Attitude Indication System

Contents
 Introduction...............................................................................................3

6. Attitude Indication System.............................................................4

6.1. General Function & Layout...................................................................4

6.2. Gyroscope Instrument and Properties..................................................12

6.2.1. Rigidity.................................................................................................13

6.2.2. Precession.............................................................................................14

6.2.3. References Established by Gyroscope.......................................................15

6.2.4. Limitations of a Free Gyroscope...............................................................16

6.2.5. Freedom of Movement and Limitations......................................................19

6.3. Gyroscopic Flight Instruments............................................................20

6.3.1. Vacuum Driven Gyro Horizon...................................................................23

6.3.2. Electric Gyro Horizon..............................................................................25

6.3.3. Standby Gyro Horizon.............................................................................25

6.3.4. Solid State Gyros and Related Systems.....................................................26

6.4. Erection Systems..............................................................................33

6.4.1. Vane Type and Ball Type.........................................................................33

6.4.2. Torque Motors and Leveling Switch Type...................................................36

6.4.3. Fast and Slow Erection Systems...............................................................37

6.4.4. Errors Due to Acceleration and Turning.....................................................39

6.4.5. Erection Cutout......................................................................................42

6.4.6. Pitch/Bank Erection................................................................................42

6.4.7. Pendulous Errors Compensations..............................................................43

6.5. Vertical Gyro System.........................................................................45

6.5.1. Construction & Operation........................................................................45

 6.5.2. Components Description.........................................................................48

6.5.3. System Operation..................................................................................50

6.5.4. Testing, Troubleshooting and Maintenance................................................51

6.6. Turn and Bank/Turn Co-Coordinator....................................................55

6.6.1. Construction and Description...................................................................55

6.6.2. Drive Source and Rotor...........................................................................62

6.6.3. Damping Cylinder and Air Bleed...............................................................62

6.6.4. Rate Spring Adjusting Screw....................................................................62

6.6.5. Turn Needle and Slip Indicator.................................................................62

6.6.6. Testing, Troubleshooting and Maintenance................................................63

6.7. Rate Gyros.......................................................................................65

6.7.1. Components Description and Operation.....................................................65

6.7.2. Pitch Rate Gyro......................................................................................67

6.7.3. Roll Rate Gyro.......................................................................................67

6.7.4. Yaw Rate Gyro.......................................................................................67

6.7.5. Testing, Troubleshooting and Maintenance................................................67

Introduction

This module is the sixth module in the ET-AV07 aircraft instrument course. It deals with the
flight instruments which provide a pilot with the necessary indications of the pitch, bank and
turn attitudes of his aircraft. Gyroscopes are used as the sensing element in all of these
instruments.

These indications give one the most important information for aircraft control. A technician
who is adept at analyzing how these systems work can troubleshoot problems easily and
perform his tasks effectively following the necessary precautions.

At the end of the topic the trainee will be able to:

 Describe rigidity and gyroscopic precession and determine the direction of precession
resulting from an applied force.

 Describe gimbal lock and gimbal layout for two and three gimbaled gyroscopes.

 Describe real drift, apparent drift and list the factors that affect them.

 Describe precautions with use and handling of gyroscopic instruments.

 Describe construction & operation of air & electrically driven artificial horizons.

 Describe acceleration, turn & erection errors & methods to overcome them.

 Describe the operation of the following erection systems: pendulous vane, ball type,
levelling switch and torque motor.

 Describe the construction, operation and function of air and electrically driven turn
coordinators and turn and slip indicators.
6. Attitude Indication System

6.1. General Function & Layout

Three of the most common flight instruments, the attitude indicator, heading indicator, and
turn needle of the turn-and-bank indicator, are controlled by gyroscopes. [Figure 6-1]

Figure 6-1. The three indicators that operate by gyroscopes

Gyro instruments are essential for safe flight when the natural horizon is not visible. Almost
all current production aircraft are equipped with at least an attitude gyro and a gyroscopic
heading indicator.

A gyro is a spinning wheel (mass) that obeys the Laws of Physics. The spinning wheel is
spun to high rotational speeds and a high angular momentum. There are two principal
methods used for driving the rotors of gyroscopic flight instruments: pneumatic and electric.

Gyro Pneumatic Systems

The gyro wheels in pneumatic flight instruments are made of brass and have notches, or
buckets, cut in their periphery. Air blows through a special nozzle into the buckets and spins
the gyro at a high speed. [Figure 6-2]
 Figure 6-2. Buckets cut in to a gyro rotor periphery so it can be driven by air

There are two ways of producing the airflow over the gyro wheels: suction and pressure.
The air can be evacuated from the instrument case, and air drawn in through a filter flows
through the nozzles to drive the gyro. Or, air moved by a vane-type air pump can be
directed through the nozzles to spin the gyros.

Some gyro instrument-equipped aircraft do not have an air pump, and the gyros on these
aircraft must be driven by low pressure produced by a venturi tube mounted on the outside
of the fuselage. Air flowing through the venturi produces a low pressure inside the
instrument case. Air flows into the instrument cases through built-in filters to spin the
gyros. The gyro horizon and directional gyros used in these systems each require four
inches of mercury suction to drive the gyro at its proper speed, and the turn and slip
indicator requires two inches of mercury. [Figure 6-3]

The advantages of a venturi as a suction source are its relatively low cost and its simplicity
of installation and operation. It also requires no electric power. But there are serious
limitations. A venturi is designed to produce the desired vacuum at approximately 100 mph
at standard sea level conditions. Wide variations in airspeed or air density cause the suction
developed to fluctuate. Airflow can also be hampered by ice that can form on the venturi
tube. Additionally, since the rotor does not reach normal operating speed until after takeoff,
preflight operational checks of venturi powered gyro instruments cannot be made. For these
reasons, alternate sources of vacuum power were developed.
 Figure 6-3. Simple venturi tube systems for powering gyroscopic instruments

Modern aircraft equipped with pneumatic gyros use vane-type air pumps similar to the one
in Figure 6-4. Two types of air pumps are wet pumps and dry pumps.
 Figure 6-4. A vane-type air pump

Wet Vacuum Pump Systems

Wet vacuum pumps were the only type of pump available for many years. These pumps
have steel vanes riding in a steel housing. They are lubricated by engine oil taken in
through the base of the pump. This oil seals, cools, and lubricates the pump and is then
removed from the pump with the discharge air. Before the air is dumped overboard or used
for inflating deicer boots, the oil is removed by routing the air through an air-oil separator.
The oily air is blown through a series of baffles where the oil collects and is drained back
into the engine crankcase, and the air is either directed overboard or to the deicer
distributor.

The air to drive the gyros is taken in through a central air filter, and then flows directly to
the nozzles in the heading indicator, attitude indicator, and turn and slip indicator. The
cases of the heading and attitude indicators are connected to the suction side of the system,
and the case of the turn and slip indicator is also connected to the suction side, but there is
a needle valve in the line. Air flows from the instruments through the suction-relief valve to
the pump and then is discharged. The suction-relief valve is a spring-loaded flat disk valve
that opens at a preset amount of suction to allow air to enter the system. If the spring is set
with too much compression, the suction will have to be greater to allow the disk to off seat
and allow air to enter the system. The suction relief valve is adjusted to four inches of
mercury as read on the instrument panel suction gage, and the needle valve in the turn and
slip line is adjusted so there will be a suction of two inches of mercury in the turn and slip
case. [Figure 6-5]
 Figure 6-5. A wet-pump vacuum system used to drive gyro instruments

Dry Air Pump System

Dry air pumps have almost completely replaced wet pumps for instrument air systems.
These pumps are lighter in weight and require no lubrication or oil separators in their
discharge lines. They can drive instruments with either the suction they produce or by their
positive air pressure.

Dry air pumps are vane-type pumps with the rotors and vanes made of a special carbon
compound that wears in microscopic amounts to provide the needed lubrication.

Figure 6-6 shows a typical twin-engine dual vacuum pump system for gyro instruments.
Each pump is connected to a manifold check valve through a vacuum regulator that allows
just enough outside air to enter the system to maintain the desired suction.

In case either pump should fail, the manifold check valve will prevent the inoperative side of
the system interfering with the working side. The manifold is connected to the outlet ports
of the attitude indicator and the heading indicator and to the suction gage. The inlet ports of
both indicators are connected to an inlet air filter. The line that goes to the filter also goes
to the suction gage so that it reads the pressure drop across the gyros. The suction gage
has two red buttons visible when the pumps are not operating, but as soon as either pump
is producing a vacuum, its button pulls into the instrument and is not visible. The lines to
these pump-failure buttons are taken off of the manifold before the check valves.
 Figure 6-6. A twin-engine vacuum system for gyros

Many modern airplanes fly at altitudes so high, there is not enough ambient air pressure to
drive the gyro instruments. For these aircraft, the output of the air pumps can be used to
drive the gyros. A typical twin-engine pressure instrument system is seen in Figure 6-7.

The inlets of the pumps are fitted with an inlet filter and the outlet air flows through a
pressure regulator that vents all the air above the pressure for which it is adjusted. The air
then flows through an in-line filter and into the manifold check valve to the inlet of the gyro
instruments. After passing through the gyros, the air is vented into the cabin. Pump-failure
buttons on the pressure gage pop out to show when either pump is not producing the
required pressure.
 Figure 6-7. A twin-engine pressure system for gyros

Electric Driven Gyro Systems

At high altitudes vacuum-driven gyroscopic instruments suffer from the effects of a

decrease in vacuum due to the lower atmospheric pressure; the resulting reduction in rotor
speeds affecting gyroscopic stability. Other disadvantages of vacuum operation are weight
due to pipelines, special arrangements to control the vacuum in pressurized cabin aircraft,
and, since air must pass through bearings, the possibility of contamination by corrosion and
dirt particles.

To overcome these disadvantages and to meet instrumentation demands for high-

performance aircraft, gyroscopic instruments were designed for operation from aircraft
electrical systems. A spinning motor armature can act as a gyroscope. This is the basis for
electrically driven gyroscopic instruments in which the gyro rotor spin is powered by an
electric motor.

The power supplies generally used are 115 V, 400 Hz, 3-phase current derived from an
inverter or engine-driven alternator, and 28 V direct current, the latter being required for
the operation of some types of turn-and-bank indicator. The gyroscopes of alternating
current instruments utilize the principle of the squirrel-cage induction motor, and because
the frequency of the power supply is high, greater rotor speeds (of the order of 24,000
rev./min.) are possible, thus providing greater rigidity and stability of indications. The
design of direct-current operated gyroscopes is based on the principle of the conventional
permanent-magnet type of motor.
On many small, single-engine aircraft, electric turn-and-bank or turn coordinators are
combined with vacuum-powered attitude and directional gyro instruments as a means for
redundancy. The reverse is also possible. By combining both types of instruments in the
instrument panel, the pilot has more options. On more complex multiengine aircraft,
reliable, redundant electrical systems make use of all electric-powered gyro instruments
possible.
6.2. Gyroscope Instrument and Properties

As a mechanical device a gyroscope may be defined as a system containing a heavy metal

wheel, or rotor, universally mounted so that it has three degrees of freedom:

 Spinning freedom about an axis perpendicular through its center (axis of spin XX1);
 Tilting freedom about a horizontal axis at right angles to the spin axis (axis of tilt
YY1);
 Veering freedom about a vertical axis perpendicular to both the spin and tilt axes
(axis of veer ZZ1).

The three degrees of freedom are obtained by mounting the rotor in two concentrically
pivoted rings, called inner and outer gimbal rings. The whole assembly is known as the
gimbal system of a free or space gyroscope. The gimbal system is mounted in a frame as
shown in Figure 6-8, so that in its normal operating position, all the axes are mutually at
right angles to one another and intersect at the center of gravity of the rotor.

Figure 6-8. Elements of a gyroscope

The system will not exhibit gyroscopic properties unless the rotor is spinning; for example, if
a weight is hung on the inner gimbal ring, it will merely displace the rings about axis YY 1
because there is no resistance to the weight. When the rotor is made to spin at high speed
the device then becomes a true gyroscope possessing two important fundamental
properties:

 Rigidity or gyroscopic inertia and

 Precession.

Both these properties depend on the principle of conservation of angular momentum, which
means that the angular momentum of a body about a given point remains constant unless
some force is applied to change it. Angular momentum is the product of the moment of
inertia (l) and angular velocity (ω) of a body referred to a given point−the center of gravity
in the case of a gyroscope.

6.2.1. Rigidity
Rigidity is the property which resists any force tending to change the plane of rotation of its
rotor. Gyroscopic rigidity depends upon several design factors:

1. Weight—for a given size, a heavy mass is more resistant to disturbing forces than a
light mass.
2. Angular velocity—the higher the rotational speed, the greater the rigidity or
resistance is to deflection.
3. Radius at which the weight is concentrated—maximum effect is obtained from a
mass when its principal weight is concentrated near the rim, rotating at high speed.
4. Bearing friction—any friction applies a deflecting force to a gyro. Minimum bearing
friction keeps deflecting forces at a minimum.

If the frame and outer gimbal ring are tipped about the axis YY 1, the gyroscope maintains
its spin axis in the horizontal position. [Figure 6-9 (a)] If the frame is either rotated about
the axis ZZ1 or is swung in an arc, the spin axis will continue to point in the same direction.

This means that the rotor of a free gyro always points in the same direction no matter which
way the base of the gyro is positioned. [Figure 6-9 (b)]

This characteristic of gyros to remain rigid in space is exploited in the attitude-indicating

instruments and the directional indicators that use gyros.
 (a)

(b)

Figure 6-9. Gyroscopic rigidity

6.2.2. Precession
Precession is the angular change in direction of the plane of rotation under the influence of
an applied force. The change in direction takes place, not in line with the applied force, but
always at a point 90˚ away in the direction of rotation. [Figure 6-10] The rate of precession
also depends on three factors:

 The strength and direction of the applied force,

  The moment of inertia of the rotor, and
 The angular velocity of the rotor.

The greater the force, the greater is the rate of precession, while the greater the moment of
inertia and the greater the angular velocity, the smaller is the rate of precession. Precession
of a rotor will continue, while the force is applied, until the plane of rotation is in line with
the plane of the applied force and until the directions of rotation and applied force are
coincident. This predictable controlled precession of a gyroscope is utilized in a turn and
bank instrument.

Figure 6-10. Gyroscopic precession

6.2.3. References Established by Gyroscope

For use in aircraft, gyroscopes must establish two essential reference datums: a reference
against which pitch and roll attitude changes may be detected, and a directional reference
against which changes about the vertical axis may be detected. These references are
established by gyroscopes having their spin axes arranged vertically and horizontally
respectively, as shown in Figure 6-11.
 Figure 6-11. References established by gyroscopes

Both types of gyroscope utilize the fundamental properties in the following manner: rigidity
establishes a stabilized reference unaffected by movement of the supporting body, and
precession controls the effects of apparent and real drift thus maintaining stabilized
reference datums.

It will also be noted from Fig 6-11 that the pitch, roll, and directional attitudes of the aircraft
are determined by its displacement with respect to each appropriate gyroscope. For this
reason, therefore, the gyroscopes are referred to as displacement type gyroscopes. Each
one has the three degrees of freedom described in the first part of this section, and
consequently three mutual axes, but for the purpose of attitude sensing, the spin axis is
discounted since no useful attitude reference is provided when displacements take place
about the spin axis alone. Thus, in the practical case, vertical-axis and horizontal-axis
gyroscopes are further classified as two-axis displacement gyroscopes.

6.2.4. Limitations of a Free Gyroscope

Aircraft in flight are still very much a part of the earth, i.e. all references must be with
respect to the earth's surface. The free or space gyroscope we have thus far considered
would, however, serve no useful purpose and must be corrected for drift with respect to the
earth's rotation, called apparent drift.
a. Apparent Drift
The earth rotates about its axis at the rate of 15˚ per hour (termed the earth rate ωe).
When a free gyroscope is positioned at any point on the earth's surface, it will sense,
depending on the latitude at which it is positioned, and the orientation of its spin axis and
its input axis, various components of ωe as an angular input. Thus, to an observer on the
earth having no sense of the earth's rotation, the gyroscope would appear to veer or drift as
it is normally termed. This may be seen from Figure 6-12 (a) which illustrates a horizontal-
axis gyroscope at a latitude λ. At 'A', the input axis is aligned with the local N-S component
of ωe; therefore, to an observer at latitude λ the rotor and gimbal system of the gyroscope
would appear to drift clockwise (opposite to the earth's direction of rotation) in a horizontal
plane relative to the frame, and at a rate equal to 15˚ cos λ. When the input axis is aligned
with that of the earth ('B') drift would also be apparent, but at a rate equal to ωe i.e. 15˚
per hour. If the input axis is now aligned with the local vertical component of ('C' in the
diagram) the apparent drift would be equal to 15˚ sin λ.

In order to further illustrate drift, we may consider diagram (b) of Figure 6-12 which is a
plan view of a free horizontal-axis gyroscope positioned at the North Pole with its input axis
(ZZ1) aligned with that of the earth. After three hours the earth will have rotated through
45˚, and the gyroscope will have appeared to have drifted through the same amount but in
the opposite direction. After six hours, the earth's rotation and apparent drift will be 90°,
and so on through a complete 24-hour period.

If the same gyroscope were to be positioned so that its input axis ZZ 1 was aligned with the
E-W component of ωe at any point, its spin axis would then be vertical; in other words, it
becomes a vertical-axis gyroscope. Since the plane of rotation is coincident with that of the
earth, then there will be no apparent drift.
Figure 6-12. Apparent drift
b. Real Drift
Real drift results from imperfections in a gyroscope such as bearing friction and gimbal
unbalance. Such imperfections cause unwanted precession which can only be minimized by
applying precision engineering techniques to the design and construction.

6.2.5. Freedom of Movement and Limitations

Depending on the orientation of its gimbal system, a displacement gyroscope can be subject
to certain operating limitations; one is referred to as gimbal lock, and the other as gimbal
error.

a. Gimbal Lock
This occurs when the gimbal orientation is such that the spin axis becomes coincident with
one or other of the axes of freedom which serve as attitude displacement references. Let us
consider for example, the case of the spin axis of the vertical-axis gyroscope shown in
Figure 6-11 becoming coincident with the ZZ 1 axis of the outer gimbal ring. This means that
the gyroscope would 'lose' its spin axis, and since the rotor plane of spin would be at 90˚ to
the ZZ1 axis but in the same plane as displacements in roll, then the stable roll attitude
reference would also be lost. If, in this 'locked' condition of the gimbal system the
gyroscope as a whole were to be turned, then the forces acting on the gimbal system would
cause the system to precess or topple.

c. Gimbal Error
This is an error which is also related to gimbal system orientation, and it occurs whenever
the gyroscope as a whole is displaced with its gimbal rings not mutually at right angles to
each other. This error is particularly relevant to horizontal-axis gyroscopes.
6.3. Gyroscopic Flight Instruments

The gyro horizon, or artificial horizon as it is sometimes called, indicates the pitch and
bank attitude of an aircraft relative to the vertical, and for this purpose employs a
displacement gyroscope whose spin axis is maintained vertical by a gravity-sensing device,
so that effectively it serves the same purpose as a pendulum but with the advantage that
aircraft attitude changes do not cause it to oscillate.

Indications of pitch and bank attitude are presented by the relative positions of two
elements, one symbolizing the aircraft itself, and the other in the form of a bar stabilized by
the gyroscope and symbolizing the natural horizon. Supplementary indications of bank are
presented by the position of a pointer, also gyro-stabilized, and a fixed bank angle scale.
Two methods of presentation are shown in Fig 6-13.

Figure 6-13. Gyro horizon presentations (a) bottom bank scale; (b) top bank scale
The operating principle may be understood by referring to Fig 6-14. The gimbal system is
arranged so that the inner ring forms the rotor casing, and is pivoted parallel to the
aircraft's lateral axis YY1; and the outer ring is pivoted parallel to the aircraft's longitudinal
axis ZZ1. The outer ring pivots are located at the front and rear ends of the instrument case.
The element symbolizing the aircraft may be either rigidly fixed to the case, or externally
adjusted up and down for pitch trim setting.

In operation the gimbal system is stabilized so that in level flight the three axes are
mutually at right angles. When there is a change in the aircraft's attitude, it goes into a
climb say, the instrument case and outer ring will turn about the axis YY 1 of the stabilized
inner ring.

Changes in the lateral attitude of the aircraft, i.e. banking, displaces the instrument case
about the axis ZZ1 and the whole stabilized gimbal system. Hence, lateral attitude changes
are indicated by movement of the symbolic aircraft element relative to the horizon bar, and
also by relative movement between the bank angle scale and the pointer.

Freedom of gimbal system movement bout the roll and pitch axes is 360˚ and 85˚
respectively, the latter being restricted by means of a 'resilient stop'. The reason for
restricting the pitch movement of a gyro horizon to 85˚ is to prevent 'gimbal lock'.
 Figure 6-14. Principle of gyro horizon

6.3.1. Vacuum Driven Gyro Horizon

A typical version of a vacuum-driven gyro horizon is shown in Fig 6-15. The rotor is pivoted
in ball bearings within a case forming the inner ring, which in turn is pivoted in a
rectangular-shaped outer ring.

A background plate which symbolizes the sky is fixed to the front end of the outer ring and
carries the bank pointer which registers against the bank-angle scale.

The outer ring has complete freedom through 360˚ about the roll axis. A resilient stop
limiting the ±85˚pitch movement is fitted on the top of the rotor casing.

The horizon bar and pointer are an accurately balanced assembly pivoted in plain bearings
on the side of the outer ring and slotted to engage the actuating pin projecting from the
rotor case. Pitch attitude changes are indicated by the pointer set at right angles to the bar
and positioned in front of the 'sky plate'.

In the rear end cover of the instrument case, a connection is provided for the coupling of
the vacuum supply. A filtered air inlet is also provided in the cover and is positioned over
the outer-ring rear-bearing support and pivot, which are drilled to communicate with a
channel in the outer ring. This channel terminates in diametrically-opposed spinning jets
within the rotor casing, the underside of which has a number of outlet holes drilled in it.
With the vacuum system in operation, a depression is created so that the surrounding
atmosphere enters the filtered inlet and passes through the channels to the jets. The air
issuing from the jets impinges on the rotor buckets, thus imparting even driving forces to
spin the rotor at approximately 15,000 rev./min. in an anticlockwise direction as viewed
from above. After spinning the rotor, the air passes through a pendulous vane unit attached
to the underside of the rotor casing, and is finally drawn off by the vacuum source.

Many of these gyros include a caging device. It is used to erect the rotor to its normal
operating position prior to flight or after tumbling. A flag indicates that the gyro must be
uncaged before use. More modern gyroscopic instruments are built so they do not tumble,
regardless of the angular movement of the aircraft about its axes.

Figure 6-16 shows the dial indications of a typical gyro horizon and their interpretation.

Figure 6-15. Vacuum driven gyro horizon

Figure 6-16. A typical vacuum-driven attitude indicator shown with the aircraft in level flight
(left) and in a climbing right turn (right).

6.3.2. Electric Gyro Horizon

Electric attitude indicators are very similar to vacuum-driven gyro indicators. The main
difference is in the drive mechanism. Inside the gimbals of an electric gyro, a small squirrel
cage electric motor is the rotor. It is typically driven by 115-volt, 400-cycle AC. It turns at
approximately 21,000 rpm.

Other characteristics of the vacuum-driven gyro are shared by the electric gyro. The rotor is
still oriented in the horizontal plane. The free gyro gimbals allow the aircraft and instrument
case to rotate around the gyro rotor that remains rigid in space. A miniature airplane fixed
to the instrument case indicates the aircraft’s attitude against the moving horizon bar
behind it.

Electric attitude indicators address some of the shortcomings of vacuum-driven attitude

indicators. Since there is no air flowing through an electric attitude indicator, air filters,
regulators, plumbing lines and vacuum pump(s) are not needed. Contamination from dirt in
the air is not an issue, resulting in the potential for longer bearing life and less precession.
Erection mechanism ports are not employed, so pendulous vanes responsive to centrifugal
forces are eliminated.

6.3.3. Standby Gyro Horizon

Many aircraft currently in service employ integrated flight systems or flight director systems
(discussed later) which comprise indicators that can display, not only pitch and roll attitude
data from remotely-located vertical gyroscope units, but also associated signal data from
radio navigation systems. Thus, it could be stated that there is no longer a need for a gyro
horizon. There is, however, an airworthiness requirement to meet the case of possible
failure of the circuits controlling the display of aircraft attitude, and so the gyro horizon still
finds a place on the instrument panel, but in the role of a secondary or standby attitude
indicator.

The indicator has a pitch trim adjustment and a fast-erection facility, both being controlled
by the knob in the lower right-hand corner of the indicator bezel. [Figure 6-17] When the
knob is rotated in its normally 'in' position, the aircraft symbol may be positioned through
±5˚ thereby establishing a variable pitch trim reference. Pulling the knob out and holding it
cages the gyro.

Figure 6-17. Standby attitude indicator

6.3.4. Solid State Gyros and Related Systems

Improved attitude and direction information is always a goal in aviation. Modern aircraft
make use of highly accurate solid-state attitude and directional devices with no moving
parts. This results in very high reliability and low maintenance.

Ring Laser Gyros (RLG)

The ring laser gyro (RLG) is widely used in commercial aviation. The basis for RLG operation
is that it takes time for light to travel around a stationary, nonrotating circular path. Light
takes longer to complete the journey if the path is rotating in the same direction as the light
is traveling. And, it takes less time for the light to complete the loop if the path is rotating in
the direction opposite to that of the light. Essentially, the path is made longer or shorter by
the rotation of the path. [Figure 6-18] This is known as the Sagnac effect.
 Figure 6-18. The Sagnac effect

A laser is light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. A laser operates by exciting

atoms in plasma to release electromagnetic energy, or photons. A ring laser gyro produces
laser beams that travel in opposite directions around a closed triangular cavity. The
wavelength of the light traveling around the loop is fixed.

The laser resonance wavelength fulfills the condition:

mλ= L

Where m: is an integer
λ: is the wavelength and
L: is the optical path for the beam to return on itself.

As the loop rotates, the path the lasers must travel lengthens or shortens. The light
wavelengths compress or expand to complete travel around the loop as the loop changes its
effective length. As the wavelengths change, the frequencies also change. The frequency
difference is created because the speed of light is constant. By examining the difference in
the frequencies of the two counter-rotating beams of light, the rate at which the path is
rotating can be measured. The paragraph below describes how it is done.

A small amount of light from the two laser beams passes through one of the mirrors (less
than 0.2%). The beams are combined to produce a beat frequency. This takes the form of a
fringe (interference) pattern. When the gyro is stationary, the fringe pattern is stationary.
When the laser beam frequencies differ, the fringe pattern of alternate dark and light stripes
starts to move. Photodiodes sense the fringe pattern rate and direction of movement. The
frequency and relative phase of the two diode outputs indicate magnitude and the direction
of the gyro's rotation. [Figures 6-19 and 6-20]

A piezoelectric dithering motor in the center of the unit vibrates to prevent lock-in of the
output signal at low rotational speeds. It causes units installed on aircraft to hum when
operating. [Figure 6-19]

Figure 6-19. The ring laser gyro

 Figure 6-20. RLG readout

An RLG is remotely mounted so the cavity path rotates around one of the axes of flight. The
rate of frequency phase shift detected between the counter-rotating lasers is proportional to
the rate that the aircraft is moving about that axis. On aircraft, an RLG is installed for each
axis of flight. [Figure 6-21] Output can be used in analog instrumentation and autopilot
systems. It is also easily made compatible for use by digital display computers and for
digital autopilot computers.

RLGs are very rugged and have a long service life with virtually no maintenance due to their
lack of moving parts. They measure movement about an axis extremely quickly and provide
continuous output. They are extremely accurate and generally are considered superior to
mechanical gyroscopes.
 Figure 6-21. Three RLGs detecting aircraft rotation in three axes

Fiber Optic Gyro (FOG)

The light from a laser is split and the two parts traverse a coiled optical fiber in opposite
directions. The coil may have hundreds of turns. When the coil is rotated, the two beams
will emerge with a phase shift ∆ф. It is cheaper and smaller than RLGs but is less accurate.
[Figure 6-22]

Figure 6-22. Fiber optic gyro (FOG)

Microelectromechanical Based Attitude and Directional Systems

Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) for gyroscopic applications are used in small,

general aviation aircraft, as well as larger commercial aircraft. Tiny vibration-based units
with resistance and capacitance measuring pick-offs are accurate and reliable and only a
few millimeters in length and width. They are normally integrated into a complete micro-
electronic solid-state chip designed to yield an output after various conditioning processes
are performed. The chips, which are analogous to tiny circuit boards, can be packaged for
installation inside a dedicated computer or module that is installed on the aircraft.

While a large mechanical gyroscope spins in a plane, its rigidity in space is used to observe
and measure the movement of the aircraft. The basis of operation of many MEMS
gyroscopes is the same despite their tiny size. The difference is that a vibrating or
oscillating piezoelectric device replaces the spinning, weighted ring of the mechanical gyro.
Still, once set in motion, any out-of-plane motion is detectable by varying micro-voltages or
capacitances detected through geometrically arranged pickups. Since piezoelectric
substances have a relationship between movement and electricity, micro-electrical
stimulation can set a piezoelectric gyro in motion and the tiny voltages produced via the
movement in the piezo can be extracted. They can be input as the required variables
needed to compute attitude or direction information. [Figure 6-23]

Figure 6-23. The relative scale size of a MEMS gyro

Other Attitude and Directional Systems

In modern aircraft, attitude heading and reference systems (AHRS) have taken the place of
the gyroscope and other individual instruments. While MEMS devices provide part of the
attitude information for the system, GPS, solid state magnetometers, solid state
accelerometers, and digital air data signals are all combined in an AHRS to compute and
output highly reliable information for display on a cockpit panel. [Figure 6-24]
Figure 6-24. Instrumentation displayed within a glass cockpit using an attitude heading and
reference system (AHRS) computer.
6.4. Erection Systems

These systems are provided for the purpose of erecting the gyroscope to its vertical
position, and to maintain it in that position during operation. The systems adopted depend
on the particular design of gyro horizon, but they are all of the gravity-sensing type and in
general fall into two main categories: mechanical and electrical.

6.4.1. Vane Type and Ball Type

Pendulous Vane Unit

The pendulous vane unit is fastened to the underside of the rotor housing and consists of
four knife-edged pendulously suspended vanes clamped in pairs on two intersecting shafts
supported in the unit body. In the sides of the body there are four small elongated ports,
one under each vane. The air, after having spun the gyro rotor, is exhausted through the
ports, emerging as four streams; one forward, one rearward and two lateral. The reaction of
the air as it flows through the ports a force to the unit body. The vanes, under the influence
of gravity, always hang in the vertical position.

These ports all exhaust the same amount of air when the gyro is rotating in plane. When
the gyro rotates out of plane, air tends to port out of one side more than another. Vanes
close to prevent this, causing more air to flow applies out of the opposite side. The force
from this unequal venting of the air re-erects the gyro rotor. [Figure 6-25]
 Figure 6-25. Vane type gyro erection process (top); close-up of the precession (bottom)

Ball type

This unit utilizes the precessional forces resulting from the effects of gravity on a number of
steel balls displaced within a rotating holder suspended from the gyro housing.

The holder of the ball erector mechanism encloses from five to eight balls, the number
depending upon the particular design, which are free to roll across a radiused erecting disc.
A plate having a number of specially profiled hooks is fixed around the inner edge of the
holder. The spacing of the hooks is chosen so as to regulate the release of the balls when
the gyroscope tilts, and to shift their mass to the proper point on the erecting disc to apply
the force required for precession. Rotation of the holder takes place through reduction
gearing from the gyro rotor shaft, the speed of the holder being 25 rev./min. [Figure 6-26]
Figure 6-26. Ball-type erection unit. (a) Gyro vertical; (b) gyro tilted away from front of
instrument; (c) precession to the vertical
 6.4.2. Torque Motors and Leveling Switch Type
This system is used in a number of electrically-operated gyro horizons and consists of two
torque control motors independently operated by mercury levelling switches, which are
mounted, one parallel to the lateral axis, and the other parallel to the longitudinal axis. The
disposition of the torque motors and switches is illustrated diagrammatically in Fig 6-27.

The laterally mounted switch detects displacement of the gyroscope in roll and is connected
to its torque motor so that a corrective torque is applied around the pitch axis.
Displacement of the gyroscope in pitch is detected by the longitudinally mounted levelling
switch, which is connected to its torque motor so that corrective torques are around the roll
axis.

Figure 6-27. Arrangement of a torque-motor and levelling switch erection system

Each levelling switch is in the form of a sealed glass tube containing three electrodes and a
small quantity of mercury. The tubes are filled with an inert gas to prevent arcing at the
electrodes as the mercury makes contact and also to increase the rupturing capacity.
The torque motors comprise a squirrel-cage-type laminated-iron rotor mounted
concentrically about a stator, the iron core of which has two windings, one providing a
constant field and called the 'reference winding', and the other in two parts so as to provide
a reversible field, and called the 'control winding'. Both windings are powered from a
stepdown auto-transformer connected between phases A and B of the 115 V supply to the
gyro horizon. The electrical interconnection of all the components comprising the system is
indicated in Fig 6-28.

Figure 6-28. Circuit diagram of torque-motor and levelling-switch erection system

6.4.3. Fast and Slow Erection Systems

In order to bring the gyroscope to its normal operating position as quickly as possible, a fast
erection system may be provided. Two typical systems in current use are described in the
following paragraphs.

Fast-erection Switch

The switch (Fig 6-28) consists of several contacts connected in the power supply lines to the
erection-system torque motors and levelling switches.

Under normal operating conditions of the gyro horizon, the switch remains spring-loaded to
the 'off’ position and the low-voltage supply from the auto-transformer passes over one
closed contact of the switch to the erection system.

Whenever the gyroscope goes beyond the appropriate angular limits, the erection system
circuit must be restored and the gyroscope's position brought back to normal as quickly as
possible. This is achieved by pushing in the switch so that the contact in the low-voltage
supply line opens to isolate the erection system from the auto-transformer, and the upper
contacts dose. The power supply to them is now changed to the full line voltage of 115 V
from

one of the phases. This results in an increase of current through the stator windings of the
torque motors, and the greater torque so applied increases the erection rate from the
normal value of 5˚ per minute to between 120˚ and 180˚ per minute, depending on the
particular design.

The switch must not be depressed for longer than 15 seconds to prevent overheating of the
stator coils due to the higher current.

Electromagnetic Method of East Erection

In this method, a circular-shaped electromagnet is secured to the inside of the instrument

case above an umbrella-shaped armature mounted on the gyro rotor housing. [Figure 6-29]

When the normal 115 V alternating-current supply is initially switched on, it is fed to
contacts 1 and 2 of the standard relay, and from one phase, through the time-delay relay,
to the bridge rectifier. The direct current obtained from the rectifier is then supplied to the
coil of the electromagnet, which, on being energized, produces a magnetic field radiating
symmetrically from a small center pole to a circular outer pole. Torque applied is in such a
direction as to cause the gyro housing to erect to the vertical and bring the top of the
armature into line with the center of the magnet before the rotor is up to full speed.

The standard relay is energized by the DC rectified voltage and the resulting changeover of
the relay contacts causes the 115 V supply to be fed to the tapping points 2 and 3 on the
transformer primary winding. This has the effect of reducing the number of turns of the
winding; in other words, the transformer is of the step-up type, the voltage of the
secondary winding in this particular application being increased to 185 V.

After approximately 20 seconds, the time-delay relay opens and disconnects the direct
current from the electromagnet. The standard relay then de-energizes and switches the
gyro rotor circuit from the transformer to the normal 1 15 V supply, the rotor running up to
full speed some seconds later.
 Figure 6-29. Electromagnetic method of fast erection

6.4.4. Errors Due to Acceleration and Turning

Errors Due to Acceleration

The erection devices employed in gyro horizons are all of the pendulous gravity-controlled
type. This being so, it is possible for them to be displaced by the forces acting during the
acceleration and turning of an aircraft, and unless provision is made to counteract them the
resulting torques will precess the gyro axis to a false vertical position and so present a false
indication of an aircraft attitude. For example, let us consider the effects of a rapid
acceleration in the flight direction, firstly on the vane type of erection device and secondly
on the levelling-switch and torque-motor type (see Fig 6-30).

The force set up by the acceleration will deflect the two athwartships-mounted vanes to the
rear, thus opening the right-hand port. The greater reaction of air flowing through the port
applies a force to the underside of the rotor and the torque causes it to precess forward
about the axis YY1. The horizon bar is thus displaced downwards, presenting a false
indication of an ascent.

With the levelling-switch and torque-motor type of erection device, the acceleration force
will deflect the mercury in the pitch levelling switch to the rear of the glass tube. A circuit is
thus completed to the pitch torque motor which also precesses the gyroscope forward and
displaces the horizon bar to indicate an ascent.
It should be apparent from the foregoing that, during periods of deceleration, a gyro horizon
will present a false indication of a descent.

Figure 6-30. Acceleration error. (a) Vane-type erection system; (b) levelling-switch and
torque-motor erection system
Turning Errors

When an aircraft turns, false indications about both the pitch and bank axes can occur due
to what are termed 'gimballing effects' brought about by forces acting on both sets of
pendulous vanes and both levelling switches. There are, in fact, two errors due to turning:
erection errors and pendulosity errors.

As an aircraft enters a correctly banked turn the longitudinally mounted pendulous vanes, or
roll levelling switch, are acted upon by centrifugal force. The gyroscope will therefore be
subjected to a torque applied in such a direction that it tends to precess the gyro axis
towards the aircraft perpendicular along which the resultant of centrifugal and gravity forces
is acting. Thus, the gyroscope is erected to a false vertical and introduces an error in bank
indication. This is erection error.

The centrifugal force experienced by the gyro axis in the false vertical position during the
turn is constant and at right angles to the instantaneous heading. This means that when the
aircraft changes its heading at a constant rate during a 360˚ turn, the top of the gyro axis
will trace out a circular path which is 90˚in advance of the aircraft heading. [Figure 6-31]

Figure 6-31. Erection error

Erection errors may be compensated by one of the following three methods:

 Inclination of the gyro spin axis

 Erection cut-out
 Pitch-bank compensation
The idea behind inclined spin axis is to impart a constant forward (rearward in some
instruments) tilt to the gyro axis from the true vertical. The angle of tilt varies but is usually
either 1.6˚ or 2.5˚. Erection cutout and pitch/bank compensation are discussed below.

6.4.5. Erection Cutout

The erection cut-out method is one applied to certain types of electric gyro horizon and
operates automatically whenever the aircraft banks more than 10˚ in either direction. It
interrupts the supply to the bank levelling switch so that displacement of the mercury by
centrifugal force cannot therefore energize the relevant torque motor and cause precession
to a false vertical.

6.4.6. Pitch/Bank Erection

'Pitch-bank erection', is a combined one in which the bank levelling switch is disconnected
during a turn and its erection system is controlled by the pitch levelling switch. It is
intended to correct the varying pitch and bank errors and operates only when the rate of
turn causes a centrifugal acceleration exceeding 0.18g, which is equivalent to a 10˚ tilt of
the bank erection switch. The system is shown schematically in Fig 6-32.

During a turn if the centrifugal acceleration exceeds 0.18g, the mercury in the bank levelling
switch is displaced to the end of the tube and so disconnects the normal supply to the bank
torque motor, i.e. it now acts as an erection cutout. A constant control is applied about both
the pitch and roll axes by the pitch levelling switch; hence the term 'pitch-bank erection'.

The changeover function of the curved mercury switches depends on the direction of tilt of
the gyro axis in pitch. This is indicated by the broken arrows in Fig 6-32.
 Figure 6-32. ‘Pitch-bank’ erection

6.4.7. Pendulous Errors Compensations

Pendulosity, or 'bottom heaviness' as it is sometimes called, is often deliberately introduced
in gyro horizons so that the gyroscope will always be resting near its vertical position. This
helps to reduce the erection time when starting and also it prevents the gimbal system from
spinning about the bank and pitch axes during rundown of the rotor. However, it can be
acted upon by accelerating and decelerating forces in straight and level flight, and
centrifugal forces during turns; consequently, it is an additional source of error, i.e.
pendulosity error.

When acceleration takes place the base of the rotor assembly tends to lag behind owing to
inertia, i.e. it tends to swing directly rearwards. In following the force through with the aid
of the 90° precession rule, it will be seen, however, that the rotor assembly will precess
about the bank axis to port or starboard depending on the direction of rotor rotation. A
deceleration has the opposite effect.
Compensation is usually effected by adopting the inclined-axis method, the inclination in
this case being about the bank axis, and the direction being dependent on that of rotor
rotation. The amount of inclination is governed by the type of instrument, two typical values
being 0.5˚ and 1.75˚.
6.5. Vertical Gyro System

The vertical gyro system has the appearance of a conventional gyro horizon, but unlike this
instrument the pitch and roll indicating elements are electrically controlled from a remotely
located vertical gyro unit. Furthermore, it employs a different method of referencing the
elements. [Figure 6-33]

The Vertical Gyro is an electrically driven gyro that spins about a vertical axis. It supplies
the reference for the automatic flight control and flight instruments of the aircraft about the
roll (aileron) and pitch (elevator) axis.

The electrically driven gyro has full freedom in roll. It has -85 to +85 degrees freedom of
pitch. There is an erection system to keep the rotor spin axis vertical. The Vertical Gyro has
two synchros to detect the movement of the aircraft about the roll and pitch axes. The gyro
also has circuits that monitor the functional operation of the internal components.

Figure 6-33. Vertical gyro

6.5.1. Construction & Operation

The power for operation of the Vertical Gyro is from a 115 VAC, 400-Hz, single-phase
source in the airplane. The gyro spin motor and the torque motors operate split phase and
are powered by the electronic circuits in the Vertical Gyro.

The main part of the gyro is in the upper part of the vertical gyro assembly. It has center of
gravity vibration isolation to give shock attenuation. It is pressure sealed to protect the
mechanism from dirt, moisture, and pressure variation. A dehydrator (silica-gel) plug
removes any moisture that might be trapped in the enclosure.

A roll cutoff switch automatically disables roll erection while the aircraft is in a turn. This
prevents the gyro from erecting to a false gravity vertical. The switch is actuated by
acceleration forces that are caused by aircraft turns.

A pitch cutoff switch prevents acceleration introduced gyro errors by opening the pitch
torquer circuit in takeoff, landing, and longitudinal accelerations. Pitch erection is restored
automatically after three minutes even if the cutoff switches continue to indicate
acceleration.

Figure 6-34 shows the Vertical Gyro with the cover removed.

Figure 6-34. Vertical gyro internals

Figure 6-35 shows the vertical gyro simplified schematic diagram.

The gyro case encloses the gyro rotor, which spins on a vertical axis. The gyro rotor has the
squirrel-cage member of a split phase induction motor. The stator is supported by the gyro
case cover in the rotor, and is energized by 115 VAC, 400 Hz, single-phase power.

Supported at the bottom of the gyro case are two sensitive levels, each level has an
electrolyte, a central electrode, and two end-electrodes. One level senses the gravity vector
about the pitch axis, the other about the roll axis. The levels function to maintain the gyro
axis vertical.

The Vertical Gyro has precision synchros with 5 percent voltage to displacement accuracy.
The pitch synchro rotor is fastened to the gyro case, and the stator to the gimbal ring. The
roll synchro rotor is fastened to the gimbal ring, and the stator to the frame. Each synchro
rotor is two-wire and each stator is three-wire with center tap.

The roll torque motor is a stator mounted on the lateral axis of the gyro case and a squirrel-
cage rotor carried by the gimbal ring. The stator is two-phase: one phase (fixed field) being
energized continuously from the 400 Hz supply and the other phase (control field) being
energized from the 400 Hz supply through the liquid level.
 Figure 6-35. Vertical gyro simplified schematic diagram

6.5.2. Components Description

a. Vertical Gyro

The vertical gyro has the following subsystems:

 Erection system – The gyro erection circuits give fast erection in the first few
minutes after power is turned on. After this period, slow erection at the rate of 2.1
degrees each minute is used.
 Synchros – The signals generated in the stators of the synchros is transmitted to the
flight control and instrument systems for the pitch attitude reference.
  Pendulum – prevents erection of the gyro in an upside-down position when it is first
energized.
 Gyro Rotor Speed Switch - supply the start or run capacitance needed for the gyro
spin motor. The start capacitor causes high torque for rapid wheel acceleration and
the run capacitor lets the motor operate with minimum power consumption.
 Fixed Field Fast-Slow Erection Switch - supply correct roll and pitch torquer fixed
field voltages for the fast/slow modes of operation.
 Erection Control and Monitor
 Gyro Flag Warning Circuitry
 Undervoltage Monitor
 Synchro Rotor and Fixed Field Monitor
 Torquer Field Monitor
 Power Supply

d. Instrument Amplifier

Amplifiers are used to amplify the error signals coming from the synchros inside the vertical
gyro. The amplified signal is used to drive the servomotors inside the indicating instrument.

e. Attitude Indicator
The attitude indicator is an electromechanical unit that converts the attitude signals coming
from the vertical gyro in to the roll and pitch indications. [Figure 6-36]

The horizon bar is carried on a flexible tape which is driven by separate pitch and roll
servomotors within the indicator. Freedom of tape movement in pitch is ±90˚, and 360˚ in
roll. The upper and lower sections of the tape are colored to represent the sky and ground
respectively, and they also have index marks on them to indicate pitch angles.

Roll angle is displayed by a pointer which rotates with the flexible tape, and is referenced
against a fixed scale. The servomotors are supplied with signals from a vertical gyroscope
unit located at a remote point.

Command bars are also used to tell the pilot the attitude to assume. When a command has
been satisfied, the command bars are aligned with the edges of the aircraft symbol.

The indicator can show information other than attitude such as glideslope and localizer
deviations and fast/slow indications related to the speed of an aircraft when executing a go-
around maneuver following a missed approach. These indications get data from other
sources. Indications of slip or skid are provided by an inclinometer similar to that adopted in
conventional turn and bank indicators.

Electromechanically operated flags also show the status of the respective systems.
 Figure 6-36. Flight director indicator

6.5.3. System Operation

Whenever a change of aircraft attitude occurs, signals flow from pitch and roll synchros
disposed about the relevant axes of the vertical gyroscope to the corresponding synchros
within the indicator. Error signals are therefore induced in the rotors and after amplification
are fed to the servomotors, which rotate to position the pitch bar and horizon disc to
indicate the changing attitude of the aircraft. At the same time, the servomotors drive the
synchro rotors to the 'null' position. [Figure 6-37]
 Figure 6-37. Electrical interconnection of a vertical gyro system

6.5.4. Testing, Troubleshooting and Maintenance

The following paragraphs detail maintenance activities on a B737-200 (Jurassic). This
airplane has a vertical gyro system which nowadays, on modern aircraft, is replaced by an
integrated digital air data inertial reference unit (ADIRU) or IRU systems.

Test
The first procedure is an operational test in which only onboard equipment is used. The
second procedure is a system test using the tilt tables to check system tolerances.

Operational Test

1. Remove mounting bolts from vertical gyros.

2. Provide electrical power.
3. Close applicable CBs.
4. Place VERTICAL GYRO transfer switch in NORMAL position. Make sure that both ADIs
indicate airplane roll and pitch attitude 1 minute after power is applied.
5. Tilt vertical gyro No. 1 until captain's ADI indicates 10 degrees pitch down (attitude
assembly moves toward top of indicator).

NOTE: ADI should follow displacements of vertical gyro smoothly with no

sluggishness or overshoot.

6. Tilt vertical gyro No. 1 until captain's ADI indicates 10 degrees pitch up.
7. Tilt vertical gyro No. 1 until captain's ADI indicates 20 degrees right roll (attitude
assembly rotates counterclockwise).
8. Tilt vertical gyro No. 1 until captain's ADI indicates 20 degrees left roll.
9. Repeat steps using vertical gyro No. 2 and first officer's ADI.

System Test

1. Remove vertical gyros from mountings and install on calibrated tilt tables (oriented
as installed in airplanes).
2. Connect jumper cables between gyros and their respective airplane connector.
3. Adjust tilt tables to 0 degree roll and pitch.
4. Connect electrical power to airplane.
5. Make sure applicable CBs are closed.
6. Place VERTICAL GYRO transfer switch in NORMAL position. Make sure that both ADIs
indicate 0.0±2 degrees roll and pitch attitude 1 minute after power is applied.
7. Adjust each ADI for zero pitch attitude using adjustment screw on lower left corner
of ADIs.
8. Tilt vertical gyro No. 1 until captain's ADI indicates 10 degrees pitchdown (attitude
assembly moves toward top of indicator). Make sure that the tilt table indicates
10±2 degrees pitchdown.

NOTE: ADI should follow displacements of vertical gyro smoothly with no

sluggishness or overshoot.

9. Tilt vertical gyro No. 1 until captain's ADI indicates 10 degrees pitchup. Make sure
that the tilt table indicates 10±2 degrees pitchup.
10. Tilt vertical gyro No. 1 until captain's ADI indicates 20 degrees right roll (attitude
assembly rotates counterclockwise). Make sure that the tilt table indicates 20±3
degrees right roll.
 11. Tilt vertical gyro No. 1 until captain's ADI indicates 20 degrees left roll. Make sure
that the tilt table indicates 20±3 degrees left roll.
12. Repeat steps for the other vertical gyros and ADIs.
13. Return vertical gyros to level attitude.
14. Open all attitude reference system circuit breakers.
15. Allow 3 minutes for gyros to run down. Install in airplane and connect electrical
cables.
16. Close system circuit breakers and make sure that system indicates attitude of
airplane.

Removal

A gyro should not be removed from its seating position until its rotor has come to rest. At
least 3 minutes should be allowed after switch off, to meet this requirement.

Particular care should be exercised in transporting a gyro from place to place. It is a delicate
instrument which will not withstand knocks or rough handling. Use approved containers for
transportation wherever possible.

1. Remove power from the attitude system.

2. Disconnect electrical connectors and remove gyro cables from mounting bracket (Fig.
6-38).
3. Remove three bolts attaching gyro to mounting plate.
4. Bag bolts and attach to gyro or mounting.
5. Remove gyro.
 Figure 6-38. Vertical gyro installation on B737-200

Troubleshooting

Trouble Probable Cause Isolation Procedure Remedy

Attitude sphere Vertical gyro Check that CBs are closed. Replace defective
malfunctioning inoperative or Check DC voltage output gyro and/or
and gyro flag in instrument from amplifier. Check valid instrument
view amplifier failure DC voltage output through amplifier
VG interlock
Gyro flag does Sticking flag Check attitude indicator(s) Replace defective
not appear when indicator
appropriate CBs
are opened
Sluggish attitude Attitude indicator or Perform adjustment test Replace or repair
sphere movement vertical gyro not faulty
functioning properly components
Attitude sphere Attitude indicator Check vertical gyro(s). Replace defective
malfunctioning Check VG relay contacts component
but gyro flag not
in view
Attitude sphere Vertical gyro(s) not Perform adjustment test Replace defective
out of tolerance erecting properly component
with flag removed
from view

6.6. Turn and Bank/Turn Co-Coordinator

The turn-and-bank indicator was the first of the aircraft flight instruments to use a
gyroscope as a detecting element, and in conjunction with a magnetic compass, it made a
valuable contribution to the art of flying without external references. It was thus considered
an essential primary 'blind flying' instrument for all types of aircraft. However, with
continued aircraft development, changes in operational requirements, and the introduction
of more advanced flight instruments and systems, the place a turn-and-bank indicator
should occupy in the flight instrument group formed the subject of much discussion. In the
smaller types of aircraft, it still functions as a primary instrument, but in many types of
large and more sophisticated aircraft, it may be used in a secondary role, or even dispensed
with altogether.

6.6.1. Construction and Description

Turn-and-bank Indicator

A turn-and-bank indicator contains two independent mechanisms: a gyroscopically

controlled pointer mechanism for the detection and indication of the rate at which the
aircraft turns, and a mechanism for the detection and indication of bank and/or slip. A
typical dial presentation is shown in Fig 6-39.

Figure 6-39. A turn-and-bank indicator

For the detection of rates of turn, direct use is made of gyroscopic precession, and in order
to do this the gyroscope is arranged in the manner shown in Fig 6-40. Such an arrangement
is known as a rate gyroscope.

It will be noted that the gyroscope differs in two respects from those employed in directional
gyros and gyro horizons; it has only one gimbal ring and it has a spring connected between
the gimbal ring and casing to restrain movement about the longitudinal axis YY 1; it is thus
referred to as a single-axis gyroscope.

Figure 6-40. Rate gyroscope

When the instrument is in its normal operating position, due to the spring restraint the rotor
spin axis will always be horizontal and the turn pointer will be at the zero datum mark. With
the rotor spinning, its rigidity will further ensure that the zero condition is maintained.

Let us assume for a moment that the gyroscope has no spring restraint and that the
instrument is turned to the left about a vertical input axis. The gimbal ring will also turn, but
as the rigidity of the gyroscope resists this turning movement it will precess about axis YY 1.
The direction of precession may be determined by the simple rule already given. A turn to
the left causes a force to be applied at the front pivot of the gimbal ring, and this is the
same as trying to push the rotor round at the point F on its rim. In following this through
90˚ in the direction of rotation, precession will take place at point P, thus causing the
gimbal ring and rotor to tilt about the longitudinal axis. If a pointer were fixed to the gimbal
ring, it too would tilt through the same angle and would indicate a turn and also its
direction. However, we are more interested in the rate at which a turn is being executed,
and to obtain an indication of this, we control the angular deflection of the gimbal ring by
connecting it to the instrument case through the medium of a spring.

The rate-of-turn pointer is actuated by the gimbal ring and a magnifying system the design
of which varies between manufacturers. Scales are calibrated in what are termed 'standard'
rates, and although not always marked on a scale they are classified by the numbers 1 to 4
and correspond to turn rates of 180, 360, 540 and 720˚ per minute respectively.

A system for damping out oscillations of the gyroscope is also incorporated and is adjusted
so that the turn pointer will respond to fast rate-of-turn changes and at the same time
respond to a definite turn rate instantly.

It should be noted that a rate gyroscope requires no erecting device or correction for
random precession, for the simple reason that it is always centered by the control spring
system. For this reason also, it is unnecessary for the rotor to turn at high speed, a typical
speed range being 4,000-4,500 rev./min. The most important factor in connection with
speed is that it must be maintained constant, since precession of the rotor is directly
proportional to its speed.

In addition to the primary indication of turn rate, it is also necessary to have an indication
that the aircraft is correctly banked for the particular turn. A secondary indicating
mechanism is therefore provided which depends for its operation on the effect of
gravitational and centrifugal forces. Two principal mechanical methods may be employed:
one utilizing a gravity weight and pointer, and the other, a ball in a curved liquid-filled glass
tube.

The gravity-weight method is illustrated schematically in Fig 6-41. In normal flight, diagram
(a), gravity holds the weight in such a position that the pointer indicates zero. At (b) the
aircraft is shown turning to the left at a certain airspeed and bank angle. When the turn is
executed at the correct bank angle then there is a balanced condition between gravity and
centrifugal forces and so the weight and pointer still remain at the zero position, but this
time along the resultant of the two forces. If the bank angle for a particular turn rate is not
correct, say underbanked as in diagram (c), then the aircraft will tend to skid out of the
turn. When the turn is overbanked, as at (d), the aircraft will tend to slip into the turn and
so the force due to gravity will now have the predominant effect on the weight.
 Figure 6-41. Gravity-weight method of bank indication. (a) Level flight; (b) correctly
banked; (c) underbanked (skidding out of the turn); (d) overbanked (slipping into the turn)

The effects of correctly and incorrectly banked turns on the ball-type indicating element are
similar to those described in the foregoing paragraphs. The major differences are that the
directions of ball displacement are opposite to those of the pointer-type element because
the forces act directly on the ball. This is made clear by the series of diagrams in Fig 6-42.
 Figure 6-42. Ball-type bank indicating element. (a) Level flight; (b) correctly banked;(c)
underbanked (skidding out of turn); (d) overbanked (slipping into the turn)

Turn Coordinator

Many aircraft make use of a turn coordinator. The rotor of the gyro in a turn coordinator is
canted upwards 30°. As such, it responds not only to movement about the vertical axis, but
also to roll movements about the longitudinal axis. In other words, the gyroscope is
sensitive to banking of the aircraft as well as to turning. This is useful because it is
necessary to roll an aircraft to turn it about the vertical axis. Instrument indication of roll,
therefore, is the earliest possible warning of a departure from straight-and-level flight.

Typically, the face of the turn coordinator has a small airplane symbol. The wing tips of the
airplane provide the indication of level flight and the rate at which the aircraft is turning.
[Figure 6-43] In the example illustrated, the graduations correspond to a rate 2 (2-minute)
turn. Co-ordination of the turn is indicated by the ball-type indicating element remaining
centered in the normal way. [Figure 6-44]
Figure 6-43. Turn coordinator
 Figure 6-44. Turn indications

The gyroscope is a d.c. motor operating at approximately 6,000 rev./min. In some types of
turn coordinators, the gyroscope may be an a.c. brushless motor operating at constant
frequency, and supplied from a solid-state inverter housed within the instrument case.

The annotation 'no pitch information' on the indicator scale is given to avoid confusion in
pitch control which might result from the similarity of the presentation to a gyro horizon.

Damping of the gyroscope may be effected by using a silicone fluid or by a graphite plunger
sliding in a glass tube.

Figure 6-45 compares the construction of turn-and-slip indicator and a turn coordinator.

Figure 6-45. Turn-and-slip indicator Vs. turn coordinator

 6.6.2. Drive Source and Rotor
The drive source for the rate gyro can be pneumatic or electric. In the pneumatic system,
air enters the instrument through a filter situated at the rear of the case and is led to a jet
block via the inlet connecting tube. The jet is set at an angle so that the air is directed on to
the rotor buckets. The direction of rotation is such that, with the indicator installed, a point
at the top of the rotor moves in the direction of flight. [Figure 6-46]

The rotor in the electric system consists of a lap-wound armature and an outer rim arranged
concentrically, the purpose of the outer rim being to increase the rotor mass and radius of
gyration. The armature rotates inside a cylindrical two-pole permanent-magnet stator
secured to the gimbal ring.

6.6.3. Damping Cylinder and Air Bleed

A feature common to all indicators is damping of gimbal ring movement to provide 'dead
beat' indications. In one particular type, the damping device is in the form of a piston,
linked to the gimbal ring, and moving in a cylinder or dashpot. As the piston moves in the
cylinder, air passes through a small bleed hole the size of which can be adjusted to provide
the required degree of damping. [Figure 6-46]

6.6.4. Rate Spring Adjusting Screw

Adjustment of the gyroscope sensitivity is provided by a screw attached to one end of the
rate-control spring, the screw protruding through a bracket mounted on the front plate of
the mechanism. [Figure 6-46]

6.6.5. Turn Needle and Slip Indicator

The slip indicator is of the ball and liquid-filled tube type, the tube and its expansion
chamber being concealed behind the dial and clipped in position against a card treated with
fluorescent paint. The liquid used is white spirit. [Figure 6-46]
1 Rotor, 2 instrument frame, 3 damping cylinder, 4 buckets, 5 air bleed, 6 front plate, 7
rate-spring adjusting screw, 8 dial, 9 rate spring, 10 pointer, 11 agate ball, 12 datum arrow,
13 gimbal front pivot, 14 slip indicator, 15 expansion chamber, 16 fluorescent card, 17
piston, 18 gimbal ring, 19 jet block, 20 jet.

Figure 6-46. Mechanism of an air-driven turn-and-bank indicator

6.6.6. Testing, Troubleshooting and Maintenance

During attitude director indicator installation, it is extremely important that the ball in the
turn and bank inclinometer is centered when the airplane is level laterally.

To preclude improper (un-level) installation, accomplish the following prior to indicator

clamp screw tightening:

1. Level the airplane laterally using a spirit level across the captain's and copilot's
inboard seat tracks.
2. Locate the indicator so that the ball is centered; then tighten the clamp adjustment
screw.

NOTE: The spirit level bubble and the turn and bank indicator ball move in opposite
directions during airplane leveling.
The following alternate procedure may be used when it is known that the indicator being
changed is defective and there are no flight reports on the second indicator on the opposite
panel:

1. Locate the replacement indicator so that the ball is positioned in the same position as
the ball in the indicator on the opposite panel.
6.7. Rate Gyros

A rate gyro is a fundamental component of a turn-and-bank indicator as discussed

previously. A rate gyro is a type of gyroscope, which rather than indicating direction,
indicates the rate of change of angle with time. If a gyro has only one gimbal ring, with
consequently only one plane of freedom, it can be adapted for use as a rate gyro to
measure a rate of angular movement.

Rate gyros are used in rate integrating gyroscopes, and in attitude control systems for
vehicles, and in combination with other sensors to make inertial navigation systems.

The advantage of rate gyros over other types of gyros is the fast response rate and their
relatively low cost.

6.7.1. Components Description and Operation

The output of the gyro is a change in the gimbal angle (the gimbal turns) in response to the
rate of turn input, due to gyroscopic precession. The input is a turn about the input axis
(IA). The output is a turn about the output axis (OA). The precession of the gimbal takes
place only when the rotor is spinning, of course. [Figure 6-47]

The gyroscope requires a power input to the (typically) 2 phase AC spinmotor which drives
the rotor. In addition, the output instrument, or the pickoff, requires an AC excitation signal.
The output of the pickoff is a variable AC signal which tracks the movement of the gimbal.
The direction of the gimbal is resolved by comparing the AC voltage phase of the output to
that of the primary.
 Figure 6-47. A rate gyro

In the field of single axis miniature (approx 1” diameter, 2.6” length) gyroscopes, two types
generally exist. First is the Rate gyroscope, where the gimbal is restrained by spring and
lightly damped, directly measures a rate of turn. That is, the gyroscope output is calibrated
“per degree per second”.

Second is the Rate Integrating Gyroscope (RIG) gyroscope, where the gimbal is un-
restrained but heavily damped. A Rate integrating gyroscope is a rate gyro with a built in
integrator. It is usually a component of an Inertial Measurement Unit or a stabilization
system which is discussed in the next module.

The RIG measures either the rate of turn or the angle through which a turn was made
during some period of time. Which measurement, depends on the operating mode of the
RIG. Since there is no spring restraint, the gimbal is free to rotate through a small angle
(typically ±2.0°). The gimbal must however, move against viscous damping. This damping
provides for the smooth integrating action of the gimbal.

Thus, in the RIG, the rate of turn sensed by the gyro is integrated by the gimbal precession
through the heavy viscous damping. The first integration of angular rate yields angular
displacement. Therefore, the accumulating gimbal angle over time is the integrated gyro
input rate. As such, the pickoff output is given in mV per degree.

In a typical application (e.g. an aircraft), the output axis could have revolved 180 degrees
clockwise in 20 seconds, then 80° anti-clockwise (say if the aircraft was changing direction
again). This output would then be fed to a computer to calculate the total distance traveled
(Inertial Navigation Platform).

Usually, three rate gyros are used to detect rotations with regard to the three axes:

 Pitch rate gyro

 Roll rate gyro
 Yaw rate gyro

Figure 6-48 shows the three rate gyros with their mounting orientation.
 Figure 6-48. Typical arrangement of three rate gyros

6.7.2. Pitch Rate Gyro

A pitch rate gyro is positioned in such a way that it detects rotations in the pitch axis
(lateral axis).

6.7.3. Roll Rate Gyro

A roll rate gyro is positioned in such a way that it detects rotations in the roll (longitudinal)
axis.

6.7.4. Yaw Rate Gyro

A yaw rate gyro is positioned in such a way that it detects rotations in the yaw (vertical)
axis.

6.7.5. Testing, Troubleshooting and Maintenance

Tests are performed on the instrument for these conditions:
  When it is put into service
 During periodic servicing
 After repair
 If the operation of the instrument is suspect
 When its shelf life has expired.

Some of the tests performed on rate gyros include:

 Insulation resistance
 Failure warning system
 Alignment of indication
 Power consumption
 Integral lighting
 Visibility and readability of instrument
 Accuracy test

Rate gyros which are part of inertial measurement systems are discussed in the next
module.