ICT Handout PDF

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AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
Let us begin with the word ‘compute’. It means ‘to calculate’. We all are familiar
with calculations in our day-to-day life. We apply mathematical operations like
addition, subtraction, multiplication, etc. and many other formulae for calculations.
Simpler calculations take less time. But complex calculations take much longer time.
Another factor is accuracy in calculations. So man explored with the idea to develop
a machine which can perform this type of arithmetic calculation faster and with full
accuracy. This gave birth to a device or machine called ‘computer’.
The computer we see today is quite different from the one made in the beginning.
The number of applications of a computer has increased, the speed and accuracy of
calculation has increased. You must appreciate the impact of computers in our day to
day life. Reservation of tickets in Air Lines and Railways, payment of telephone and
electricity bills, deposits and withdrawals of money from banks, business data
processing, medical diagnosis, weather forecasting, etc. are some of the areas where
computer has become extremely useful.
However, there is one limitation of the computer. Human beings do calculations on

their own. But computer is a dumb machine and it has to be given proper instructions
to carry out its calculation. This is why we should know how a computer works.
WHAT IS A COMPUTER
Computer is an electronic device. As mentioned in the introduction it can do

arithmetic calculations faster. But as you will see later it does much more than that.
It can be compared to a magic box, which serves different purpose to different
people. For a common man computer is simply a calculator, which works automatic
and quite fast. For a person who knows much about it, computer is a machine
capable of solving problems and manipulating data. It accepts data, processes the
data by doing some mathematical and logical operations and gives us the desired
output.
Therefore, we may define computer as a device that transforms data. Data can be
anything like marks obtained by you in various subjects. It can also be name, age,
sex, weight, height, etc. of all the students in your class or income, savings,
investments, etc., of a country. Computer can be defined in terms of its functions. It
can i) accept data ii) store data, iii) process data as desired, and iv) retrieve the
stored data as and when required and v) print the result in desired format. You will
know more about these functions as you go through the later lessons.
Mohammad Nazmi Newaz, Management Counsellor, Bangladesh Institute of Management. e-mail: nnewaz@gmail.com
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CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
Let us identify the major characteristics of computer. These can be discussed under
the headings of speed, accuracy, diligence, versatility, and memory.
SPEED
As you know computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for
calculations that we take hours to complete. Suppose you are asked to
calculate the average monthly income of one thousand persons in your
neighborhood. For this you have to add income from all sources for all persons
on a day to day basis and find out the average for each one of them. How long
will it take for you to do this? One day, two days or one week? Do you know
your small computer can finish this work in few seconds? The weather
forecasting that you see every day on TV is the results of compilation and
analysis of huge amount of data on temperature, humidity, pressure, etc. of
various places on computers. It takes few minutes for the computer to process
this huge amount of data and give the result.
You will be surprised to know that computer can perform millions (1,000,000)
of instructions and even more per second. Therefore, we determine the speed
of computer in terms of microsecond (10-6 part of a second) or nano-second
(10-9 part of a second). From this you can imagine how fast your computer
performs work.
ACCURACY
Suppose someone calculates faster but commits a lot of errors in computing.
Such result is useless. There is another aspect. Suppose you want to divide 15
by 7. You may work out up to 2 decimal places and say the dividend is 2.14. I
may calculate up to 4 decimal places and say that the result is 2.1428.
Someone else may go up to 9 decimal places and say the result is 2.142857143.
Hence, in addition to speed, the computer should have accuracy or correctness
in computing.
The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is

performed with the same accuracy. The accuracy level is determined on the
basis of design of computer. The errors in computer are due to human and
inaccurate data.
DILIGENCE
A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can
work for hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be
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performed, a computer will perform every calculation with the same accuracy.
Due to this capability it overpowers human being in routine type of work.
VERSATILITY
It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may
use your computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for
inventory management or to prepare electric bills.
POWER OF REMEMBERING
Computer has the power of storing any amount of information or data. Any
information can be stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any
numbers of years. It depends entirely upon you how much data you want to
store in a computer and when to lose or retrieve these data.
NO IQ
Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction
from the user. It performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with
accuracy. It is you to decide what you want to do and in what sequence. So a
computer cannot take its own decision as you can.
NO FEELING
It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience. Thus it
does not get tired even after long hours of work. It does not distinguish
between users.
STORAGE
The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of
data. You can also store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies,
which can be kept outside your computer and can be carried to other
computers.
HISTORY OF COMPUTER
History of computer could be traced back to the effort of man to count large
numbers. This process of counting of large numbers generated various systems of
numeration like Babylonian system of numeration, Greek system of numeration,
Roman system of numeration and Indian system of numeration. Out of these the
Indian system of numeration has been accepted universally. It is the basis of modern
decimal system of numeration (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). Later you will know how
the computer solves all calculations based on decimal system. But you will be
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surprised to know that the computer does not understand the decimal system and
uses binary system of numeration for processing.
We will briefly discuss some of the path-breaking inventions in the field of computing
devices.
CALCULATING MACHINES
It took over generations for early man to build mechanical devices for counting
large numbers. The first calculating device called ABACUS was developed by
the Egyptian and Chinese people.
The word ABACUS means calculating board. It consisted of sticks in horizontal

positions on which were inserted sets of pebbles. It has a number of horizontal
bars each having ten beads. Horizontal bars represent units, tens, hundreds,
etc.
NAPIER’S BONES
English mathematician John Napier built a mechanical device for the purpose
of multiplication in 1617 A D. The device was known as Napier’s bones.
SLIDE RULE
English mathematician Edmund Gunter developed the slide rule. This machine
could perform operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division. It was widely used in Europe in 16th century.
PASCAL'S ADDING AND SUBTRACTORY MACHINE
You might have heard the name of Blaise Pascal. He developed a machine at
the age of 19 that could add and subtract. The machine consisted of wheels,
gears and cylinders.
LEIBNIZ’S MULTIPLICATION AND DIVIDING MACHINE
The German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz built around

1673 a mechanical device that could both multiply and divide.
BABBAGE’S ANALYTICAL ENGINE
It was in the year 1823 that a famous English man Charles Babbage built a
mechanical machine to do complex mathematical calculations. It was called
difference engine. Later he developed a general-purpose calculating machine
called analytical engine. You should know that Charles Babbage is called the
father of computer.
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MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL CALCULATOR
In the beginning of 19th century the mechanical calculator was developed to

perform all sorts of mathematical calculations. Up to the 1960s it was widely
used. Later the rotating part of mechanical calculator was replaced by electric
motor. So it was called the electrical calculator.
MODERN ELECTRONIC CALCULATOR
The electronic calculator used in 1960 s was run with electron tubes, which
was quite bulky. Later it was replaced with transistors and as a result the size
of calculators became too small.
The modern electronic calculator can compute all kinds of mathematical

computations and mathematical functions. It can also be used to store some
data permanently. Some calculators have in-built programs to perform some
complicated calculations.
TYPES OF COMPUTERS
Now let us discuss the varieties of computers that we see today. Although they
belong to the fifth generation they can be divided into different categories depending
upon the size, efficiency, memory and number of users. Broadly they can be divided
it to the following categories.
MICROCOMPUTER
Microcomputer is at the lowest end of the computer range in terms of speed

and storage capacity. Its CPU is a microprocessor. The first microcomputers
were built of 8-bit microprocessor chips. The most common application of
personal computers (PC) is in this category. The PC supports a number of input
and output devices. An improvement of 8-bit chip is 16-bit and 32-bit chips.
Examples of microcomputer are IBM PC, PC-AT .
MINICOMPUTER
This is designed to support more than one user at a time. It possesses large
storage capacity and operates at a higher speed. The mini computer is used in
multi-user system in which various users can work at the same time. This type
of computer is generally used for processing large volume of data in an
organization. They are also used as servers in Local Area Networks (LAN).
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MAINFRAMES
These types of computers are generally 32-bit microprocessors. They operate

at very high speed, have very large storage capacity and can handle the work
load of many users. They are generally used in centralised databases. They are
also used as controlling nodes in Wide Area Networks (WAN). Example of
mainframes are DEC, ICL and IBM 3000 series.
SUPERCOMPUTER
They are the fastest and most expensive machines. They have high processing
speed compared to other computers. They have also multiprocessing
technique. One of the ways in which supercomputers are built is by
interconnecting hundreds of microprocessors. Supercomputers are mainly being
used for whether forecasting, biomedical research, remote sensing, aircraft
design and other areas of science and technology. Examples of supercomputers
are CRAY YMP, CRAY2, NEC SX-3, CRAY XMP and PARAM from India.
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COMPUTER ORGANIZATION & HARDWARE COMPONENTS
In the previous lesson we discussed about the evolution of computer. In this lesson
we will provide you with an overview of the basic design of a computer. You will
know how different parts of a computer are organized and how various operations are
performed between different parts to do a specific task. As you know from the
previous lesson the internal architecture of computer may differ from system to
system, but the basic organization remains the same for all computer systems.
BASIC COMPUTER OPERATIONS
A computer performs basically five major operations or functions irrespective of their

size and make. These are 1) it accepts data or instructions by way of input, 2) it
stores data, 3) it can process data as required by the user, 4) it gives results in the
form of output, and 5) it controls all operations inside a computer. We discuss below
each of these operations.
INPUT
This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system.
You should know that computer is an electronic machine like any other
machine which takes as inputs raw data and performs some processing giving
out processed data. Therefore, the input unit takes data from us to the
computer in an organized manner for processing.
STORAGE
The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage.

Data has to be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is
because the processing speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is so fast that
the data has to be provided to CPU with the same speed. Therefore the data is
first stored in the storage unit for faster access and processing. This storage
unit or the primary storage of the computer system is designed to do the above
functionality. It provides space for storing data and instructions.
The storage unit performs the following major functions:
• All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.
• Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.
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PROCESSING
The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is

called processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and
instructions from the storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on
the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then sent back to the
storage unit.
OUTPUT
This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful
information. Similarly the output produced by the computer after processing
must also be kept somewhere inside the computer before being given to you in
human readable form. Again the output is also stored inside the computer for
further processing.
CONTROL
The manner how instructions are executed and the above operations are
performed. Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are
performed by control unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all
operations in side the computer.
FUNCTIONAL UNITS
In order to carry out the operations mentioned in the previous section the computer
allocates the task between its various functional units. The computer system is
divided into three separate units for its operation. They are 1) arithmetic logical unit,
2) control unit, and 3) central processing unit.
ARITHMETIC LOGICAL UNIT (ALU)
After you enter data through the input device it is stored in the primary
storage unit. The actual processing of the data and instruction are performed
by Arithmetic Logical Unit. The major operations performed by the ALU are
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logic and comparison. Data is
transferred to ALU from storage unit when required. After processing the
output is returned back to storage unit for further processing or getting stored.
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CONTROL UNIT (CU)
The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the
supervisor seeing that things are done in proper fashion. The control unit
determines the sequence in which computer programs and instructions are
executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the main memory,
interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the
computer to execute them. It also acts as a switch board operator when
several users access the computer simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates the
activities of computer’s peripheral equipment as they perform the input and
output. Therefore it is the manager of all operations mentioned in the previous
section.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central
processing unit. You may call CPU as the brain of any computer system. It is
just like brain that takes all major decisions, makes all sorts of calculations
and directs different parts of the computer functions by activating and
controlling the operations.
PERSONAL COMPUTER CONFIGURATION
Now let us identify the physical components that make the computer work. These are

 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

 Computer Memory (RAM and ROM)

 Data bus

 Ports

 Motherboard

 Hard disk

 Output Devices

 Input Devices
All these components are inter-connected for the personal computer to work.
MEMORY SYSTEM IN A COMPUTER
There are two kinds of computer memory: primary and secondary. Primary memory is
accessible directly by the processing unit. RAM is an example of primary memory. As
soon as the computer is switched off the contents of the primary memory is lost. You
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can store and retrieve data much faster with primary memory compared to secondary
memory. Secondary memory such as floppy disks, magnetic disk, etc., is located
outside the computer. Primary memory is more expensive than secondary memory.
Because of this the size of primary memory is less than that of secondary memory.
We will discuss about secondary memory later on.
Computer memory is used to store two things: i) instructions to execute a program

and ii) data. When the computer is doing any job, the data that have to be processed
are stored in the primary memory. This data may come from an input device like
keyboard or from a secondary storage device like a floppy disk.
As program or the set of instructions is kept in primary memory, the computer is able
to follow instantly the set of instructions. For example, when you book ticket from
railway reservation counter, the computer has to follow the same steps: take the
request, check the availability of seats, calculate fare, wait for money to be paid,
store the reservation, and get the ticket printed out. The program containing these
steps is kept in memory of the computer and is followed for each request.
But inside the computer, the steps followed are quite different from what we see on
the monitor or screen. In computer’s memory both programs and data are stored in
the binary form. You have already been introduced with decimal number system that
is the numbers 1 to 9 and 0. The binary system has only two values 0 and 1. These are
called bits. As human beings we all understand decimal system but the computer can
only understand binary system. It is because a large number of integrated circuits
inside the computer can be considered as switches, which can be made ON, or OFF. If
a switch is ON it is considered 1 and if it is OFF it is 0. A number of switches in
different states will give you a message like this: 110101....10. So the computer takes
input in the form of 0 and 1 and gives output in the form 0 and 1 only. Is it not absurd
if the computer gives outputs as 0’s & 1’s only? But you do not have to worry about.
Every number in binary system can be converted to decimal system and vice versa;
for example, 1010 meaning decimal 10. Therefore it is the computer that takes
information or data in decimal form from you, convert it in to binary form, process it
producing output in binary form and again convert the output to decimal form.
The primary memory as you know in the computer is in the form of IC’s (Integrated
Circuits). These circuits are called Random Access Memory (RAM). Each of RAM’s
locations stores one byte of information. (One byte is equal to 8 bits). A bit is an
acronym for binary digit, which stands for one binary piece of information. This can
be either 0 or 1. You will know more about RAM later. The Primary or internal storage
section is made up of several small storage locations (ICs) called cells. Each of these
cells can store a fixed number of bits called word length.
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Each cell has a unique number assigned to it called the address of the cell and it is
used to identify the cells. The address starts at 0 and goes up to (N-1). You should
know that the memory is like a large cabinet containing as many drawers as there are
addresses on memory. Each drawer contains a word and the address is written on
outside of the drawer.
CAPACITY OF PRIMARY MEMORY
You know that each cell of memory contains one character or 1 byte of data. So
the capacity is defined in terms of byte or words. Thus 64 kilobyte (KB) memory is
capable of storing 64 × 1024 = 32,768 bytes. (1 kilobyte is 1024 bytes). A memory
size ranges from few kilobytes in small systems to several thousand kilobytes in
large mainframe and super computer. In your personal computer you will find
memory capacity in the range of 64 KB, 4 MB, 8 MB and even 16 MB (MB = Million
bytes).
The following terms related to memory of a computer are discussed below:
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)
The primary storage is referred to as random access memory (RAM) because it

is possible to randomly select and use any location of the memory directly
store and retrieve data. It takes same time to any address of the memory as
the first address. It is also called read/write memory. The storage of data and
instructions inside the primary storage is temporary. It disappears from RAM as
soon as the power to the computer is switched off. The memories, which loose
their content on failure of power supply, are known as volatile memories .So
now we can say that RAM is volatile memory.
READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)
There is another memory in computer, which is called Read Only Memory

(ROM). Again it is the ICs inside the PC that form the ROM. The storage of
program and data in the ROM is permanent. The ROM stores some standard
processing programs supplied by the manufacturers to operate the personal
computer. The ROM can only be read by the CPU but it cannot be changed. The
basic input/output program is stored in the ROM that examines and initializes
various equipment attached to the PC when the switch is made ON. The
memories, which do not loose their content on failure of power supply, are
known as non-volatile memories. ROM is non-volatile memory.
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CACHE MEMORY
The speed of CPU is extremely high compared to the access time of main
memory. Therefore the performance of CPU decreases due to the slow speed
of main memory. To decrease the mismatch in operating speed, a small
memory chip is attached between CPU and Main memory whose access time is
very close to the processing speed of CPU. It is called CACHE memory. CACHE
memories are accessed much faster than conventional RAM. It is used to store
programs or data currently being executed or temporary data frequently used
by the CPU. So each memory makes main memory to be faster and larger than
it really is. It is also very expensive to have bigger size of cache memory and
its size is normally kept small.
REGISTERS
The CPU processes data and instructions with high speed, there is also
movement of data between various units of computer. It is necessary to
transfer the processed data with high speed. So the computer uses a number of
special memory units called registers. They are not part of the main memory
but they store data or information temporarily and pass it on as directed by
the control unit.
SECONDARY STORAGE
You are now clear that the operating speed of primary memory or main memory
should be as fast as possible to cope up with the CPU speed. These high-speed
storage devices are very expensive and hence the cost per bit of storage is also
very high. Again the storage capacity of the main memory is also very limited.
Often it is necessary to store hundreds of millions of bytes of data for the CPU to
process. Therefore additional memory is required in all the computer systems.
This memory is called auxiliary memory or secondary storage.
In this type of memory the cost per bit of storage is low. However, the operating
speed is slower than that of the primary storage. Huge volume of data are stored
here on permanent basis and transferred to the primary storage as and when
required. Most widely used secondary storage devices are magnetic tapes and
magnetic disk.
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MAGNETIC TAPE
Magnetic tapes are used for large computers like mainframe computers where
large volume of data is stored for a longer time. In PC also you can use tapes in
the form of cassettes. The cost of storing data in tapes is inexpensive. Tapes
consist of magnetic materials that store data permanently. It can be 12.5 mm
to 25 mm wide plastic film-type and 500 meter to 1200 meter long which is
coated with magnetic material. The deck is connected to the central processor
and information is fed into or read from the tape through the processor. It
similar to cassette tape recorder.
ADVANTAGES OF MAGNETIC TAPE
COMPACT
A 10-inch diameter reel of tape is 2400 feet long and is able to hold 800, 1600
or 6250 characters in each inch of its length. The maximum capacity of such
tape is 180 million characters. Thus data are stored much more compactly on
tape.
ECONOMICAL
The cost of storing characters is very less as compared to other storage
devices.
FAST
Copying of data is easier and fast.
LONG TERM STORAGE AND RE-USABILITY

Magnetic tapes can be used for long term storage and a tape can be used
repeatedly with out loss of data.
MAGNETIC DISK
You might have seen the gramophone record, which is circular like a disk and
coated with magnetic material. Magnetic disks used in computer are made on
the same principle. It rotates with very high speed inside the computer drive.
Data is stored on both the surface of the disk. Magnetic disks are most popular
for direct access storage device. Each disk consists of a number of invisible
concentric circles called tracks. Information is recorded on tracks of a disk
surface in the form of tiny magnetic spots. The presence of a magnetic spot
represents one bit and its absence represents zero bit. The information stored
in a disk can be read many times without affecting the stored data. So the
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reading operation is non-destructive. But if you want to write a new data, then
the existing data is erased from the disk and new data is recorded.
FLOPPY DISK
It is similar to magnetic disk discussed above. They are 5.25 inch or 3.5 inch in
diameter. They come in single or double density and recorded on one or both
surface of the diskette. The capacity of a 5.25-inch floppy is 1.2 mega bytes
whereas for 3.5 inch floppy it is 1.44 mega bytes. It is cheaper than any other
storage devices and is portable. The floppy is a low cost device particularly
suitable for personal computer system.
OPTICAL DISK
With every new application and software there is greater demand for memory
capacity. It is the necessity to store large volume of data that has led to the
development of optical disk storage medium. Optical disks can be divided into
the following categories:
COMPACT DISK/ READ ONLY MEMORY (CD-ROM)

CD-ROM disks are made of reflective metals. CD-ROM is written during the
process of manufacturing by high power laser beam. Here the storage density
is very high, storage cost is very low and access time is relatively fast. Each
disk is approximately 4 1/2 inches in diameter and can hold over 600 MB of
data. As the CD-ROM can be read only we cannot write or make changes into
the data contained in it.
WRITE ONCE, READ MANY (WORM)

The inconvenience that we cannot write anything in to a CD-ROM is avoided in
WORM. A WORM allows the user to write data permanently on to the disk.
Once the data is written it can never be erased without physically damaging
the disk. Here data can be recorded from keyboard, video scanner, OCR
equipment and other devices. The advantage of WORM is that it can store vast
amount of data amounting to gigabytes (109 bytes). Any document in a WORM
can be accessed very fast, say less than 30 seconds.
ERASABLE OPTICAL DISK

These are optical disks where data can be written, erased and re-written. This
also applies a laser beam to write and re-write the data. These disks may be
used as alternatives to traditional disks. Erasable optical disks are based on a
technology known as magnetic optical (MO). To write a data bit on to the
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erasable optical disk the MO drive's laser beam heats a tiny, precisely defined
point on the disk's surface and magnetizes it.
INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES
A computer is only useful when it is able to communicate with the external

environment. When you work with the computer you feed your data and instructions
through some devices to the computer. These devices are called Input devices.
Similarly computer after processing, gives output through other devices called output
devices.
For a particular application one form of device is more desirable compared to others.
We will discuss various types of I/O devices that are used for different types of
applications. They are also known as peripheral devices because they surround the
CPU and make a communication between computer and the outer world.
INPUT DEVICES
Input devices are necessary to convert our information or data in to a form

which can be understood by the computer. A good input device should provide
timely, accurate and useful data to the main memory of the computer for
processing followings are the most useful input devices.
KEYBOARD
This is the standard input device attached to all computers. The layout of
keyboard is just like the traditional typewriter of the type QWERTY. It also
contains some extra command keys and function keys. It contains a total of
101 to 104 keys. You have to press correct combination of keys to input data.
The computer can recognize the electrical signals corresponding to the correct
key combination and processing is done accordingly.
MOUSE
Mouse is an input device shown in Fig. 2.7 that is used with your personal
computer. It rolls on a small ball and has two or three buttons on the top.
When you roll the mouse across a flat surface the screen censors the mouse in
the direction of mouse movement. The cursor moves very fast with mouse
giving you more freedom to work in any direction. It is easier and faster to
move through a mouse.
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SCANNER
The keyboard can input only text through keys provided in it. If we want to
input a picture the keyboard cannot do that. Scanner is an optical device that
can input any graphical matter and display it back. The common optical
scanner devices are Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR), Optical Mark
Reader (OMR) and Optical Character Reader (OCR).
 Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

This is widely used by banks to process large volumes of cheques and
drafts. Cheques are put inside the MICR. As they enter the reading unit
the cheques pass through the magnetic field which causes the read head
to recognise the character of the cheques.
 Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

This technique is used when students have appeared in objective type
tests and they had to mark their answer by darkening a square or
circular space by pencil. These answer sheets are directly fed to a
computer for grading where OMR is used.
 Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

This technique unites the direct reading of any printed character.
Suppose you have a set of hand written characters on a piece of paper.
You put it inside the scanner of the computer. This pattern is compared
with a site of patterns stored inside the computer. Whichever pattern is
matched is called a character read. Patterns that cannot be identified
are rejected. OCRs are expensive though better the MICR.
OUTPUT DEVICES
VISUAL DISPLAY UNIT

The most popular input/output device is the Visual Display Unit (VDU). It is
also called the monitor. A Keyboard is used to input data and Monitor is used
to display the input data and to receive massages from the computer. A
monitor has its own box which is separated from the main computer system
and is connected to the computer by cable. In some systems it is compact with
the system unit. It can be color or monochrome.
TERMINALS
It is a very popular interactive input-output unit. It can be divided into two
types: hard copy terminals and soft copy terminals. A hard copy terminal
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provides a printout on paper whereas soft copy terminals provide visual copy
on monitor. A terminal when connected to a CPU sends instructions directly to
the computer. Terminals are also classified as dumb terminals or intelligent
terminals depending upon the work situation.
PRINTER
It is an important output device which can be used to get a printed copy of the
processed text or result on paper. There are different types of printers that
are designed for different types of applications. Depending on their speed and
approach of printing, printers are classified as impact and non-impact printers.
Impact printers use the familiar typewriter approach of hammering a typeface
against the paper and inked ribbon. Dot-matrix printers are of this type. Non-
impact printers do not hit or impact a ribbon to print. They use electro-static
chemicals and ink-jet technologies. Laser printers and Ink-jet printers are of
this type. This type of printers can produce color printing and elaborate
graphics.
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COMPUTER LANGUAGE/SOFTWARE
In the previous lesson we discussed about the different parts and configurations of
computer. It has been mentioned that programs or instructions have to be fed to the
computer to do specific task. So it is necessary to provide sequence of instructions so
that your work can be done. We can divide the computer components into two major
areas, namely, hardware and software. Hardware is the machine itself and its various
individual equipment. It includes all mechanical, electronic and magnetic devices
such as monitor, printer, electronic circuit, floppy and hard disk. In this lesson we
will discuss about the other part, namely, software.
WHAT IS SOFTWARE
As you know computer cannot do anything without instructions from the user. In
order to do any specific job you have to give a sequence of instructions to the
computer. This set of instructions is called a computer program. Software refers to
the set of computer programs, procedures that describe the programs, how they are
to be used. We can say that it is the collection of programs, which increase the
capabilities of the hardware. Software guides the computer at every step where to
start and stop during a particular job. The process of software development is called
programming.
You should keep in mind that software and hardware are complementary to each
other. Both have to work together to produce meaningful result. Another important
point you should know that producing software is difficult and expensive.
SOFTWARE TYPES
Computer software is normally classified into two broad categories.
 Application Software

 System software

APPLICATION SOFTWARE:
Application Software is a set of programs to carry out operations for a specific

application. For example, payroll is an application software for an organization
to produce pay slips as an output. Application software is useful for word
processing, billing system, accounting, producing statistical report, analysis of
numerous data in research, weather forecasting, etc. In later modules you will
learn about MS WORD, Lotus 1-2-3 and dBASE III Plus. All these are application
softwares.
ICT FUNDAMENTALS 19
Another example of application software is programming language. Among the

programming languages COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) is more
suitable for business application whereas FORTRAN (Formula Translation) is
useful for scientific application. We will discuss about languages in next
section.
SYSTEM SOFTWARE:
You know that an instruction is a set of programs that has to be fed to the
computer for operation of computer system as a whole. When you switch on
the computer the programs written in ROM is executed which activates
different units of your computer and makes it ready for you to work on it. This
set of program can be called system software. Therefore system software may
be defined as a set of one or more programs designed to control the operation
of computer system.
System software are general programs designed for performing tasks such as
controlling all operations required to move data into and out of the computer.
It communicates with printers, card reader, disk, tapes etc. monitor the use of
various hardware like memory, CPU etc. Also system software are essential for
the development of applications software. System Software allows application
packages to be run on the computer with less time and effort. Remember that
it is not possible to run application software without system software.
Development of system software is a complex task and it requires extensive
knowledge of computer technology. Due to its complexity it is not developed
in house. Computer manufactures build and supply this system software with
the computer system. DOS, UNIX and WINDOWS are some of the widely used
system software. Out of these UNIX is a multi-user operating system whereas
DOS and WINDOWS are PC-based.
WHAT IS LANGUAGE
You are aware with the term language. It is a system of communication between you
and me. Some of the basic natural languages that we are familiar with are English,
Hindi, Oriya etc. These are the languages used to communicate among various
categories of persons. But how you will communicate with your computer. Your
computer will not understand any of these natural languages for transfer of data and
instruction. So there are programming languages specially developed so that you
could pass your data and instructions to the computer to do specific job. You must
have heard names like FORTRAN, BASIC, COBOL etc. These are programming
languages. So instructions or programs are written in a particular language based on
ICT FUNDAMENTALS 20
the type of job. As an example, for scientific application FORTRAN and C languages
are used. On the other hand COBOL is used for business applications.
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
There are two major types of programming languages. These are Low Level
Languages and High Level Languages. Low Level languages are further divided
in to Machine language and Assembly language.
LOW LEVEL LANGUAGES
The term low level means closeness to the way in which the machine has been
built. Low level languages are machine oriented and require extensive
knowledge of computer hardware and its configuration.
MACHINE LANGUAGE
Machine Language is the only language that is directly understood by the

computer. It does not needs any translator program. We also call it machine
code and it is written as strings of 1's (one) and 0’s (zero). When this sequence
of codes is fed to the computer, it recognizes the codes and converts it in to
electrical signals needed to run it. For example, a program instruction may
look like this:
1011000111101
It is not an easy language for you to learn because of its difficult to

understand. It is efficient for the computer but very inefficient for
programmers. It is considered to the first generation language. It is also
difficult to debug the program written in this language.
ADVANTAGE
The only advantage is that program of machine language run very fast
because no translation program is required for the CPU.
DISADVANTAGES
 It is very difficult to program in machine language. The programmer

has to know details of hardware to write program.
 The programmer has to remember a lot of codes to write a program

which results in program errors.
 It is difficult to debug the program.

ICT FUNDAMENTALS 21
ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE
It is the first step to improve the programming structure. You should know that
computer can handle numbers and letter. Therefore some combination of
letters can be used to substitute for number of machine codes.
The set of symbols and letters forms the Assembly Language and a translator
program is required to translate the Assembly Language to machine language.
This translator program is called `Assembler'. It is considered to be a second-
generation language.
ADVANTAGES
 The symbolic programming of Assembly Language is easier to


understand and saves a lot of time and effort of the programmer.
 It is easier to correct errors and modify program instructions.

 Assembly Language has the same efficiency of execution as the

machine level language. Because this is one-to-one translator
between assembly language program and its corresponding machine
language program.
DISADVANTAGES
One of the major disadvantages is that assembly language is machine

dependent. A program written for one computer might not run in other
computers with different hardware configuration.
ICT FUNDAMENTALS 22
INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING
What is a Network? This is a difficult question to answer. A network can consist of

two computers connected together on a desk or it can consist of many Local Area
Networks (LANs) connected together to form a Wide Area Network (WAN) across a
continent.
The key is that two or more computers are connected together by a medium and are
sharing resources. These resources can be files, printers, hard disk drives, or CPU
number-crunching power.
BASIC COMPONENTS
SOURCE The transmitter of data. Examples are:


 Terminals

 Computers

 Mainframes
MEDIUM The communications stream through which the data is being

transmitted. Examples are:

 Cabling

 Microwave

 Fiber optics

 Radio Frequencies (RF)

 Infrared Wireless
RECEIVER The receiver of the data transmitted. Examples are:


 Printers

 Terminals

 Mainframes

 Computers
ICT FUNDAMENTALS 23
DATA FLOW
Data flow is the flow of data between two points. The direction of the data flow can
be described as:
SIMPLEX
Data flows in only one direction on the data communication line (medium).
Examples are radio and television broadcasts. They go from the TV station to your
home television.
HALF-DUPLEX
Data flows in both directions but only one direction at a time on the data
communication line. For example, a conversation on walkie-talkies is a half-
duplex data flow. Each person takes turns talking. If both talk at once - nothing
occurs!
Bi-directional but only 1

direction at a time!
FULL-DUPLEX
Data flows in both directions simultaneously. Modems are configured to flow data
in both directions.
Bi-directional both directions simultaneously!
ICT FUNDAMENTALS 24
INTRODUCING LANS AND THEIR COMPONENTS
In this section, we shall talk about local area network, i.e. LAN. Two major issues are

 Network topologies

 Network devices
INTRODUCING NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
The topology of a network relates to the way nodes on the network are physically
wired together. Many different network topologies are commonly implemented in
today’s network environments. Topology is one of the most important considerations
when you design a network. Consider the size of the network, the type of business,
any failover requirements, and the amount of network traffic you expect when you
make decisions about which topology to use.
BUS TOPOLOGIES
The bus configuration was the typical LAN topology for the original Ethernet
network specification. The bus configuration has one large coaxial or twisted-
pair cable running through an area. Systems are attached at points along the
cable to allow communication with one another. Following figure shows an
example of a bus configuration.
ICT FUNDAMENTALS 25
STAR TOPOLOGIES
The LAN topology in a star configuration uses a central location, or hub, from
which a number of signal-carrying cables extend to each individual device on
this branch. Star configurations are well-suited to many of today’s LAN
network methodologies.
An intelligent hub controls:

 Which messages are transferred between which ports

 What devices are connected to each port or segment
NOTE A non-intelligent hub does not make any decisions about which ports to
send data. This essentially makes star configurations behave exactly like bus
configurations from the point of view of the nodes.
A benefit of the star configuration is that a fault on the cable to a node affects
only that node. Depending upon the LAN methodology, there is a limit to the
number of segments that can be linked together. Following figure shows an
example of the star configuration.
ICT FUNDAMENTALS 26
RING TOPOLOGIES
In a ring configuration, the output of one node connects to the input of the next
node. Each node in the ring is between two other nodes. In a ring network, if one
node stops functioning, communication to any other node on the network cannot
take place.
With the invention of the intelligent central hub, the ring configuration is a useful
network configuration with the reliability of a star configuration.
The reliability is a result of the intelligent hub’s ability to bypass a nonfunctioning

node. Following figure shows a star-wired ring configuration.
ICT FUNDAMENTALS 27
INTRODUCING NETWORK DEVICES
Networks consist of many different devices and device types. Devices that are found
on LANs range from printers to sophisticated switching devices. Three crucial devices
are

 Shared Hubs

 Bridges

 Switches
SHARED HUBS
Shared hubs are the central devices of a star topology network. The hubs
connect all the hosts in a twisted-pair Ethernet installation. Hubs are typically
used in small LANs in which network performance is not critical. Collisions
commonly occur on a network implementing hubs because the collision domain
consists of more than one system.
BRIDGES
A bridge is a network-layer device that reads and interprets packet addresses

for filtering or forwarding packets. Bridges connect two or more network
segments. Collisions commonly occur on a bridged network because the
collision domain consists of more than one system.
SWITCHES
Switches are multi-port devices that control the logical dynamic connection
and disconnection between any two cable segments. Switches are high-
bandwidth devices because multiple data paths can be established and used
simultaneously.
Switches reduce the number of collisions on a network by replacing a single

shared data path with multiple dedicated data paths.
ICT FUNDAMENTALS 28
INTRODUCTION TO TELECOMMUNICATION
If we attempted to define Telecommunications, it would probably be

"Communications by Electronic Means." This communications could be voice,
computer data or paper records (telegram, telex, etc.).
Twenty-five years ago we didn't hear the word Telecommunications and now it's one
of the most important parts of any business. Although the term telecommunications
may be new, the ideas have been with us a long time. Telecommunications used to
be concerned with whether or not your phone rang when a customer called or did you
even get a phone on your desk. Maybe you got to the big time by having a telephone
with multiple buttons and lights (then we all learned what "please hold means).
Now we talk about Telecommunications as a field of specialization, a growth industry

and finally we recognize it as a business resource.
Have you ever heard someone say "I'm in business for myself!" If you stop and think
about that statement it's impossible unless you sell a product or service to yourself
and buy your materials from yourself. Business, or the flow of goods and services
doesn't just happen, it requires communications between two or more people. In
response to the communications the goods and services will flow.
Here are some ways in which telecommunications can affect your life:

 Airlines reservation systems allow customers to call in, book flights, arrange
seating, meals and even rent cars at their final destination. These
reservations can be made through telephone calls or via direct personal
computer connections.

 Large stock traders such as mutual funds use automatic computer programs
to buy and sell stock. These programs track the stock prices and by using
automatic margins know when to buy up and sell the stock. Some of the
wild fluctuations in the 1987 market were blamed on these types of
transactions.

 Mail order catalog services accept orders using 800 type toll free telephone
numbers. At the telephone centers the orders are accepted and entered
directly into computers that may be miles away.
ICT FUNDAMENTALS 29
TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Some of the major essential components of telecommunications systems are stated

bellow as:
1. Computers to process information.

2. Terminals or any input/output devices that send and receive data.
3. Communications channels, the links by which data or voice are transmitted
between sending and receiving devices in a network. Communications channels
use various communications media, such as telephone lines, fiber optic cables,
coaxial cables and wireless transmission.
4. Communications processors, such as modems, multiplexers, controllers and
front-end processors, which provide support functions for data transmission
and reception.
5. Communications software that controls input and output activities and
manages other functions of the communications network.
FUNCTIONS OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS
In order to send and receive information from one place to another, a

telecommunications system must perform a number of separate functions. These
functions are largely invisible to the people using the system. As outline in table a
telecommunications system transmits information, establishes the interface between
the sender and receiver, routes message along the most efficient paths, performs
elementary processing of the information to ensure that the right message gets to the
right receiver, performs editorial tasks on the data (such as checking for errors and
rearranging the format), and converts messages from one speed (say, the speed of a
computer) into the speed of a communications line or from one format to another.
Lastly, the telecommunications systems control the flow of information. Many of
these tasks are accomplished by computer.
TRANSMISSION Media, networks and path

INTERFACE Path-sender-receiver
ROUTING Choosing the most efficient path
PROCESSING Getting the right message to the right receiver
EDITORIAL Checking for errors, formats and editing
CONVERSION Changing speeds add codes from one device to another
CONTROL Routing messages, polling receivers, providing network
structure maintenance
ICT FUNDAMENTALS 30
IIN
NTTEERRN
NEETT
WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW)
World Wide Web is a collection of websites hosted in millions of websites throughout

the Internet worldwide. Users from anywhere can browse any site for information by
using some software agent known as browser.
A web site is composed by a collection of web pages having similar information. Now
you will learn how Web servers bring pages into your home, school, or office.
BASIC PROCESS
INTERNET
The Internet is a gigantic collection of millions of computers, all linked together on a

computer network. The network allows all of the computers to communicate with
one another.
A home computer may be linked to the Internet using a phone-line modem, DSL or
cable modem that talks to an Internet service provider (ISP).
ICT FUNDAMENTALS 31
HOW INTERNET WORKS?
A computer in a business or university will usually have a network interface card (NIC)
that directly connects it to a local area network (LAN) inside the business. The
business can then connect its LAN to an ISP using a high-speed phone line like a T1
line. A T1 line can handle approximately 1.5 million bits per second, while a normal
phone line using a modem can typically handle 30,000 to 50,000 bits per second.
ISPs then connect to larger ISPs, and the largest ISPs maintain fiber-optic "backbones"
for an entire nation or region. Backbones around the world are connected through
fiber-optic lines, undersea cables or satellite links. In this way, every computer on
the Internet is connected to every other computer on the Internet.
ICT FUNDAMENTALS 32
ELECTRONIC COMMERCE (ECOMMERCE)
THIS IS AN AGE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY WHERE THE COMPUTER AND

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES TOGETHER PLAY A VERY VITAL ROLE IN ALL
SPHERES OF HUMAN ENDEAVOR.
Modern business is characterized by ever-increasing supply capabilities, ever-

increasing global competition, and ever-increasing customer expectations. In
response, businesses throughout the world are changing both their organizations and
their operations.
They are flattening old hierarchical structures and eradicating the barriers between
company divisions. They are lowering the barriers between the company and its
customers and suppliers. Business processes are being re-designed so that they cross
these old boundaries. We now see many examples of processes that span the entire
company and even processes that are jointly owned and operated by the company
and its customers or suppliers.
E-COMMERCE AFFECTS ALL BUSINESS OPERATIONS
Procure raw materials for Sell products and Build supply and
production services maintenance chain
Plan and Organize Advertise

production
Communicate with
Business
Communicate with
customers F i rm
l
Manage finances and Collaborate and

communicate with Communicate with other compete with other
banks agencies like customs, excise, business firms
transporters, power and
water authorities etc.
ICT FUNDAMENTALS 33
TRADITIONAL COMMERCE

 Physical Appearance of Buyer & Seller.

 Paper-based Transactions.

 Physical Market Place.

 Time Bound.

 Physical Transaction Mediums.
E-COMMERCE
Doing business electronically, by bringing together buyers and sellers. It integrates

data, electronic communication and security services to facilitate business
applications. It uses computers and telecommunications for several business
transactions that comprise the basic operations of the company including
communication and co-ordination with suppliers, financial institutions, consumers,
banks, insurance agents, distribution channels and other trading partners.
E-Commerce is a dynamic set of technologies, applications, and business

processes that link enterprises, consumers, and communities through
electronic transactions and the electronic exchange of goods, services, and
information.
Electronic commerce refers to all forms of transactions relating to commercial

activities, including both organizations and individuals, that are based upon
the processing and transmission of digitized data, including text, sound and
visual images.
E-COMMERCE ACTIVITIES
 Performing all business transactions involving organisations and


people, using the Internet, with other channels of transaction taking a
supportive role to Internet.
 The digital data used in the transactions could include text, forms,

graphics, visual images, sound, video clips and animations.
 Providing extensive and relevant information to the consumers and

target groups of various transactions.
 Doing business i.e. performing all the operations of business using the

electronic media like Internet.
 Facilitate the consumer to browse at the products and services

offered.
ICT FUNDAMENTALS 34
 Negotiate the price, quantity, mode of payment, mode of dispatch


etc.
 Organise transporting goods.

 Receive payment for goods and services.

 Carry out banking transactions.

E-COMMERCE MODELS
 Business To Consumer (B2C)


 Business To Business (B2B)

 Consumer To Consumer (C2C)

BUSINESS TO CONSUMER (B2C)
E-commerce consumer applications are mainly service based.


 Online banking.

 Online book shop.

 Online buying.

 Home shopping.

 Video Conferencing.
BUSINESS TO BUSINESS (B2B)
Companies adopt technology to save money and improve the bottom line.
 Just-In-Time (JIT) Manufacturing
 Supply Chain Management

 Supplier Management

 Inventory Management

 Distribution Management

 Channel Management

 Payment Management
CONSUMER TO CONSUMER (C2C)
Individual to individual: One customer selling to other customers, through

some portals like bazee.com which charge a certain percentage of the
transactions facilitated by it as it is revenue generation process.
ICT FUNDAMENTALS 35
ELECTRONIC DATA INTERCHANGE (EDI)
The interchange of structured data according to predefined message standards

between computer systems, by electronic means.
 EDI deals with doing business and carrying out transactions with the trading
partners electronically using a ‘paperless trading’ system.
 EDI covers most things that are done using paper based communication.
 The business transactions are communicated from computer-to-computer

between companies in a standard format that enables the receiver to perform
the transaction that is intended.
TRADITIONAL BUSINESS VS. EDI-BASED BUSINESS
TYPICAL PAPER-BASED BUSINESS ELECTRONIC DATA INTERCHANGE

There is human intervention at bothThere is no human intervention at
ends. any ends.
The originator creates the businessInstead of despatching the
document through the use of data document by mail, delivery to the
entry and computer processing. The receiver is achieved using
document is mailed to a receiver, electronic transmission. At the
who then is required to manually receiving end, the data is passed
edit and enter the same data using on, in the electronic form in which
data-entry and then process this it was received, to the receiving
data in the relevant computer computer application for
application. processing.
Machine-readable EDI transactions
must be able to be read and
interpret correctly by a computer
Documents often require human application.
intervention, to complete or prior If documents do contain any
to processing. ambiguities or errors, they are
flagged as exceptions, rejected by
the application, and referred to a
person for correction.
ICT FUNDAMENTALS 36
M
MAANNAAG
GEEM
MEENNTT IINNFFO
ORRM
MAATTIIO
ONN SSYYSSTTEEM
MSS ((M
MIISS))
Information systems at the management level of an organization that serve the

functions of planning, decision-making and controlling by providing routine summary
and exception reports.
A combination of computers and people that is used to provide information to aid in

making decisions and managing a firm.
ROLES OF MIS
 Support To Strategic Advantage

 Support To Managerial Decision-Making
 Support To Business Operations
FEATURES OF MIS
MIS is a very important information processing system for all organizations.
Some crucial characteristics of MIS are stated bellow :-
 MIS support structured and semi-structured decisions at operational

and management control level.
 MIS are very useful for planning purposes of senior management staffs.
 MIS are generally reporting and control oriented.
 MIS have little analytical capability.
 MIS generally aid in decision-making using past and present data.
 MIS are relatively inflexible.
 MIS have an internal rather than external orientation.
INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Interrelated components working together to collect, process, store, and disseminate

information to support planning, decision-making, coordination, control, analysis, and
visualization in an organization.
Information systems contain information about significant people, places, and things
within the organization or in the environment surrounding it.
DATA
Streams of raw facts, representing events occurring in organizations or the

physical environment, before they have been organized and arranged into a form
that people can understand and use.
ICT FUNDAMENTALS 37
INFORMATION
Data that shaped into a form that is meaningful and useable to human beings.
ATTRIBUTES OF INFORMATION QUALITY

 Content Dimension
 Time Dimension
 Form Dimension
SYSTEMS
A group of interrelated components working together towards a common goal by
accepting inputs and producing outputs in an organized transformation process.
FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
 Economical Feasibility
 Technical Feasibility
 Financial Feasibility
 Organizational Feasibility
INFORMATION PROCESSING RESOURCES


 People

 Data

 Software

 Hardware

 Network
INFORMATION SYSTEMS MODEL
People Resources: End Users and IS Specialists Software Resources: Programs & Procedures
Control of System Performance

Hardware Resources: Machines and Media
Input Processing Output

of Data of
into Information
Data Products
Information
Resources
Storage of Data Resources
Data Resources: Data Knowledge Bases
Network Resources: Communications Media & Network Support
ICT FUNDAMENTALS 38
INFORMATION PROCESSING ACTIVITIES

 Input of Data Resources

 Processing of Data into Information

 Output Information Product

 Storage of Data Resources

 Control of Systems Performance
KEY INFORMATION PROCESSING SYSTEMS

 Transaction Processing Systems (TPS)

 Office Automation Systems (OAS)

 Knowledge Work Systems (KWS)

 Management Information Systems (MIS)

 Decision Support Systems (DSS)

 Executive Support Systems (ESS)
TRANSACTION PROCESSING SYSTEMS (TPS)
Computerized systems that perform and record the daily routine transactions
necessary to conduct the business.
OFFICE AUTOMATION SYSTEMS (TPS)
Computer systems, such as word processing, electronic mail systems, and

scheduling systems, that are designed to increase the productivity of data workers
(people with less formal, advanced educational degrees and trend to process
rather than create information) in the office.
KNOWLEDGE WORK SYSTEMS (KWS)
Information systems that aid knowledge workers (engineers, doctors, lawyers,

scientists) in the creation and integration of new knowledge in the organization.
MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS (MIS)
Information systems at the management level of an organization that serve the

functions of planning, controlling, and decision-making by providing routine
summary and exception reports.
ICT FUNDAMENTALS 39
DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS (DSS)
Information systems at the management level of an organization that combine

data and sophisticated analytical models to support semi-structured and
unstructured decision-making.
EXECUTIVE SUPPORT SYSTEMS (ESS)
Information systems at the strategic level of an organization designed to address

unstructured decision-making through advanced graphics and communications.
DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS (DSS)
In the 1970s, a number of companies began developing information systems that were
quite different from traditional MIS systems. These new systems were smaller (in
terms of labor and cost). They were interactive (unusual at time) and were designed
to help end users utilize data and models to discuss and decide (not solve) semi-
structured and unstructured problems.
DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS
Computer systems at the management level of an organization that combines

data, sophisticated analytical models, and user-friendly software to support
unstructured and semi-structured decision-making.
The DSS is under user control from early inception to final implementation and
daily use. See figure on the following page
DSS are linked closely to existing corporate information flows. Often, however,
DSS are isolated from major organizational information systems. DSS tend to be
stand-alone systems, developed by end-user divisions or group not under central IS
control, although it is obviously better if they are integrated into organizational
systems when this is a functional requirement.
COMPONENTS OF DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS
There are three basic components of decision support systems  a database, a

model base, and the DSS software system.
ICT FUNDAMENTALS 40
DSS DATABASE
A collection of current or historical data from a number of applications or

groups, organized for easy access by a range of applications. The DSS database
management systems protect integrity of data while controlling the processing
that keeps the data current; it also saves historical data.
DSS do not create or update data, for that is not their purpose. Rather, they
use live organizational data (from such systems as production and sales) so that
individuals and groups are able to make decisions based upon actual
conditions.
MODEL BASE
A collection of mathematical and analytical models that can easily be made

accessible to the DSS users.
A mmooddeell is an abstract representation that illustrates the components or

relationships of a phenomenon. A model can be a physical model (such as a
model airplane), a mathematical model (such as an equation), or a verbal
model (such as a description of a procedure to write up an order).
Perhaps the most common models available in model bases are libraries of
statistical models. Such libraries usually contain the full range of expected
statistical functions including means, medians, deviations, and scatter plots.
The software has the ability to project future outcomes by analyzing a series
of data. Statistical modeling software can be used to help establish
relationships, such as relating product sales to differences in age, income, or
other factors between communities.
Among the most widely used models sensitivity-analysis models that ask
“what-if” questions repeatedly to determine the impact pf changes in one or
more factors on outcomes.
DSS SOFTWARE SYSTEM
The DSS software system permits easy interaction between the users of the
system and the DSS database and the model base. The DSS software system
manages the creation, storage, and retrieval of models in the model base and
integrates them with the data in the DSS database. The DSS software system
also provides a graphic, easy to use, flexible user-interface that supports the
dialogue between the user and the Decision Support Systems.
ICT FUNDAMENTALS 41
DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS MODEL
M
MOODDEELL BBAASSEE
SSttaattiissttiiccaall M
Mooddeellss
DDSSSS
DDaattaabbaassee
FFoorreeccaassttiinngg M
Mooddeellss
Finance Data O
Oppeerraattiioonnaall M
Mooddeellss
Accounting Data
Sales/Marketing Data
Manufacturing/Production Data PPllaannnniinngg M
Mooddeellss
Human Resources Data
DDSSSS
DDSSSS SSooffttw
waarree SSyysstteem
mss
 Manage DSS Database
 Manage Model Database
 Manage End-User Interface
UUSSEERR
IINNTTEERRFFAACCEE
U
USSEERR
DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS VS. MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Some crucial differences between Decision Support Systems and Management

Information Systems are given through the following table:-
DIMENSION DSS MIS

Provide integrated tools,
Provide structured
Philosophy data, models and language to
information to end-users.
users.
Systems Establish what tools are used Identify information
Analysis in the decision process. requirements.
Deliver systems based on
Design Iterative process.
frozen requirements.
ICT FUNDAMENTALS 42
EXAMPLES OF DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS
Some Examples of Decision Support Systems
American Airlines Price and Route Selection

Champlin Petroleum Corporate Planning and Forecasting
Kmart Price Evaluation
Texas Oil and Gas Corporation Evaluation of Potential Drilling Sites
United Airlines Flight Scheduling
EXECUTIVE SUPPORT SYSTEMS (ESS)
Information systems at the strategic level of an organization designed to address

unstructured decision-making through advanced graphics and communications.
Combining data from both internal and external sources, ESS create a generalized
computing and communications environment that can be focused and applied to a
changing array of problems. ESS help senior executives monitor organizational
performance, track activities of competitors, spot problems, identify opportunities,
and forecast trends.
AN EXAMPLE OF ESS

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ICT FUNDAMENTALS 1

However, there is one limitation of the computer. Human beings do calculations on

Computer is an electronic device. As mentioned in the introduction it can do

The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is

The word ABACUS means calculating board. It consisted of sticks in horizontal

PASCAL'S ADDING AND SUBTRACTORY MACHINE

LEIBNIZ’S MULTIPLICATION AND DIVIDING MACHINE

The German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz built around

BABBAGE’S ANALYTICAL ENGINE

MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL CALCULATOR

In the beginning of 19th century the mechanical calculator was developed to

MODERN ELECTRONIC CALCULATOR

The modern electronic calculator can compute all kinds of mathematical

Microcomputer is at the lowest end of the computer range in terms of speed

These types of computers are generally 32-bit microprocessors. They operate

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION & HARDWARE COMPONENTS

BASIC COMPUTER OPERATIONS

A computer performs basically five major operations or functions irrespective of their

The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage.

The storage unit performs the following major functions:

• Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.

The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is

ARITHMETIC LOGICAL UNIT (ALU)

CONTROL UNIT (CU)

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

PERSONAL COMPUTER CONFIGURATION

MEMORY SYSTEM IN A COMPUTER

Computer memory is used to store two things: i) instructions to execute a program

CAPACITY OF PRIMARY MEMORY

The following terms related to memory of a computer are discussed below:

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)

The primary storage is referred to as random access memory (RAM) because it

READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)

There is another memory in computer, which is called Read Only Memory

ADVANTAGES OF MAGNETIC TAPE

LONG TERM STORAGE AND RE-USABILITY

COMPACT DISK/ READ ONLY MEMORY (CD-ROM)

WRITE ONCE, READ MANY (WORM)

ERASABLE OPTICAL DISK

INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES

A computer is only useful when it is able to communicate with the external

Input devices are necessary to convert our information or data in to a form

VISUAL DISPLAY UNIT

Computer software is normally classified into two broad categories.

Application Software is a set of programs to carry out operations for a specific

Another example of application software is programming language. Among the

LOW LEVEL LANGUAGES

Machine Language is the only language that is directly understood by the

It is not an easy language for you to learn because of its difficult to

 The symbolic programming of Assembly Language is easier to

One of the major disadvantages is that assembly language is machine

What is a Network? This is a difficult question to answer. A network can consist of

SOURCE The transmitter of data. Examples are:

MEDIUM The communications stream through which the data is being

RECEIVER The receiver of the data transmitted. Examples are:

Bi-directional but only 1

Bi-directional both directions simultaneously!

INTRODUCING LANS AND THEIR COMPONENTS

INTRODUCING NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

An intelligent hub controls:

The reliability is a result of the intelligent hub’s ability to bypass a nonfunctioning

INTRODUCING NETWORK DEVICES