.

!2. x f. + f. x f. = -ax c i!
bxc = cxa (": f.Xf = 0)
1!2.xfl=ifx~I
IQ II f lsin(n-A) =If 11 ~ lsin(n- B)
be sin A= casinB => bsinA = asinB
b a
--=-- (ii)
sinB sinA
similarly by taking cross product of (i) with Q, we have
a c
--=-- (iii)
sinA sinC
a b c
From (ii) and (iii), we get --=--=
sinA sinB sinC
7.4.5 Area of Parallelogram
If H and .l::'. are two non-zero vectors and 0 is the angle between H and .l::'. , then
I!! I and I.!:'. I
represent the lengths of the adjacent sides of a parallelogram, (see figure)
We know that: ---------------,

u
Area of parallelogram = base x height

•· ~I ,;•• ///
=(base) (h) = I!! II.!:'. I sin8
1~1 ~
:. Area of parallelogram= I!! x .!:'.I

7 .4.6 Area of Triangle
From figure it is clear that u
- ...- -- -- - - -- ----1
...... /
Area of triangle = _!_ (Area of parallelogram) ......... //
2 ...... /
...... /
Area of triangle = ~ J!! x :!:'. J '------"_ _ _!'. _ __,
where _!Land :!:'. are vectors along two adjacent sides of the triangle.
Example 5: Find the area of the triangle with vertices
A(l, -1, 1), 8(2, 1, -1) and C(-1, 1, 2)
Also find a unit vector perpendicular to the plane ABC.
i
Solution: AB= (2-1)! + (1+1) + (-1-1) k ::;: ! + 21- 2k
AC=(-l-l)!+(l+l)j+(2-l)k = -2!+2j+k_
Now ABxAC= _: ~ ~i~(2+4)i-(l-4),i+(2+4)! = 6i+3j+6!

2
The area of the parallelogram with adjacent sides AB and AC is given by
I ABxAcl = J6! +31 +6kJ = "'36+9+36 = J8i = 9
Areaofthetriangle= ~IABxACI= ~ J6!+3j+6k.J= ~
1
~x~
1
A unit vector l. to the plane ABC= = !(6i +3j +6!)=!(2i + j+ 2!)
ABxAC 9 - 3 -
Example 6: Find area of the parallelogram whose vertices are P(O, 0, 0), Q(-1, 2, 4),
R(2, -1, 4) and S(l, 1, 8).
Solution: Area of parallelogram = I!! x .!:'. \
where !! and :E are two adjacent side of the parallelogram
PQ=(-1-0)!+(2-0)1+(4-0)k_ = -!+2j+4k_
and PR = (2- 0) ! + (-1- 0) l + (4- 0) k = 2! - l + 4k_
- - -- -- - - - - - -
Unit 7: Vectors . 357
i j k
Now
- -1
-PQxPR= 2 4 =(8+4)!-(-4-8)j+(l-4)k
2 -1 4
Be careful!:
. . Area of parallelogram= IPQ
x PR I= j 12! + 12j -3k I
Not all pairs of vertices
give a side e.g. PS is
=.J144+ 144+9 not a side, it is diagonal
= .J297 since PQ +PR = PS
- - -
I
Example7: If fl:. = 2! - j + k and y_ = 4! + 2j - k , find by detenninant formula

(i) fl:.Xfl:. (ii) u xv (iii) vxu
Solution: 1l:. = 2! - j + k and y_=4!+2j-k

By determinant formula
i j k
(i) uxu= 2 -1 1 =0 ( :. Two rows are same)
2 -1 1
i j k
(ii) uxv= 2 -1 1 =(1-2)!-(-2-4)j+(4+4)k = -!+6j+8k
4 2 -1
i j k
(iii) }!_Xfl:.= 4 . 2 -1 =(2-1)!-(4+2)j+(-4-4){f = !-6j-8'5.
2 -1 1
EXERCISE 7.4
1. Compute the cross product f! x Qand ~ x f! . Check your answer by showing
that each f! and ~ is perpendicular to f! x ~ and Qx f! .
(i) g_ = 2! + -j - k ' Q= ! - -j + k (ii) g_ = ! + -j ' ~ = ! - -j
(iii) g_ =3!-2j +k ' Q=! + -j (iv) f! = -4! + j - 2! , ~ = 2! + j + k

- - -
2. Find a unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing f! and ~ . Also find
sine of the angle between them.
(i) g_=2!-6j_-3k '!!..=4!+3j_-k (ii) g_=-!-j_-k '!!..=2!-3j_+4k
(iii) g_ = 2!-21_ + 4k , !!.. = -! + j_-2k (iv) g_ = ! + j_ , !!.. = !- j_

3. Find the area of the triangle, determined by the point P, Q and R.
(i). P(O, 0, 0); Q(2, 3, 2); R(-1, 1, 4) (ii) P(l, -1, -1); Q(2, 0, -1); R(O, 2, 1)
4. Find the area of parallelogram, whose vertices are:
(i) A(O, 0, 0) ; B(l, 2, 3) ;C(2, -1, 1); D(3, 1, 4)
(ii) A(l , 2, -1); 8(4, 2, -3); C(6, -5, 2); D(9, -5, 0)
(iii) A(-1, 1, 1); B(-1, 2, 2); C(-3, 4, -5); D(-3, 5, -4)
S. Which vectors, if any, are perpendicular or parallel
(i) ~ = 5!- j_ + k ; Y. = j_-5k ; !!' = -15! + 3 j_- 3!:_
(1·1·) • 2 . k . . k 7r . . 7r k
~=!+ l--; y_=-!+ l+ - ; w=-2!-7rl+2 _
6. Prove that: g_ x (!!._ + f) + !!.. x (f + g_) + f x (g_ + !!._) = 0
7. If. g_ + !!.. + f = 0 , then prove that g_ x !!.. = !!.. x f = f x g_

8. Prove that: sin( a - p) = sin a cos p + cos a sin p .
9. If g_ x !!.. = 0 and g_ · !!.. = 0 , what conclusion can be drawn about g_ or !!.. ?
7.5 SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT OF VECTORS

There are two types of triple product of vectors:
(a) Scalar Triple Product: (~ x y_) · w or !i · (y_ x w)
(b) Vector Triple product: ~ x (~ x w)
In this section we shall study the scalar triple product only
Definition
Let ~=a 1 !+b 1 j_+c 1 k, ~=a 2 !+b2 j_+c 2 k and w=a 3 f+b 3 j_+c3 k:_
be three vectors
The scalar triple product of vector g, ~ and w is defined by
!i_.(~xw) or y_.(wx~) or w.(!i_X~)
The scalar triple product ~.(y_ x w) is written as

Unit 7: Vectors 359
!!·(!:'.X w) =[!! !:'. w]

7.5.1 Analytical Expression of !!·<f x !f.)
Let !! =a,!+ b,1 + c,k , !:'.=a,!+ b,1 + c, k and '!£ = a 3 !+b3 1 + c 3k
i j j
Now VXW= ai b2
a3 b3
~ !:'.X w = (b 2c 3- b3c 2) ! -(a 2c3- a 3c 2)l + (a 2b3- a 3b2)k
• !!·(!:'.XW) = a 1(b 2 c 3 - b3c 2)-b,(a 2c3-a 2c 3 -a 3c 2) +c,(a 2b3 -a 3b2)
a, bl C1
~ !!·(!:'.XW) = ai b2 C2
b3 C3
which is called the determinant formula for scalar triple product of H, ~ and
!!::'. in component form.
a1 b, C1
Now u.(vxw)
- - - = ai b2 C2
a3 · b3 C3
ai b2 C2
=- a, bl C1 Interchanging R, and R 2
a3 b3 C3
ai b2 C2
'
a3 b3 C3 Interchanging R 2 and R 3
a, bl c,
... -u.(vxw)=
- -
~.C'!£XH)
ai b2. C2
I
Now ~.C'!£XH) = a3 •b3 C3
. ... -
a, -· b1 · c1
__J
a3 b3 C3
=- a2 b2 Ci Interchanging R1 and R 2
a1 bl C1
a3 b3 C3
= a1 bl C1 Interchanging R 2 and R 3
a2 b2 C2
}:'..(!fx!LJ = w.(!iX}:'.)
Hence !i·(_!:'.XW) = }:'..UfX~) = W.(!iX}:'.)
Note: (i) The value of the triple scalar product depends upon the cycle order of
the vectors, but is independent of the position of the dot and cross. So the dot and
cross, may be interchanged without altering the value i.e;
(ii) ~X_!:'.)· !!'. = !i · ~x!!'.)= fu_ .!:'. w]
~x~)· !i = }:'. · ~X!i)= ~ ~ !il
~X!i)·_!:'. = !!'.' ~X_!:'.)= ~ !i _!:'.]
(iii) The value of the product changes if the order is non-cyclic.
(iv) !i ·_!:'. ·!!'. and !i ~~·!!'.)are meaningless.
7 .5.2 The Volume of the Parallelepiped ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
The triple scalar product (!ix.!:'.) · !!'.

represents the volume of the parallelepiped
having !i, .!:'. and !!'. as its conterminous
M 8
edges.
As it is seen from the formula that:
height = l!!:'I cos 8
I 0
Area of base
=i.!! x ~I
Hence (i) l!i x !'.I = are of the parallelogram with two adjacent sides !i and .!:'..
(ii) I~ cos 8 = height of the parallelepiped
(!ix}:'.)· w = l!i x !'.I I~ cos 8 = (Area of Parallelogram) (height)

= Volume of the parallelepiped
Unit 7: Vectors 361
Similarly, be taking the base plane formed by }:'. and w, we have ·

The volume of the parallelepiped = ~ x !!'.) · ~
And by taking the base plane formed by ~ and ~ , we have
The volume of the parallelepiped = ~ x ~) · }:'.
So, we have: (~X}:'.}- ~ = (}:'.X w)- ~ = (~x~) · }:'.
7 .5.3 The Volume of the Tetrahedron:
D
Volume of the tetrahedronABCD
= _!_ (MBC) (height of D above the place ABC)

3
1 1
= 3·2 l ~x}:'.I (h)
B
= _!_ (Area of parallelogram ~ith AB and AC as adjacent sides) (h)
6
= i (Volume of the parallelepiped with Y., }:'., w as edges)
Thus volume= _!_ (u xv). w

6 - - - = _!_ ru v
6~--
w]
Properties of triple scalar Product:
1. If Y., !'. and w are coplanar, then the volume of the parallelepiped
so formed is zero i.e., the vectors Y., }:'., !!:'. are coplanar <::::> (~ x }:'.). ~ = 0
2. If any two vectors of triple scalar product are equal, then its value is zero i.e.,
[!! ~ ~1 = [!! !'. }:'.]= 0
Example 1: Find the volume of the parallelepiped determined by
~ = ! + 2j- k' }:'. = ! - 2j- + 3!s:_' ~= !- 7-j -4!5:.
1 2 -1
Solution: Volume of the parallelepiped = ~ ·:!:'. x w = 1 - 2 3
1 -7 -4
=> Volume= 1(8 + 21) -2(-4-3)-1(7 + 2)
= 29 + 14 + 5 = 48
Example 2: Prove that four points

A(-3, 5, -4), B(-1, 1, 1), C(-1, 2, 2) and D(-3, 4, -5) are coplaner.
Solution: AB = (-1 + 3) ! + (1 - 5) j + (1 + 4) k = 2! - 4 j + 5'5_
AC= (-1 +3)! + (2-5) j + (2+ 4)'5_ = 2!-3j +6'5_
AD= (-3+3)! + (4-5) _L + (-5 +4)'5_ = 0!- _L-k=- _L-k

Volume of the parallelepiped formed by AB, AC and AD is
2 -4 5
[AB AC AD]= 2 -3 6 = 2(3+ 6) +4(-2-0)+5(-2-0)
0 -1 -1
=18-8-10=0
As the volume is zero, so the points A, B, C and D are coplaner.
Example 3: Find the volume of the tetrahedron whose vertices are
A(2, 1, 8), B(3, 2, 9), C(2, 1, 4) and D(3, 3, 0)
Solution: AB = (3 - 2)! + (2 -1) j + (9 - 8) k = !+ j +k
AC= (2- 2) ! + (1-1) j + (4-8) '5_ = 0!-0 j -4'5_
AD= (3-2)! +(3-l)j +(0-8)'5_ = !+2j-8'5_
.
l(---1
Volume of the tetrahedron= - ABAC AD
6
Example 4: Find the value of a , so that a! + j , ! + j + 3'5_ and 2! + j - 2'5_ are

coplaner.
Solution: Let ~ = a!+ _L + k, y_ = ! + _L + 3'5_ and ~ = 2! + .L - 2'5_
Triple scalar product

Unit 7: Vectors 363
a 1 0
[u v w]= 1 1 3 = a(-2-3)-1(-2-6)+0(1-2)
2 1 -2
= -5a+8
8
The vectors will be coplaner if - 5a + 8 =0 :=:::) a=-
5
Example 5: Prove that the points whose position vectors are A(-6! + 3 j + 2k),
B(3!-2j + 4k), C(5! + 7 j + 3k_), D(-13! + 17 j-k_) are coplaner.
- - -
Solution: Let 0 be the origin.
OA=-6!+3j+2k ; OB=3!-2j+4k
OC=5!+7j+3k; OD=-13!+17j-k_
- -
AB= OB-OA = (3!-2j +4k_)-(-6! + 3j + 2k_)
= 9!-5j + 2k ·
AC= OC-OA = (5! + 7 j +4k)-(-6! +3j + 2k_)

- -
= 11! + 4j +k
AD = OD - OA = (-13! + 17 j - k) - (-6! + 3-j + 2!~)

-
=-7!+14j-3k_
-5 2 9
Now AB.(ACxAD) = 11 4 1
-7 14 -3
= 9(-12-14) +5(-33+ 7) + 2(154+ 28)

= -234-130+364 = 0
.. AB, AC, AD are coplaner
:=:::) The points A, B, C and D are coplaner.
7 .5.4 Application of Vectors in Physics and Engineering

(a) Work done. F
If a constant force F, applied to a body,
acts at an angle () to the direction of motion, then
the work done by F is defined to be the product
of the component of F in the direction of the
displacement and the distance that the body
moves.
In figure, a constant force F acting on a
A d B
body, displaces it from A to B.
:. Work done= (component of F along AB) (displacement)
= (F cos B)(AB) = F . AB
Example 6: Find the word done by a constant force F = 2! + 41, if its points of
application to a body moves it from A(l, 1) to B( 4, 6) .
(Assume that IFI is measured in Newton and 141 in meters.)
Solution: The constant force F = 2! + 4 j ,
The displacement of the body = 4 = AB
= (4-1)! + (6-l)j- = 3! +5j-
:. work done = F .d
= (2! + 4-j) • (3! + 5-j)
= (2)(3) + (4)(5) = 26 nt. m
Example 7: The constant forces 2! + 51 + 6k and - ! + 21 + k act on a body,
which is displaced from position P(4,-3,-2) to Q(6,1,-3). Find the total word done.
Solution: Total force= (2! + 51+6!f) + (-!- 2j- !f)
:=:} F = ! + 3 j + 5!f
The displacement of the body = PQ = (6 - 4)! + (1+3) j + (-3 + 2)k
4 = 2! + 4 j - k
:=:}
· Work done= F .4
= (! +31 +5~J .(2! +41-k)
= 2+12-5 =9 nt. m
Unit 7: Vectors 365
(b) Moment of Force

Let a force F (PQ) act at a point P as
shown in the figure, then
0
moment of F about 0.
; product of force F and perpendicular ON • fl.
= (PQ)(ON)(fl.) = (PQ)(OP)sin8 .B_ B F Q
=OPxPQ = r_xF
Example 8: Find the moment about the point M (-2,4, -6) of the force represented
Solution:
-AB = (3 -1)! + (-4 - 2) j + (2 + 3)! = 2! - 6 j + 5k
by AB, where coordinates of points A and Bare (1, 2, -3) and (3, -4, 2) respectively.
..
- -
MA= (1+ 2)! + (2-4)j + (-3+6)! = 3!-2j +3!
- -
---+ --+
Moment of AB about (-2, 4, -6) = !.. x F = MA x AB
l j k
= 3 -2 3
2 -6 5
= (-10+ 18)!-(15-6)j + (-18+ 4)k
=8!-9j-14k
Magnitude of the moment= ~(8) 2 +(-9) 2 +(-14) 2 =.J341
EXERCISE 7.5
1. . Find the volume of the parallelepiped for which the given vectors are three
edges.
(i) ~=3! + 2!; '£.=! + 2j + !; w= - j + 4!
(ii) ~=!-41- !; y_=! -1-2!; w= 2!- 3j+k

(iii) ~=!- 21 +3!£; y_= 2! -1-1£; ~=1+1£
2. Verify that
f! • ex £ = e.. £ x f! = £. !!: x e.
if g_ = 3! - 1+ 5k, P. = 4! + 31 - 2!£ and f = 2! + 51 + !£
•
3. Prove that the vectors ! -2j + 3k:_, -2! + 3j_- 4k:_ and !- 3j + 5k:_ are
coplanar.
4. Find the constant a such that the vectors are coplanar.
(i) !- j + k:_, ! - 2j-3k:_ and 3! -a j_ +5k:_,
(ii) ! - 2 a j - k:_, ! - j + 2k:_ and a! - j + k

5. (a) Find the value of:
(i) (ii) 3 j. k x! (iii) [ k! j] (iv) [! i k:_]
(b) Prove that _H.(!'. x w) + .!:'.·~ x .H) + w.(.H x ,!:'.) = 3_M.(}'. x w)

6. Find volume of the Tetrahedron with the Vertices
(i) (0, 1, 2), (3, 2, 1), (1, 21) and (5, 5, 6)
(ii) (2, 1, 8), (3, 2, 9), (2, 1, 4) and (3, 3, 10).
7. Find the work done, if the point at which the constant force F = 4! + 3j_ + 5k:_
is applied to an object, moves from Pi (3,1,-2) to P2 (2,4,6).
8. A particle, acted by constant forces 4£ + j_ - 3k:_ and 3! - j_ - k , is displacement
from A(l,2,3) to 8(5,4,1). Find the word done.
9. A particle is displaced from the point A(5,-5,-7) to the point 8(6,2,-2)
under the action of constant forces defined by 10 ! - j + 1 lk_, 4! + 5 j + 9k:_ and
- -
- 2£ + j -9k . Show that the total work done by the forces is 102 units.
10. A force of magnitude 6 units acting parallel to 2!-2j + k displaces, the point
of application from (1, 2,3) to (5,3,7). Find the work done.
11. A force f_ = 3! + 2j-4k:_ is applied at the point (1,-1, 2). Find the moment of
the force about the point (2, -1, 3).
12. A force E = 4£-3k, passes through the point A(2,-2,5). Find the moment of
E about the point 8(1,-3,1). ,
13. Give a force E= 2£ + j_-3k:_ acting at a point A(l,-2,1). Find the moment off_
about the point 8(2,0,-2) .
14. Find the moment about A(l, 1, 1) of each of the concurrent forces !-2j,
3! + 2 j_ - k:_, 5 j_ + 2k_ , where P(2, 0, 1) is their point of concurrency.
15. A force F = 7£ + 4j_-3k:_ is applied at P(l,-2,3). Find its moment about the
point Q(2, 1, 1) .
Answers 367
EXERCISE 1.1
2
1. (a) (i) 6 (ii) 0 (iii) x - 3x + 2 (iv) x 4 +7x 2 +12
(b) (i) Ji (ii) 2 (iii) .Jx+3 (iv) ~x 2 +8
2. . ) -sm
(i) 6 (ii) l:.....cos(a+!!_)sin!!_ (iii) h 2 +(3a+2)h+3a 2 +4a (1v - 2 . ( a+-
h ) sm-
. h
h 2 2 h 2 2
1
3. (a) P = 4.JA. (b) A = - C 2 (c) V = (A) 312
4n-.
4. (i) Dom g = Set of real numbers; Range g = Set of real numbers
(ii) Domg=R-(-2,2); Rangeg= [O,+oo]
(iii) Dom g = [-1, + oo); Range g = [O, + oo]

(iv) Domg= (-oo,+oo); Rangeg= (O,+oo)
(v) Domg= (-oo,+oo); Rangeg= [-oo,+oo)
(vi) Domg=(-oo,+oo); Rangeg=(-oo,+2)u[7,+oo)
(vii) Domg= R-{-1}; Rangeg= R-{l}
(viii) Domg= R-{4}; Rangeg= R-{8}
5. a= 2, b =-2 (i)(a) 30 m (b) 17.5 m (c) 11.1 m (ii) 2sec

6.
7. (i) odd (ii) neither even nor odd (iii) odd (iv) neither even nor odd (v) even (vi) odd
EXERCISE 1.2
1. (i) (a) 5+ x (b) 2- (c) 4x+ 3 (d) 3(x -1)

x-1 2x 4-x
(ii) (a) ~1 + x2 (b) _1_ (c) ~J;+I +1 (d) x 4

x x+l
(jii) (a)
x~x
1
2
+2
(b) ( - x
x-l
J I-~
4 2
( c ) f g f i (d) (x + 2x + 2)
2
(iv) (a) 8(6\-1) (b)

2
(c) 3(3x 4 -2x 2 ) 4 -2(3x 4 -2x 2 ) 2 (d)~2../x
x x~3x 2
-2
3 3
8-x 9
2. (i) (a) (b) (ii) --
(a) (x-7r (b) (-8r
-
2 2 3 3
(iii) (a) 9 -x 1/3 (b) 9-(-1) 113 (iv) (a) x+ l (b) 0

x-2
3. (i) Dom =[0, oo), Range =[-2, oo) (ii) Dom =R-{-1},Range =R-{4}
(iii) Dom= R-{O} , Range= R-{-3} (iv) Dom =[0,+oo), Range =[5,+oo)
EXERCISE 1.3
1. (i) JO (ii) 5 (iii) 4 (iv) 0 (v) 0 ( VI") -13
4
2. (i) 2 (ii) 4 C°)

Ill -12 (iv) 0
5
I
(v) - -
2
..
(vi) I (vn)
1
.fi.
2 2
.. .
(vm) rx
I
2 x
(ix) .!!_ xn-m
m
7r: a
3. (i) 7 (ii)- (iii) 0 (iv) I (v) - (vi) I (vii) 2 . (viii) _!. (ix) 0
180 b 2
p2
(x) 0 (xi) - ( XII.. ) - I
q2 2
4. (i) e 2 (ii) e 112 (iii) e- 1 (iv) e 111 (v) e 4 (vi) e 6 (vii) e 2 (viii) e-1 (ix) e - 1 (x) -J (x) I
EXERCISE 1.4
1. (i) -2, -2, -2 (ii) 0, 0, 0 (iii) 0, 0, 0
2. (i) Continuous (ii) Discontinuous
3. Continuous at x=2, Discontinuous at x =-2 4. c=-1
s. (i) m =1, n =3
1
(ii) m =3 6. k=-
6
EXERCISE 1.5
Draw the graph yourself
EXERCISE 2.1
.. I ... I -3 l
1. (i) 4x (11) - - - (111) --- (iv) (v)
2/; 2x3/2 x4 (x-a) 2
(vi) 2x-3 (vii)--

8
x5
(viii)
3(x+4) 213
(ix) 3rx 2
(x) -5x 3/2
2
(xi) mxm-I (X.11.. ) ---
m
(xiii) 40x 39 (XIV -100
. )- -
xm+I XIOI
2. (i) l .. )
( 11 I
-----
2../x+2 2(x+ a) 312
EXERCISE 2.2
(i) 3a(ax+b) 2 (ii) 10(2x+3) 4 (iii) -6 (iv) -Sa (v) -7a

3
(3t+2) (ax+b) 6 (az-b) 8
EXERCISE 2.3
1. 4x 3 +6x 2 + 2x 2. -3[-l x4
+-1]
xs12
3
2a
• (a-x) 2
4.---
8
(2x+ 1) 2
I'" 11 ·r'rs
369
x2 -I l-3x 2 2
:'. _"I\ • x 6.-- 7. ----=,...... S. 2x(x +1) (x -3)
9
. -8x
x2 2.,Jx (x2-l)2 (x 2 -3) 2
1 1
Ill. - - or 11. x+ 2 or x+2 -a
12. r--
rI \)~ (l-x) 11 2~ (x2+1)Jx2+I (x2 + l)312 va-x(a+x)3 12
u. -2.x I-~ I 2
a -x 2 + ax
14. ~or
J,2+l(x2 -1) 3/2 2
x vl-x
2
~(l+Jl-x 2 )
15.
-{<i+X(a-x)
3/2
EXERCISE 2.4
. -I 2 2
1. (I) --==,.---,,...,..,.- (ii) 2.,Jx + l ... )
(Ill
a -x +ax
~ (l + x) 3/ 2
4.f;~x+.Jx -Ja+x(a-x) 312
(iv) 12(3x 2 -2x+7) 5 (3x-l)
(i) -3 -y 2(x-2y) CIV) 4x+hy+ g

2. (ii) (iii) -
4 (x+2y) 4x+5 hx+by+ f
(v)
.Jl+Y<y+2Jo+x)(l+ y) -2(3x 2 +2) . 02 b(1-t 2 )
(vi) 3. (1) - 2 - (ii) -
JI+; (x+2J(l+x)(l+ y)) 2
(x -1) 2 Jx 2 +4 -1 e
2at
4
5. (i)~ (ii) n(I +x 2 )n-I (iii)
-2x CIV) (ad-bc)(ax 2 +d) 2 -4
6 (v)
2x (x-1) 2 2ax(cx+d) 2 (d-b) 3x(x 2 -1) 2
EXERCISE 2.5
1. (i) 2cos2x (ii) 3sec 2 3x (iii) 2(cos2x-sin2x) (iv) -2xsinx 2
2 . sec 2 x
") -sin.,Jx
(v) 2tanxsec x (v1) ( VII ~I
2 tanx
2vx .
2. 2 2 2
(i) 2..r sec4x[I + 2xtan4xJ (ii) tan Bsec B[3sec B+ 2tan2BJ (iii) 2(sin28-cos3B) (2cos2 B+ 3sin3{})
( I V )I-
2
r-s;n-Jx +cos
.,Jx
- x-
,Jsin x
l 3. (i) cosy
1+xsin y
(ii)
ycos y+siny
4. (i)
·H!f
sm - -
1+2x
2~ (I+ 2x) 312
(ii)
cos f#f
2,,/1+2x (I+ x) 312
x
5. (i) -cos x sin 2 x I
(ii) --sec 2
2
x
t sin t 1 -a -1
9. 10. (i) ---;:::::=== (ii) 22 (iii) -r====
cos t - sin t -Ja2-x2 a +x x.Jx 2 -a 2
-1 -2 2 2
(iv) r:-7" (v) - 2
- (vi) - - -2
(vii) - -2
vl-x 2 x +I l+x l+x
EXER,CISE 2.6
1
1 e rx-1 xe~(3x-1)
2x
1. ( t.) - - (ii) (iii) (x(l+ln ·x)+l)e"' (iv) 2 +e"' (v) !!_.::__
2./x x (e-x +1)2 e2x +l
(viii) tanh2x
(ii) 1+2/n x ... ) lnx-1

2. or 2x ln./x +J_x (111 - -
2 2.Jtnx (/nx)2
2x .) 1 .. ) -2x
-x(2 Inx+l) (v) - 4- (v1 ~ (Vll - -
x -1 vx2+1 9 - x2
(viii) 2e-2"'(cos2x-sin2x) (ix) -e-"'(x 3 -x 2 -4x+l) (x) (xcosx+l)esinx (xi) 15e 3"'-4
(xii) (x+l)"'[x+(x+l)/n(x+l)] or (x+l)"'[~+/n(x+t)J (xiii) (lnxi""'(ln(lnx)+lj

x+l x+l . . x )
2
. ) 5x -8x+2
(XlV
2(x 2 -x+l) 512 .Jx-l
3. (i) 2sinh2x (ii) 3cosh3x (iii) secx (iv) ~6

l+x
(v) 2cosech2x (vi) Q 4+x 2
EXERCISE 2.7
3 -x+3
1. (i) 40x 3 - 36x 2 + 24x (ii) (iii)
.J2x+5 5
4x 2
60x+65
(ii)
(2x+3) 2 (3x+2) 2
3. (i) - -
a2 .. ) -2a 3 x ... ) 1 2b c- 2
-g 2
( 11 - - ( lll - - - - (iv)
2a (v) -/- -
y3 y5 a sin 3
() (y+ /)3
4. (i) 8lsin3x (ii) -60cosx+81cos 3 x (iii) -

1
6( (x-3) 4
+ 1) 4
(x+3)
~---~~---~
Answers 371
EXERCISE 2.8
4. cos 6 r = .4848
EXERCISE 2.9
1.(i) !increases on the intervai(- ; , ; )and decreases on the intervals (-tr,- ; )and ( ~ • tr)
(ii) f increases on the interval (- ; , 0) and d~reases on the intervals ( 0. ; )
(iii) f increases on the interval (-2, 0) and decreases on the intervals (0, 2)
(iv) /increases on the intervai(- ~ , 1)and decr~ses on the intervals (-4, - ~ )

2.(i) (0, 1) is the point of inflexion.
(ii) f has relative minima at x = __!_ and 1(_!_)=-..2_

2 2. 4
(iii) f has relative minima at x =~ and 1(~) =_!_

5 5 5
(iv) f has relative minima at x=O and /(0)=0
(v) f has relative minima at x =23 and 1(2 )= .!_!_
l
3 3
(vi) . .
f hasrelattvemaXImaat x= 1-./55 and. f rl-./55 1 ,. r;:;:
- - - =-(-247+22uv55)
3 3 27
f has relative · · at x = l + J55 and f ( -

· 1D1ruma
3
l+-./55
-
3
l
=- -l (247 + 22"uv:>:>
. 27
r;:;:S5)
(vii) f has relative maxima at x = 0 and f (0) = 0

/hasrelativeminimaat x=J2 and /(/2)=-4
f has relative minima at x = -J2 and f(-J2) =-4
(viii) f has relative maxima at x =_..±_3 and 1(_±_3 )= __!_

27
f has relative minima at x =2 and f (2) =0
(ix) f has relative maxima at x =1 and /(1) =7
f has relative minima at x =-1 and /(-1) =3
372 Calculus and A11c1/r1ic <;,.,,,,,, 11 1
3. f ha · relative maxima at x = ; and 1(: )= .J2

f has relative minima at x = 451t and f ( 4
51t ) = -vr;;
2
EXERCISE 2.10
1. 15, 15 2. 10, 10 3. 4, 8 4. 5cm, 5cm 5. 30cm, 30cm 6. 6cm. 6cm
7. 2dm, 2dm 8. 20m, 20m 9. depth =~ 10. 8../2 cm, 4./2 cm 11. (I, 0) 12. ( 2. 5 I
2
EXERCISE 3.1
l .(i) y=.1204, dy=0.12 (ii) by =-1.16, dy =-1.2 (iii) y = 0.1, dy = 0.1025
dy y+I dx x (ii) dy x dx 2y
2.(i)
dx = ----.;_:-- ' dy =- y + I dy =- 2y' dy =-~
(iii) dy y 2 -4x 3 dx 2y(x-1)

3
(iv)
dx 2y(l-x) ' dy 4x - ./
3. (i) 2.03125 (ii) 1.9875 (iii) 0.8747 (iv) 0.8747

4. 1.5 (Cubic units)
EXERCISE 3.2
2 .:: .!.. 5
2 - I 2 I ;
1.(i) x·' -x-? +x+c (ii) -x 2 +2x 2 +c (iii) -x 2 +-x +c (iv) -(2.r+3)2 ' '
3 5 2 3
3 3 I
114-:i ], - -
(v) -x- +-x- +x+c (vi) -x- -2x+ln x+c (vii) 2x2 +4x 2 +c (viii)
2 3 2
2 I I 3
2
(ix) '!:..a3 -2 +282 +c {x)
3
--(1-.Jx}1
3
+c or 2x2 +'!:..x2 -2x+c
3
(xi) ex +x+c
2(i)
I
3 (a~b)((x+a)%-(x+b)% }c
s
(ii) 2tan- 1x-x+c ...
(111)
1
2
3 [ \l
.:: -;-
a (x+ah -x- +c
(iv) --(a-2x)2 +c (v) -e-x +3x+3ex +_!_e 2 x +c (vi) ---cos(a+b}x+c

5 2 a+b
(vii) -.J2 cos x+c (viii) _!_(lnx)2 +c . ) -x--szn
(1x 1 1 . 2 x+c
(x) tan-+c
x
2 2 4 2
(xi) ~ lnlax 2
+2bx+cl+c 1 (xii) -~( co~5 x +cos x )+c (xiii) -tanx+2x+c (xiv) tanx-.r+c
Answers 373
EXERCISE 3.3
2~4-x 2 +c
3-
}I tan-I ( -x+2) +c
1. 2. 3. x-2 tan- 1 ~+c
2
4. ln(ln x)+c s. ln(e x +3)+c 6. ~x 2 +2bx+c +c 1
7. 2~tan x +c x
9. +c 10. ln(tan- 1 x)+c
Jld
11. -~·i11 1 .r - ~l-x 2 +c 12. - tan - 1(cos )+c 13.
2
a
sm
. -I
(
X
-;;
2 +c l
14. . - I ( -x+3)
sm - +c
4
15. ln(/n sin x)+c 16. _]_(In sinx) 2 +c
2
17. I
2/n (x 2 +2x+4)- fj tan I '(x+I)
fj +c 18.
4
I tan _1 - - (x +1)+c2
3 I
~ J+c
2 -2 -2
19. 2sin( fx- 20. -(x+3) -2(x+3) +c
3
21.
ln,sec(x-4 J+tan(x-: Jl+c 22.
In' coseclx+3 )-co{ x+; Jl+c
EXERCISE 3.4
1. (i) sinx-xcos x+c (ii) x In x-x+c (iii) I

2x 2(
lnx- I
2
J+c
(iv)
3
l
~3 lnx--
J ) +c
3 .
(v)
4
x4 (in x-+ J+c (vi)

5
5x ( In 1 ) +c
X-'S
(vii) x tan- 1x-_J_ln(x 2

2
+l)+c (viii) -x 2 cos x+2xsinx+2cos x+c
x3 x2
(ix)
_ 1
-tan 1 x--+-ln(x
3
2
6 6
+l)+c (x) l( 2tan
1 -I
x ) (x 2 +l)- 1 x+c
2
(xi) 4l
3
[ (x 4 -I) tan -I x- x +x +c
3
l (xii) (x 3 -6x)sin x+(3x 2 -6)cos x+c
~
(xiii) . -I
xsm x+ .fi7
-x +c (xiv)
X
2
• -1
-sm x--sm x+
1 . -I X\I l - x-
+c
2 4 4
(xv) -Ie x (2 sm
. 2 x- I +-sm
I . 2 x ) +c (xvi) _!_(sin xcos x-xcos2x)+c
5 2 4
X.2
or -szn I 1 . 2x+c
x--x+-szn (xvii) _!_(x 2 +xsin2x+_!_cos2x)+c
2 4 8 4 2
(xviii) 41 ( x 2 -xsm2x-
. I cos2x ) +c (xix) x lnx(lnx-2)+2x+c
2
(xx) tanx ln(tanx)-tanx+c r----:, . - I
(xxi) x-\ll-x- sm x+c
tan 3 x tan 3 x
2. (i). ---tanx+x+c (ii) tanx+---+c
3 3
(iii) I
-e x[
I . 3 .
-sm3x--cos3x+sznx-cosx] +c (.1v) - 1 ( secxtan
. 2 x- 2 secx) +c
4 5 5 3
1
or -sec3 x-secx+c 1 5x ( x 3 - -3 x 2 +6- x -6- ) +c
(v)-e
3 5 5 25 125
(vi) - 52 e -x(cos2x+ 21 sin2x Jt c (vii) ~e 2 x(sin 3x+~cos3x l+c

13 3 J
(viii) - ~ (cot xcosecx- In Icosecx- cot x I)+ c
X ~ +-sm- (ii)~ ~x 2 -a 2 -a: lnlx+~x 2 -a 2 l+c
2
4. (i). -va--x- a • 1(XJ
- +c
2 2 a
(iii) x~
2 v4-sx- + J5sm
2 . _,[Ex
-
1 -rc
2
(iv) x ~
3 4 +-sm
-\13-4x-
2
3 .
4
2 -1(-2x J+c
J3
(v) ~ ~x 2 +4 +2 In( x+~x 2 +4 )+c
(vi) la.t2 2ax 2ax

-e .x - - e .x+-e
a a2 a3
5. (i). ex lnx+c (ii) ex sinx+c (iii)
(iv) e 3x cosecx+c (v) e 2x cos x+c 1

(vi) ex.(- l+c
l+x J
(vii) e-x sinx+c (viii)
Answers 375
(ix) -2xcot(:- ;)+4/n,sin(:- ;)l+c

ex x x
(x) --+c (xi) -e cot-+c
2+x 2
EXERCISE 3.5
3
1. lnlx+21+2 lnlx-~+c 2. !nix+~+- lnl2x--tl+c
2
3. x+3 lnlx+5l-ln(x-3) 2 +c 4. a In Ix-al-bin lx-bl+c
5. 21n lt+2~-i_ lnll-3~+c 6. 2 2

!nix-al+ In lx+al+c or lnlx -a l+c
10 15
7. I
-In
11
I
-2x-ll
-+c
3x+4
8.
x2 3
- - In Ix - 21 +-In l2x +II+ c
2 2
1 1 s
9. lnlx-ll+ln Ix- ~+In lx-~+c 10. - - In I~ - - In Ix - ti+ - In Ix - ~ + c
3 2 6
- 3
11. 2 lnlx-Il- lnjx+Ij+- In j2x+3j +c
2
ln(x+l) 2-ln(2+3x) 2- --+c or In( ~)---+c

3 3
12.
x+l l2+3x x+l
1 1
13. 2-1njx-Ij+_!_lnlx+lj---+c 14. _!_[lnlx-Il-lnjx+Ij]+ +c
2 2 x-1 4 2(x+l)
_!_[lnjx+lj-lnjx-~ ] - -2-+c lx-~------+c

2 1
15. 16. 3 lnjx+tj-2 /n
3 x-2 x+I x-2
17. 2 ln Ix-~ - In Ix+~--+--+

11
c
7
18. -~lnlx+ll +~/n(x2 +1)-_!_ tan- 1x +c
x+2 2(x+2) 2 2 4 2
19. _!_In Jx- ll-_!_ln (x 2 +1) +_!_ tan-1 + c 20. _ ..!2./n Ix+~ +..!2. tn (x 2 +1)-~ tan-1x+ c
2 4 2 3 10 s
21. !nix-~-~ /n(x 2 +4)++tan- ~ )+c 1( 22. tnlx+~-+ln(x 2 -2x+4)+.[itan-I[ x~l)+c
2'. Zlnjx-~-lnjx2 +2x+4+J3 tan- 1
( Ji- 1
J+c 24. In Jx-~ --ft-+ln(x2+4)-+tan-I[; J+c
25 -2/n(x+2)--l-+/n(x2+x+l)-
• x+2
~tan-1[2x;l)+c
v3 v3
26. I t -1(2x-l)
4x2+l
n x2-x+l + J3 an J3 +c 1
27. ~ tan-1( ~ ) - tan-1(x+2)+c 28. -2 ( tan -I -X - -

a a
1 tan -I - X ) + ~
2 2a
19. ln(xz -x+l )+c 30.

2
l n x2 -x+2)+1- an -12x-l (t
- - - an - - +c St -12x+.l)
[ x + x+ 2 .fi .fi .fi
x 2 +x+l
. --
EXERCISE 3.6
10 2
I. 2. 2 3.
3 5
52 5. _}_(2JS-1P -1 6. _}_(8-3./3)
4. - 5 3
.1
I 9 1
7. - ln2 8. 9. 3--
2 2 3
7r ./3-J 1
IO. 11. 12. - -[sv'S-8]
12 2 JJ2
u. 2/n2-I 2 2
14. -(e-1) 15. _}_(ln(J2 +l)+J2-J)
e 2
16.
11
17. 9!3-w- 18.
3 +8
--
24 8 32
7 6-n-
19. 20. 21. ln2
24 8
91
22. 10 23. - 24. 2-ln2
8
25. ln4 26. J2-2 27. 2-J2
10 I 5 3
28. - 29. -In- 30. In-
9 2 3 4
EXERCISE 3.7
All answers are in square unit~.
10 5. 32 32 27
1. - 2. 12 3. 14 4. 2 6. - 7. -
3 3 3 4
I 14
8. 8 9. - 10. 11. 4 12.~ 13. -
I a2
2 3 4 2
EXERCISE 3.8
2. y = ce-x 3. xy=c 4. 2
y =x(2-x)+c
I
-
5. y=ce x 6. cosy= cos x+c 7. y = cxe-x
x2
-I X2 l
8. yeY = cxe 2 9. tan y=-+c 10. y 2 =x+-+c
4 x
x2 l l
11. y(y+l)=-+c 12. /ny+-= lnx--+c 13. tanxtan y = c
2 y x
I
y -
14. --=c(x+2) 15. cosy = c(sec x +tan x) 16. y =3+cx 4
2y-1
Answers 377
17. cos y = c(secx + 1t11111 IX . ,,, I • I I +f

,
-1 x- .,
19.
.y = - 2 + c
tan . lull 20. I <" , \ 41•
21. s = ce - r , s = 4e 1 1 ,, . , ,. 1' 111 1111hv1 ' 11 hactl"ria 1

23. v = 2450-980/ . Ii :' -hi 11 . •1• 11 '""' J1,·1c- ht '' ~062 . 'iun
1-. \.I· IH "ISE 4.1
I. (i) The right-half pl;1111.: 111 1 I I ll· l •'l lllii q11.11li .111t
(iii) The y-axis I I\ I I 11,· I ·"'"
(v) The second 4uadrant

(vi) Points in the fir,t and tl111d q11.1d 1.1111 ' ha\ 111g equal ab!»Ci!»sae and ordinates.
(vii) Points in the fir,t and 1l 11 1d qu.1d1 .1111' ha\1ng hoth the coordinates equal or point in the
second and fourth qu.1111.1111 , ''·" 111 ~ h11th the coordinates equal but opposite in signs.
(viii) Point on thl" .1-a"' k " 11!.111 " ' l·qu<1I 10 - 3 or greater than or equal to 3.
(ix) Points in thl" fir't q11.11l1.1111"1th 111th11ate 2 and abscissa greater than 2.
(ix) The sel:ond and !11111111 quo1d1.1111'
2. (a) (i) s.Ji. (ii ) r 2 .:' I J lhJ (ii) (-3 , I)
(.t )2.JIOY l I
(c) --
3
1111 2Js.2.3 )
3. (a) Yes (h) (I (l:) No (d) No
4. (iii) Yes 5.(4.JJ: <- ::!.- 5);(-6,-1) 6.h=O
7. h=l 8. (0. - 31 : !i6 9. h=6, -10
IO. (1,5); (-5,0); (1,-6) : (7.- ll 11. h = 2, -2; no.
12. (0, + r,; . two 13. ( -4 . I 0 )·. ( I I . -

_3v3), 8 ) 14. (1, 5) 15. (i) (9, 8) (ii) t 7. ())
3 3 \ 3 3
16. (I, 6); radius= 5
EXERCISE 4.2
l. (i) (2, -1) (ii) (I , 4) (iii) (-2 , -2) (iv) (2 . -1)
2. (i) (11, 14) (ii) (-7. -lJ) (iii)

(- 2 -4)
3
(iv) (2. 0)
3. (i) (ii) 3J3-7 -3-7J3l

( 2 , 2
(iii)
(
11-15J3 -11J3 -15
2 , 2
l (iv) 55 15 )
( .JW' .JW
4. (i) -5J3-3 -5+3J3l (ii) (-12,-2)

( 2 , 2
EXERCISE 4.3
1. (i) 1, 45° (ii) - 9, 96.34 ° (iii) Undefined, 90°
.
I
/
,/ 1 \
'/
/
I/ ( , IJ l ,111
I/
I/ ., ' I'
I/. ' "
I/ ,- .,
j
I
'/
l.t 10 0
0
I I~ . ~·
•
2. (1") - 1 - 4 -6 (11"") -
8 --2 - 5 ... )1 31 1- --5
(1
3, , 5 11' 7 , 3 , 4 , 6-
23
4. (i) -11 (ii) 6. (10, 1) 7. (2, 6) 8. (a) none (b) none
2
9. (a)y=-9 (b)x=-5 (c)x=y (d)x=-y
10. (a) 7x-y+47=0 (b) y+3=0 (c) x+8=0 (d) x-7y-16=0
(e)5x+y-7=0 (t) 4x-3y + 12= 0 (g) 4x-3y+l2=0
11. 4x+2y-37=0
12. Side BC : 6x - y - 26 = 0 ; Side CA : 5x + 3 y + 9 = 0 ; Side AB : x - 4 y + 11 = 0
Median through A: 4x+ 7y-2 = 0; Median through B: 7x-5y-15 = O
Median through C: l lx+ 2y-17 = 0; Altitude from A to BC: x+ 6y-9 = O
Altitude from B to CA : 3x - 5 y + 5 = 0 ; Altitude from C to AB : 4x + y - 4 = O
13. 2x-3y-10=0 14. 24x+ y-259=0
Answers 379
16. 630 litres. 17. p = ~t - 1961) + 60; 35.5 million, 123 million.
4
18. Rs 2.875 million 19. F = J_C + 32 20. 536

5
21. (a) (1") y=-x+-

1 x +--
11 ("11") - - y =1
2 4 -11/2 11/4
(iii) xcosl 16.57°+ysinl16.57° =

1
~; p = I~
2v5 2v5
(b) (i") y=-x+-

-4 2 ("11") -x+ -y= 1
7 7 I/2 2/7
(iii) xcos60.26° + ysin60.26° = b

v65
;p = b
v65
(c) (1") y=-X--

8 1 ("II") -x+ - -
y =1
15 5 3/8 -1/5
(iii) x cos 298.07° + y sin 298.07° = ~; p = ~

I7 I7
22. (a) Parallel (b) Perpendicular (c) Neither parallel nor perpendicular
(d) Parallel (e) Perpendicular
4 19 7 9 II
23. (a) -;3x-4y+5=0 (b) -;12x+5y+-=0 (c) --;x+2y--=0
5 I3 2 2/5 4
24. 2x-1y+57 =0 25. 5x+3y-1=0
26. ~+-y-=1 · _x_+ y =I 27. (-4, -1); (3, - 2); (8, 3)

J6 ../612 '-J6 -../612
28. (a) Above (b) Below 29. (a) On opposite sides (b) On the same side
49
30. 31. 3 square units 32. Area= 14 square units. Points non-collinear.
Fi
EXERCISE 4.4
1. (i) (-1, 0) (ii) (-5, 3) (... )(247' 15)

lll -
7
-
2. (i) 219x-16y-582= 0 (ii) (a) 6x + y + 18 = 0 (b) x - 6 y - 34 = 0

(iii) x + y + 2 = 0
3. 13x+ 29y +66 = 0
380 Calculus and Analytic Geometrl'
34 8
5. p=-14 7.Ccntroid: ( l.\).!l11i11Hc111rc: (- ,S }
3 3
.Circumccntre (~,-:I} Ye~ 8. (\111cu11L·111. (~.O)
9. -12
A - -21)
- - - · B (I- -18)c(14,-IXJ
· - - -L"i": 111 L.B = 4S 0 mLC = 90°
( s · s ·s's· s s 111 /
'I
10. (al I W.6° (h) I 1S.3S 0 (C) 0 11 <d l 78.69° Acute angles :
0
(a) 49.4° (h) 64.6S
11. (a} 32.64°; IOS.02°; 42.34 11
(c) 54.87°; 87.88°; 37.2S 0 (d) 66.96 11 : 85 .05°:n.9<J 11
12. 90° each 13. 36.9°. 143.1° 14. 34sq. units 15. -2S -31}
-
( 6 ' 6
[~I (b)[~ =i] [~Hg] Noteoncurrent

2 3 4
16 (a) _3, -. J[+[glconcurrent -2
-11 14 I 0 I
[3 -• -2J'] [o]g ;
(c) ~ _2 -S4 ~ =
2
Not concurrent
x+Oy-1=0 x+y+2=0
17. (a) 2x+Oy+l=O ; Not concurrent (b) 2x + 4v - 3 = 0 ; Not concurrent
Ox- y+2 =0 3x+6y-5=0
EXERCISE 4.5
I. Sx+y=0;2x-Sy=O. 79.Sl 0 2. 3x+y=O;x+2y=O. 45°
3. 3x+4y=O, coincidentlines 4. x-y=0;2x+5r=O, 113.2°
5. 2x-3y = 0;3x-5y = 0, 2.73°
6. x(I +sina)+ ycos = O;x(l-sina) + ycos a= O; Angle= a

2 2 ,
7. x + 2.xy tan a - y2 =0 8. bx -2hxy+uy- =0
29 .
9. - square units
20
A11.rn·ers 381
EXERCISE 5.1
y
1. l --
,y -
I Ii.. !
I ~ ' (( 6 ~- I
-
(i) - ~-
' ' I
I \
' ,... I
---
- f - - f--
I
I
:t
-
'iG
\
(ii) f--
- ~ ......
0, 3)
- -
x'
~
' (3 0 ~
x " J'. j. ........
--
+O \
x'
:p
• J ..............
-- x
l' ' '
0 7, 0) ~" -
~ I '\
I r--.. ...
't i'- ~
l i l -
' '1
I I
I
y y ---- - r-- - -
y'
y
I.If
t-
(iii) r-.1
// /
1''l
- f--
f--
'
j
I i 1
~'I,
(iv)
- - f--
x' (2 0 I/ -x
, - - --- -
0 J --+ ~~ - f--
I/ "'
(D, 3) I/ I -
I --n---+-
f-- -
- x'
0 l<'l' i l/
I/
'A ( \ -- x
~-.-- , .,) [/
- -,--· '/
/ - ·- . '/
' I
J
1
/
/
u -:>
IJI.
y y'
J
y'
I
Jl I. y
(v)
- .. I
'
- -
- - f--
- f--
(vi) -
0
,
- II
--+ x
'
I 3 - 4
.\'
. :.-~
l"f
'
I
I
0
- -f--
I '
I
t f -- --
l~
I
x' ! x
I I
()
i - f--
!- ~r I I t I
-- -
~-
-
r I
I r -1 i-
Ir ,, I
y' y'
y y
J
l '
l
~
"'
~v, ,, ' - /
...
2. (ii)
~
t-
-
_,.
.......
,.._4
(0
, -.;..
~ /
/ ./'
X
~
/'
(i) i-' .........
....._ k'.':,. "' x' 1/ (3 2 '\ 0 5
x
x'
t-
t / K. (0 6
, x
0 / (0 I)
/ (0 - ) 1'- '
- 0 ,,r 0, 3 ' L< . . . . ..,, /
_,_
, /
0 - :) ... /< "'
- >--
~,
y'
,
y' y
1'
.I
I
, J
i / (6 4)
(iv) I
y " '
II
I•
t 1, - \'2
x' / ,.,,,.~,
,_
/ (3 0 x
(iii) --
'-. 1
j
,. 2 ~
/
>- --
-~
,_ J (I '-f<I)
>--- -
/
--~ ~r--. /.• ,
r-... /: 'j
;,.; ,.
,....
x' 0 I/ 2 0
/ (7 0
.1..i:1.J .....
·-, x y'
I/ p, ~ ..
I
./ (0 - )
y
,.
y'
3. ..J
t--t--lt .l~ . . . . . . (0 4
(i) t--[_7 - . r-. ....
t-- _, ~
t-- -~ "" ~ ~ ........, 0
y [7 -;-~
:--...... v / '
x' i
·""' ~ (6 0 -x
J.
0 _,/ (3 0 :"-.
~
(v) .... .......

./
, , / 0 -')
)I ;>"" .......
"' J
...
(v = ~)
.., 'It!'
-....."'-.
:u, !3) -...;_ - - ·~
L
'<Ii< ....... .-;_
x'
0
"'<1r--..._
1<7 0 ~\..
- x
y'
r
y'
I
Answers 383
y y
a
~
(ii) ... ~
~ I '\ (0 5 I-"
(0 5 (iii)
" !'\.. /,
/".
A
'\
'\.<l
v
'/" '\
!/
I/
--
c-
--
' O, 2)
J
I '\.,,. x
'\ ~ x' I/ 1'- -o·-,_ x
O/ 1(5 oI'-, IY ~
x' .::: ( -1 0) /
- " (5 0
~ x ,v , f'-,
0
" " :,
\;)
~ v
•J
..... /
0
'\. '\-/
"'"·"
rr"
~ I
"I '"
" rhT1 -~
y' 1
y'
y y
(iv) l
(v)
i" .i. v l1. ,J
·- r -
........... ltt -i v .....
' ~~ .... V'I
J I-< ..... .._. j\L v
- ...... '1- 1/ 7
J,
11'
II
" /
)( 1·2
...... 7 0 ,_ ~
'- .....
,,. v ..... 7
2
3
2
x'
0 ../ 2, 0
x
x' / 7 0
"• x
I/ " ,- YF" 0 v 2,0) ......
,-
I/ (O - ) v
LI (0 - )
IM
I/
I/ _,1
I <
y'
y'
y
• y
(vi) j
4.
~r-..
..... ..._ ~·'
j :--.._ ,]
j
~
:-... 0 4 .,
(i) ~'"'
r I ..... !' ' ,
- ..... " ....,,, "'
_,__ - x
x' \
' )j 7 0 ~... • 2
/ 0 .... !:ill._ I
- x' 0 ...,; "
3, U) ~ • ~
x
"-,/ 1~ ' I 2 ,,,, ' o; ....
,
I' II
, ~
i ~
,;
Vj '))
y' v'
y y
l
(ii)
I~
'" ~
,v, J
• (iii)
I
)
J}
'-IJ'I • 4)
_,
... ......
J
ro ?' , J"
"''.'..,, >- •
µ
1,
--r--.. ~.
...._,..
~1 0 I'
:-:+- " '- .~
5 0) I
x' y l
1~
x xI "' J ....... l:f/
x
' I
"i
"' 0
"" (_2.2, 0 )
~~'
;1J
{ I
0 y 0 (~, I)~ r--.. 1~
I
'Ill I
' -
-- --·
~
--
-
y'
y'
y y
J
(iv) (v) 'It

~l" I'.. 0 5'
-> ';:..
.........
,u 3
.!.. ~I II ~~ ('~. I ...,
- --
U,1.t .... ... 0
"~ "~.-:- y
.... " (0 U} 0 I) ........ ....
x' 0 (2 0 \. ' }- ....
1-
x
x' ,. 3 0) 0
-
........ (7 IU.
......
1~
,_ x
- -~ ~ >-
~
\. ...
Ill
y' y'
y y
(vi) 5. (i)
·~
~
.,._
0 s II ( I\
I
, _ I'
.,.
, ,.,
~
.,,,.
... '-~, n) ~
,, ' ~
c- I
/
.....
~
,,
~
'=· :1 " 6~ ..... ~
-
~'
x' 0...,; 2 0
.;.,, "'- 7.IU)
...._
...
,.... x . -
' .........
,_ ..;r"" ,r
1• / ..~
I.;.,.... Li
~r-1 0 - ) ~
x'
\ ,_ . .,, 9 0
0 \ ,, 4 0
"'-
.......... ~
x
I
)
I/ \
,,. v (0 - f"'
,._
y' 1
,/
Answers 385
y y
'
I
(ii)
" (-
~ .t
. )
:t_
(iii)
... .....
\
(0 4
(0 3
..... 11
' ...... ......_6
"II'\
0 l'N
......... I~!!.
..... ~ '•
(0 3 ~3
\
J
~ ~·
a ,. ru
..
.... (6JU
" ,, ~ x I -
x I
..... , ::::: x 0 l: 0 ,.._, x
0 /'\ 0 /
,P\ ....
(0, 3 1.... 1b I"- '\ V\I • l~ J
(D, 14 .... ~
I/. I'- -r·-r \:<
v.. + !."'
+- r
:. .,.."·~~
•• 1(....
~
i ,.
T
y' y y'
y
(iv)
(v)
y
y'
y' I
0 ltl
\
(vi) ~
_... ' . "' .,
,__,_
'" '•
..~ (0 3
-' ~
I
,......._
I I
I .
~
x' - \. II IJ
0 3
0 J
LI
~
,_ ".{
\
- I
- x
1a ~·
~
.
~
{ I
y'
EXERCISE 5.2
Draw the graph yourself
l(i). (0, 0), (3, 0), [ ~ ' 1} (0, 4) (ii) (0, 0), (5, 0), (1, 4), (0, 2)
(iii) (0,2), (1, 4 ), (0, 5) (iv) (0, 0), (3, O'), [ 21 5' 56 ) ' (0, 3)
(v) (2; 0), (4, 0), (0, 4), (0, 3) (vi) (0, 0), (4, 0), - , 15)
- '(0, 5)
17 17
(98
2(i). (0, 0), (5, 0), (4, 2), (0, 3) (ii) (0, 0), (5, 0), (4, 2), (0, 3)
(iii) (0, 0), (4, 0), (36

- ,24)
- , (0, 3) (iv) (0, 0), (5, 0), (2, 6), (0, 7)
11 11
(v) (0, 0), (6, 0), (3, 4), (0, 5) (vi) (0, 0), (10, 0), (9, 2), ( 7,
45 7
32) , (0, 8)
EXERCISE 5.3
1. Maximum at the comer point (16, 12) 2. Maximum at the corner point (0, 5)
3. Maximum at the comer point (0, 3) 4. Minimum at the comer point (0, 3)
5. Maximum at the comer point

2
3
l~ ,°) 6. Minimum at the corner point (0, 3)
7. Minimum cost if 3 units of food X and 2 units of food Y are fed to each animal.
8. Maximum profit if the investor purchases 8 fans and 12 sewing machines.
9. Maximum profit if 200 units of product A and 400 units of Product B are produced.
EXERCISE 6.1
2
1. (a) x +y2-10x+4y+l3=0 (b) x 2 +y 2 -2.fi.x+6.J3y+21=0
2 7
(c) x +y2-2x+4y-27=0 2.(a) (-6,5);.J61 (b) (- , -
5 5
6
}!¥ (c) (3, -2);0
(d) (i, - 2
3
}.J19/2 3.(a)x 2 +y 2 -4x+2y-35=0 (b)x 2 +y 2 -10x-24y=O
2 2
(c)x + y2-ax-by =0 (d) 3(x + y2 )-l4x-8y- 65 = 0 4.(a)x 2 + y 2 -15x-18y+l7 =0
2 2 2 2
(b) (x + 3) + (y + 1) = 4 or x + y + 6x + 2 y + 6 = 0 and ( x + ~ !J +( y-
3
13
J
= 4 or
2 2 2 2
169 (x + y )+390x-78y-442=0 (c)x + y +52x-2ly-265 = 0 (d) (x+2)2+(y-5)2=10
2 2 2
or x + y +4x-10y+19 = 0 and (x-14) +(y-13) 2 = 250 or x 2 + y 1 -28x-26y+115 = O
5. x 2 + y 2 -2ax-2ay+a 1 =0 9. (x+.fi.-1)2 +(y+3-J2)2 = 4 or

2 1
x + y +2(J2-1)x+2(.J3-2)y+10-8.J2=0 and (x-.fi.-IJ +~+3+.fi.J = 4 or
x + y -2(.J2 +1~+2(3+J2~+10+8.J2 = 0
2 2
EXERCISE 6.2
1.(i) 4x+3y=25; 3x-4y=O xcos(J+ysin =5; xsinB-ycos =0 (ii) 33x+2ly-103=0;

1
21x-33y+89=0 2. 24x-10y+91=0;5x+12y+26=0 at (-4, - }24x+l0y+151=0;
2
Answers 387
Sx-12y-46=0 at(-4,-~ 1 ) 3.(i) Inside (ii) Outside 4. ~ 5.2.J13 6.(-4,5);
(3:, -; J 7. (i) x-2y-.JlO=O; x-2y+.JJQ =0 (ii) 2x-3y-J26 =0; 2x-3y+.J26 =0
. 3x-4y+20=0; (-12
8. (1) -,- 16J ;3x+4y-20=0; (12
- ,16)
- (ii) 2x + y = o; (o,o)
5 s , 5 5
x-2y+5 =0;(-3,1) (iii) 5x-y+33 =0; (-6, 3) x+5y+l7 = 0;(-2,-3)
9. -4x+l6y+35=0
EXERCISE 6.4
y
M
1(i) Focus: (2,0); Vertex: (0, 0) ; Directrix: x + 2 = 0; Axis: y = 0

F(2, 0)
-+---=+------x
z 0
(ii) Focus: (0,-4);Vertex: (O,O);Directrix: y-4=0;Axis:x=O z M
F(0,-4)
(iii) Focus: ( 0, ~); Vertex: (0, 0); Directrix: y + ~ = 0 ; Axis : x = 0
--~z-=-----M
y
M
(iv) Focus: (-3,0); Vertex: (O,O);Directrix: x-3=0 Axis:y=O

(v) Focus: (0,2); Vertex: (0,1); Directrix: y = 0 ; Axis: x = 0

(vi) Focus: (1,0); Vertex: (3,0); Directrix: x = 5 ; Axis : y = 0
(vii) Focus: (1,0); Vertex: (1,-2); Directrix: y = -4; Axis: x = 1
(viii) Focus: (o.- 2324 l;) Vertex: (0,-1); Directrix: y = -

25
24
; Axis: x = 0
(ix) Focus: (- } ,1}

3
Vertex: (-9,1); Directrix: x = -! 7
; Axis: y = 1
(x) Focus: (2,2); Vertex: (2,0); Directrix: y + 2 = 0 ; Axis : x = 2

2
2(i) (y -1 ) = - l 2x or y 2 - 2x + l 2x + 1 = 0
(ii) (x-2) 2 = 8(y-3) or x 2 -4x-8y+28 = 0

2 2
(iii) 4x +4.xy+ y +36x-22y+41 =0
2
(iv) (y-2) =-8(x-3) or y 2 -4y+8x-20=0
2
(v) (x+ 1) = -8(y-2) or x 2 + 2x+8y-15 = 0
2
(vi) (y-2) = 8x or y 2 -4y-8x+4 = 0
2
(vii) (x-2) = -4(y-2) or x 2 -4x+4y-4 = 0 (viii) (x-hf = -8(y + 1) or x 2 - 2hx+ 8y +8+ h2 = 0
harbitrary (ix) 3l=x+l (x) (x-7 I 5)2 = ~(y+~ l or 5x2 -14x-3y+9 = O

5 15)
3. (i) x 2 - 4h2 ± 4ax = 0, h arbitrary (ii) y 2 + 2hx- h 2 = 0, h arbitrary
2
2 a
6. 37500(2-.J3) km, 37500(2+.J3) km 7. x =-y 8. 9m
4b
EXERCISE 6.5
Sketch the graphs yourselves where asked.
(y+3)2 +~=l
2 2 2 2
l.(i) .::.___ + 2'._ = 1 (ii) ... ) -
(111 x +-
y
=1
34 25 9 5 36 9
(x-2)2 (y-1)2 x2 y2 Y2 x2
(iv) + (v) -+-=l (vi) -+-=1
9 5 9 4 25 16
y2 x2 (y-2)2 (x-2)2 x2 y2
(vii) -+-=l (viii) + (ix) -+-=1
16 7 16 9 40 10
x2 7y2
(x) -+-=l
16 16
Answers 389
2(i) Centre: (0,0); Foci: ~2../3,o); Vertices: (±4,0);Eccentricity: .j3; Directrices: x=± ~
2 v3
(ii) Centre: (0, 0), Foci: { 0,±4); Vertices: (o,±3./2); Eccentricity: ~; Directrices: y = ± 2.
3v2 2
(iii) Centre: (0, 0), Foci: { 0,±4); Vertices: { 0,± 5) ; Eccentricity: : ; Directrices: y = ± 2_%'
(iv) l
Centre: +.-2} Foci: l
+.-2±2../3} Vertices: l
+.2 ){+.-6); Eccentricity: ~,
. . 2 8
D irectnces: y = - ± .j3
.j3
(v) Centre: (-8, 2), Foci: (-8 ± ,,/3, 2), Vertices: (-10, 2), (-6, 2) Eccentricity:
4 '
Directrices: x = -8 ± ~
(vi) Centre:(5, 2), Foci: (5, 2±../2i), Vertices: (5,-3), (5, 7) Eccentricity: m,
5
Directrices:
25
y=2±--
5i
4. 3x 2 -2xy+3y 2 -2x-2y-1 =0
2 2 2 2
6. ~+L=t 7. _x_+_Y_=l 8. 15m
8 4 100 2 3711
9. Greatest distance = 404582 km
Least distance = 364224 km
EXERCISE 6.6
Sketch the Graphs yourselves.
2 2 2 2
(x-2) 2 (y+ 7)2 = 1
1. (i) ~-1'.__=1 (ii) ~-1'.__=1 (iii)
4 20 9 16 25 25
y2 x2 y2 x2 (x-2) 2 (y-2)2 = 1
(iv) ---=l (v) ---=l (vi)
9 27 36 45 9 27
y2 (x-2)2 =1 (y-1)2 (x-5)2 =1

(vii) (viii)
9 914 4 5
2. (i). Centre: (0, 0), Foci: (±3/2, 0) ; Vertices: (±3, 0) Eccentricity ..fi; Directrices: x = ±3 I ..fi
(ii). Centre: (0, 0), Vertices: (±2,0); Foci: (±.Jl3, 0) Eccentricity: .J1312;
Directrices: x = ±4 I .Jl3
(iii) Centre: (0, 0), Vertices: (0, ±4); Foci: (0, ±5) Eccentricity: 2_; Directrices: y= ±~
4 5
(iv) ./5
Centre: (0, 0), Vertices: (0, ±2); Foci: (0, ±./5) Eccentricity : ,
2
Directrices: y = ±4 I ./5
(v) Centre: (1 , 1), Vertices: (1±/2, 1); Foci: (1±.Jil, 1) Eccentricity : J11i2;
. . 2
D 1rectnces: x = -1 ± r.-;
vl l
5
(vi) Centre: (2, -2), Vertices: (2, l); (2, - 5) ; Foci: (2, 3) and (2, - 7) Eccentricity = ,
3
D"1rectnces:
. y= - 2 ±S
9
(vii) Ceotre; U,- I } Vertim; ( +, - I } (1, -1) ; Foci; ( ~ ± ~ , - I JEceeotridty = ,,/JO ;

. . 2 I
D tTectnces: x = - - ± - -
3 3..[10
(viii) Centre: ( 2, - ~} Vertices: ( 2, - ~ }( 2,-~} Foci: (2,- ~ ±./5) Eccentricity = ./5;
. . 3 l
D1rectnces: y = - ± ./5
2
(ix) Centre: (-4 ,-1) ; Eccentricity =Ji. , Vertices: (1, -1) ; (-9, -1)
Foci : (-4 ± 5.fi. , -1); Directrices: x = -4 ± }i

(x) Centre: (2, - 3) ; Eccentricity = ~ , Foci : (2 ± JlO ,- 3) ;
Vertices : (3, - 3) ; (1, - 3) , Directrices : x = 2 ± ~
vlO
x2 2
2 2 2 2 y =l
4. llx - 50xy+l ly +504 = 0 5. 7x -9y -84x+36y+l53=0
291600 198400
EXERCISE 6. 7
l(i). yt=x+at 2 ;y=-tx+2at+at 3
(ii) _::_cos e+l'....sin =1; ax sec B-by csc = a 2 -b 2

a b
Answers 391
(iii) ~sec e _ l'._ tan = 1; ax cos e +by cot = a 2 + b 2

a b
2(i). 3x+2y-6=0 at (4, -3) ; 3x-2y+6=0 at (-4,-3)
(ii) 9x+7y-20=0 at (3,-1), 9x-7y+20=0 at (-3, -1)
(iii) 15 304
26x-15y-89=0 at (4, l); 13x+-y--=0
2 7
at ( 4, - -
8
7
J
3(i). 3x-4y-25=0, 4x+3y-25=0 (ii) x - y + 3 = 0, 3x- y + 1=0
(iii) x+y+l=0,5x-y-7=0
4. 18x+ 27y-88 =0 5. x-2y+2.J2 = O,x-2y-2.J2 = 0

6. 5x-2y+8 = 0,5x-2y-8 = 0
7(i). ±3x-4y-45 =0 (ii) 2x+y+2=0
8(i).
(
± (99 (601
vii·±
vii (ii)
[±J+.±#l (iii) ~8, ±F45)
(iv)
(±~. ±2l (v) (0, -4) and ±
[~
6 .341
EXERCISE 6.8
l(i). X 2 +16Y=0 (ii) 2X 2 +Y 2 -4=0

(iii) 9X 2 +4Y 2 .:_36=0 (iv) X 2 -Y 2 +1=0
(v) 9X 2 -4Y 2 -36=0
2(i). (-4, 3) ;3X 2 -2Y 2 -6 = 0 (ii) (-1, 2);25X 2 +9Y 2 -225 =0
(iii) (3,l);X 2 -Y 2 -1=0

3(i). X 2 -Y 2 =2 (ii) X 2 -9Y 2 +9=0
(iii) 13.Ji3 X 2 -5X-Y=0 (iv) 2Y 2 -2X +1 =0
4(i). tan e = 3, x 2 + y2 -11=0 (ii) e = 45°, x 2 -Y 2 +.J2 x - 1.J2 Y -20 = o

(iii) 8=45°, X 2 +4Y 2 -4=0
EXERCISE 6.9
l(i). Pair of lines : 2x - y = ±.J6

(ii) Parabola: Vertex: (0, 0); Focus [l, I] Axis: x- y = 0; Directrix; x+ y + .J2 = 0
(iii) Parabola: Vertex: (-

2~, 2~ J; Focus (-~,~}Axis: x+ y = 0;
Directrix ; x - y = 0
2 2 2 2
Ov) Ellipse: Centre: (0, 0); Foci [ : ,- Jr)aod [- : , : }
Vertices: (2, - 2) ; (-2, 2) ; Major axis : x + y = 0 , Minor axis : x - y = 0 ; Eccentricity = ~
(v) Ellipse ; Centre : (0, 0) ; Foci: Uf ,) 3

and [- ~ ,- 3f). Vertie" : (-Jl, I),
(-.J3, -1); Major axis : x-.J3y .= 0 ; Minor axis : .J3 x+ y = 0 ; Eccentricity= .J3
2
(vi) Ellipse : Cenrre : (-2, -1) ; Foci : (0, 0) and (-4, - 2) ; Vertiees: [Pl- 2, ~ -1 Jmd
(-fl- 2, - ~ - I ).Majornxi<: x - 2 y = 0 ,Minoc ID<i< 2x + y + 5 = 0 ,Eeeeotrieity = H

(vii) Hyperbola: Centre: (2, 4), Foci: (-2, 0) and (6, 8), Vertices: (2+2.J2, 4 +2.J2 J and
(2-2.J2, 4-2.J2} Focal axis x-y+2=0 Conjugate axis x+y-6=0,
Eccentricity : J2
(viii) Hypecbofa:Centre : (0, 0), Foei : (2, I), (-2, -1) , Vertiee•{2f FJ+ }[- 2J+, - J+}
Focal axis: x-2y = 0 ; Conjugate axis: 2x+ y = 0; Eccentricity: .J5i3

(ix) Hypert>ola ; Cenrre : (-1, 2); Foci : (-1 +],; ,2- ~) and (-1-],; ,2+ ~}
Vertiee<:(-1+ }so ,2- .k) and (-1- }so ,2+ .k} Focal axi< x+2y-3=0
Conjugate axis : 2x - y + 4 = 0 ; Eccentricity : ~

2(i). 2x-3=0;5y+4= 0 (ii) 2x+ y+l = 0;3x-y-9 = O
3(i). 26x-15y-89=0 (ii) 5x-8y-8=0 at (0, -1), 5x+33y+8=0 at (5, -1)
(iii) x+y-3=0 at (3, 0), 5x-3y-12=0 at (3, 1)
~ Answers 393
4. x+4y-5 = O;x+4y-8 = 0
EXERCISE 7.1
1. (i) 4!-5j (ii) -!-llj
- -
2. (i) ./53 (ii) ,,/2 (iii) 5 3. (iii) !-6j
4. 0 (null vector) 5. A0=6!-7j
6. (i) ~ (2!- j) .. ) I .
(11 -1+-1
.Ji . (m... ) --.Ji.
-z--1
1 .
-v5 - 2 - 2 -. 2 - 2 -
7. (i) D(-1,2) (ii) D(5, -10) 8. (i) A (-2,-2) (ii) £(10,-1)
9. P(4,-7) 11. A(-5,-4) 12. ( I.) -1--1

18 . 1 . c·II.) 8 . 21 .
-1+-1
7- 7- 7- 7-
EXERCISE 7.2
1. (i) -3!-4j (ii) -3!-151 (iii) -6!-81
2. (i) 12{-3j+6~ (ii) -12!+ j-7~ (iii) .J326

- -
3. Ci) [Jk· Jk· ~] ;m (ii)[~·~·~] ;./3 (iii)[~· ~.o] ;v'4l

1 . 2 . 1 k
4. a=l, =-2 5. -z+-1-- 6.
.j6- ./6- .j6-
8 . 12 . 24 2 . 2 . 2 k
7. -1--1+-k
7- 7- 7-
(ii) --z+-1+-
.fj- .fj- .fj-
8. z=3
2 4 4 2 4 . 4 5 . 10 . 15
10. (a) -i-~1·+-k,--i+-1--k (b) =-3 (c) - - 1 + - 1 - - k
3 - 3- 3- 3 - 3- 3- .J14- .Jl4- .J14-
-3 1
a=
(d)
2 ,b=l
u. Ci) [-3- .Jl4 ,~]
.Jl4 ,-=-.!___ .Jl4 c··) [
II
6 -2 i J
.J4l , J4i , J4i c···)
111
[-1 2 -4 J
.fij , J2i , J2i
12. (i) No vector (ii) No vector (iii) A vector
EXERCISE 7.3
... ) -7 -]
1. (I.) -4
11("") -19 (Ill - (iv) J6
J66 26 J85
. -1 -1 .. -8 -8
2. (1) ,,/2 ' ,,/2 (n) r; ' ~
-v6 -vl 1
3. (i) a=~ (ii) = 1, -;

3
4. z = 2, -1 5. !'. = Q (null vector)
EXERCISE 7.4
1. (i)-31-3!; 31+3! (ii)-2!; 2! (iii)-!+1+5!; !-1-5!
(iv) 3£-6!; -3£+6! 2. (i) +£- ~ 1+ ~ ! ; k

(II. ") -
-17 .+ -
2 J. +5- k ; ~6
- (iii) Any unit vector ; Q (iv) -! ;I
J78 - J78 - J78 - 29
3. (i) 15 I 2 (ii) J6 4. (i) 5./3 (ii) ,J99g (iii) J89
s. (i) u//w (ii)
9. either f! = Q or 12 = Qbut opposite in direction
EXERCISE7 5
1. (i) 25 (ii) 14 (iii) 10 4. (i) a=51; (ii) a=514,a= l + F
s. (a) (i) 4 (ii) 3 (iii) 1 (iv) 0 6. (i) 8/3 (ii) 2/3 7. 45 8. 36
10. 20 11. 2£-7j-2! 12. -3!+191-4! 13. 3!+31+3!
14. -!-1+9! 15. !+llj+17!
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Fasten seat belt while driving to make sure your safety.
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12

"Education is a matter of life and death for

)~)(;- ~!;( )~ J(;- ct;; J~

PUNJAB CURRICULUM AND

Authors: • Prof. Muhammad Amin Chaudhary • Prof. Muhammad Sharif Ghaury

Editor: • Mazhar Hayat

Director (Manuscripts): Mrs. Nisar Qamar

Published by : Altaf Raheem Printer Lahore

I Unit 1 I Functions and Limits

V = _±_7r r 3 , so we say that Vis a function of r.

exactly one output f (x). This output Computing Machine

Example 1: Givenf(x) = x 3 - 2x 2 + 4x -1 , find

Method to draw the graph:

the corresponding values of y. In this way we get ordered pairs (xp y 1 ), (x 2 , y 2 ),

0 · J. 2 · 3 · 4 · 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 I.I 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 I

1.2 TYPES OF FUNCTIONS

1.2.1 Algebraic Functions

(i) Polynomial Function

If an # 0, _then P(x) is called a polynomial function of degree n and an is the

For example, P(x) = 2x 4 - 3x 3 + 2x- I

(v) Rational Function

1.2.2 Trigonometric Functions

(iii) y = tanx,Domain = {x:xE Rand xt:.(2n+1)7r, n aninteger},Range=R

(iv) y = cot x, Domain = {x: XE Rand x t:.n7r, nan integer}, Range= R

(v) y = sec x, Domain = {x: XE R and x t:.(2n + 1) 7r, nan integer},

1.2.3 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

(1·1·1·) y = tan -1 x ~ x = tan y , where - -n < y < -n -oo < x < oo

(i) If a _= 10, then we have log 10 x (written as lg x) which is known aS the

1.2.6 Hyperbolic Functions

1.2.8 Explicit Function ·

(i) y = x 2 + 2x -1 (ii) y = ..Jx-1 are explicit functions of X. ·

Example 1: Show that .the parametric equations x =a cost and y =a sin t

2e2x + 2e-2x e2x + e-2x

(a) f(x)=3x 4 -2x 2 +7 (b) f(x)= x;:l (c) f(x)=sinx+cosx

(b) f(-x)= 3(~x) =-(+ 'L-J(x)

(iii) f(x)=x.Jx 2 +5 (iv) f(x)=x-l,x:;t:-1

The arrow diagram of two gf

Example 1: Let the real valued functionsfand g be defined by

(iii) f 2 (x) = f (f (x)) = f (2x + 1) = 2(2x + 1) + 1 = 4x + 3

(iv) g 2 (x) = (g(gx)) = g(x 2 -1) = (x 2 -1) 2 -1 = x 4 - 2x 2

1.3.2 Inverse of a Function

Illustration by arrow diagram

(l- 1ol)(x) = l- 1(l(x)) = l - 1 (y) = x

and (lol- 1)(y) = l(l- 1(y)) = l(x) = Y

1(r1<xl) ~ 1( ~ (x-1) )= 2[ ~ (x-1)] +I~ 1

and l-1 (J(x)) = l-1 (2x+1) = _!_(2x+ 1-1) = x

3. Without finding the inver-;e, state the domain and range of 1- 1 •

i.e., 1, ..!.., -.;.-. ~. 4• ....,-1-, ...

1.4.2 Meaning of the Phrase "x approaches infinity"

1.4.4 Concept of Limit of a Function

The table of values of f (x) for different values of x as x approaches 2 from

Symbolically it is written as: .

It is neither desirable nor practicable to find the limit of a function by

For example, Lim(x-5) = Umx-Lim5 = 3-5 =-2

Theorem 3: If k is any real number, then

For example, Lim(3x) = 3 Lim(x) = 3(2) = 6

For example: ~!!:i1 (2x)(x + 4) =[ ~~"7 (2x) J [~~11( (x + 4) J= (2)(5) = 10

3x+4) Lim( 3 x+ 4 ) 6+4 IO

Theorem 6: Limitof [/(x)]", where n is an integer

For example: Lim(2x-3) 3 =(Lim(2x-3))3=(5) 3 =125

1.5 LIMITS OF IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS

1.5.1 Lim -x --a - , w here n is

For example: ~!!:i1 (2x)(x + 4) =[ "7 (2x) J [11( (x + 4) J= (2)(5) = 10