Course No.

PHY- 2251 (B), Physics – IV, Mathematics Discipline, Khulna University

Chapter 6
Modern Physics

Md. Shohel Parvez

Lecturer, Physics Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna
 Atomic Physics
• What is atom?
Atoms are the basic building blocks of ordinary matter. Atoms can join
together to form molecules, which in turn form most of the objects around
you.

 Components of Atom
• Electron Proton Quarks
• Nucleus Neutron Gluons
 Basic Quantum Mechanics
Why quantum mechanics appear?

Classical mechanics explained successfully the motion of objects which

are directly observable or observable with the help of instrument like
micro-scope. When the objects ( such as electrons in atom) are not
observable even with the help of instrument, classical concepts can not
be applied.
The phenomena in the realm of atoms, nuclei and elementary particles
are commonly referred to as quantum phenomena and subject matter
concerning all these phenomena constitutes what is known as quantum
physics. The currently accepted basic mathematical theory of quantum
physics is known as quantum mechanics. Such as stability of atom,
spectrum of hydrogen atom.

Operator: A symbol that represents a specific action. The basic

mathematical operators are (+) addition, (-) subtraction, (*)
multiplication, (/) division. In physics, an operator is a function over the
space of physical states. As a result of its application on a physical state
is obtained, very often along some extra relevant information.
Wave Function: The function which can give nearly complete
information about the state of a physical system at a particular time in
accordance with the rules of quantum mechanics is known as wave
function. It is also called state function. It is defined by Ψ.
De Broglie wave: Every particle/matter is associated with wave, such
type of wave is known as de Broglie wave. In 1924 a young physicist, de
Broglie, speculated that nature did not single out light as being the only
matter which exhibits a wave particle duality. He proposed that ordinary
‘particles’ such as electrons, protons or bowling balls could exhibit wave
characteristics in certain circumstances. Quantitatively, he associated a
wavelength λ to a particle of mass m moving at speed v.
λ = ℎ/𝑚𝑣
Schrodinger in 1926 stated with de Broglie relationship between the
momentum of a particle and wavelength of the associated matter waves
and developed it into a rigorous mathematical theory known as wave
mechanics. The equation developed by Schrodinger is known as
Schrodinger wave equation.

Schrodinger wave equation

Time dependent Time independent

Schrodinger Time Independent wave equation

Let us consider a group of waves (de Broglie waves) associated with
a moving particle. Let ψ (r, t) represents the displacement of these waves
 at a site r at any time t. let us consider that the wave motion be
represented by the classical wave equation.

1 𝛿 2Ψ
𝛻 2Ψ = 2 2 ……………………..……………. 1
𝑣 𝑑𝑡
Where v is the velocity. The solution of the above equation is the
function ψ (r, t). We assume that the wave amplitude at r is periodic in t;
Ψ (r, t) = ψ(r) 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 …………….………………(2)
Substituting eq. (2) in eq. (1), we get
𝜔2
𝛻 2 ψ= - ψ
𝑣2

= −4𝜋 2 /λ2 ψ
𝜔 2𝜋𝑣 2𝜋
since, = =
𝑣 λ𝑣 λ
𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 λ being the frequency and wavelength of the de-Broglie waves.
Rearranging, we get the wave equation in the form
𝛻 2 ψ + 4𝜋 2 /λ2 ψ = 0…………………………….(3)
We can now substitute the wavelength of the waves accompanying
the particle in terms of the particle –like property, i.e. the momentum,

ℎ ℎ
λ= =
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
𝛻 2 ψ + 4𝜋 2 𝑚2 𝑣 2 /ℎ2 ψ = 0
If E and V are the total energy and the potential energy of the
particle, respectively, then

1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝐸 − 𝑉
2
Giving
𝑚𝑣 = [2𝑚 𝐸 − 𝑉 ]
And the wave equation describing the particle motion becomes

8𝜋 2𝑚
𝛻 2ψ + 2
𝐸−𝑉 ψ=0
ℎ

2
2𝑚
𝛻 ψ+ 2 𝐸−𝑉 ψ=0
ħ
This equation is known as Schroedinger time-independent wave
equation. The function ψ is referred to as the wave function.
Schroedinger time-dependent equation
We know that,
Ψ (r, t) = ψ(r) 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 …………………………(1)
The function Ψ (r, t) in eq. (1) varies harmonically with time (
∝ 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 ) at a rate determined by angular frequency 𝜔. Let us now find
the wave equation satisfied by Ψ (r, t).
We know the time-independent Schroedinger wave equation.
2𝑚
𝛻2ψ + 𝐸 − 𝑉 ψ = 0…………………………(2)
ħ2

Multiply eq. (2), by 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 we get\

8𝜋2 𝑚 8𝜋2 𝑚
−𝛻 2 ψ 𝒓 . 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 + 𝑉ψ𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 = 𝐸ψ𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 …………… 3
ℎ2 ℎ2

But since 𝛻 2 involves differentiation w.r.t. the space coordinates only,

We can combine 𝑒 +𝑖𝜔𝑡 with ψ 𝒓 in the first term. Also the right hand
side can be written as

8𝜋 2 𝑚 8𝜋 2 𝑚 𝐸 𝜕
2
𝐸Ψ 𝒓 𝑡 = 2
[Ψ 𝒓, 𝑡 ]
ℎ ℎ (−𝑖𝜔) 𝜕𝑡

8𝜋 2 𝑚 𝑖ℎ 𝜕Ψ(𝒓, 𝑡)
=
ℎ2 2𝜋 𝜕𝑡
ℎ
Where we have used the Einstein relation, 𝐸 = ℎυ = 𝜔 .
2𝜋

Substituting the results into (2), we now obtain

8𝜋 2𝑚 8𝜋 2 𝑚 𝑖ℎ 𝜕
− 𝛻 2Ψ + 2
𝑉Ψ = 2
Ψ
ℎ ℎ 2𝜋 𝜕𝑡
 ħ2 2 𝜕
− 𝛻 + 𝑉 Ψ = 𝑖ħ Ψ … … … … … (3)
2𝑚 𝜕𝑡

This equation is called the Schroedinger time-dependent equation

because it involves time.

Wave Particle Duality: Wave – particle duality is the concept that every
particle or quantic entity may be partly described in terms not only of
particles, but also of waves.

It expresses the inability of the classical concepts "particle" or

"wave" to fully describe the behavior of quantum-scale objects.
 This phenomenon has been verified not only for elementary particles,
but also for compound particles like atoms and even molecules. For
macroscopic particles, because of their extremely short wavelengths,
wave properties usually cannot be detected.

Wave properties: reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction etc.

Particle properties: photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, etc.

Photoelectric effect: According to wave particle duality theorem every

particle behaves as a wave nature or particle nature. Among them light is
perfect example for wave particle duality theorem cause we can easily
find both nature. Photoelectric effect is particle nature of light.
Photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons when electromagnetic
radiations having sufficient frequency incident on certain metal surfaces.
We call the emitted electrons as photoelectrons and the current they
constitute as photocurrent. The phenomenon was first observed by
Heinrich Hertz in 1880 and explained by Albert Einstein in 1905 using
Max Planck's quantum theory of light.
Maximum Kinetic Energy of Electrons: Since in the atom there is an
attraction between orbital electron and nucleus. So incident light need to
expense some energy to knock out the electrons from the orbit/metal
surface. This is called the work function (W) for that material. In case of
different materials this w different. We can write

W=hυ0

Where h is the plank’s constant. υ0 is the threshold frequency

(minimum frequency for knock out electron from surface).

If E is the energy of incident light and KEmax is the kinetic energy of

ejected electrons then,

E=KEmax+ W
 hυ=KEmax+ hυ0
KEmax = hυ -hυ0
KEmax = h(υ -υ0 ) ……….………………(1)
This is the equation of maximum kinetic energy of electron escape
from metal surface.

The important phenomena observed in Photoelectric effect:

1. The Photoelectric effect is an instantaneous phenomenon. There is

no time delay between the incidence of light and emission of

photoelectrons.
 2. The number of photoelectrons emitted is proportional to the

intensity of incident light. Also, the energy of emitted

photoelectrons is independent of the intensity of incident light.

3. The energy of emitted photoelectrons is directly proportional to the

frequency of incident light.

Compton Effect/Scattering: The Compton effect/scattering is an

experiment conducted by Arthur Compton in 1923. It is the another
experiment of particle behavior of wave also confirmed the quantum
theory of light.
 Compton scattering is the inelastic scattering of a photon by a
charged particle, usually an electron. It results in a decrease in energy
(increase in wavelength) of a photon ( which may be an X-ray or gamma
ray). Part of the energy of the photon is transferred to the recoiling
electron. Inverse Compton scattering exist.
 Figure shows such a collision: An X-ray photon strikes an electron
(assumed to be initially at rest) and is scattered away from its original
direction of motion. Meanwhile electron receives an impulse and begins
to move. We think of the photon as losing an amount of energy in the
collision that is the same as the kinetic energy KE gained by the electron.
Let the initial photon has the frequency υ associated with it, the
scattered photon has the lower frequency υ′ . So
Loss in photon energy=Gain in electron energy
hυ - hυ′ = KE ……………..(1)
Also in case of a massless particle
E=pc
P=E/c= hυ/c …………..(2)
Now photon momentum in original direction,

Initial momentum=Final momentum

ℎ𝜐 ℎυ′
+0 = cosΦ + pcosθ ……..(3)
𝑐 𝑐

And perpendicular to this direction

ℎυ′
0= sinΦ – psinθ ……………….(4)
𝑐

The angle Φ is that between the directions of the initial and scattered
photons, and θ is that between the directions of initial photon and the
recoil electron.

Multiply equation (3) and (4) by c and rearranging

pc cosθ = hυ - hυ′ cosΦ ………..(5)

 pc sinθ = hυ′ sinΦ ………(6)

By squaring each of these equations and adding the new ones

together, the θ is eliminated

𝑝2 𝑐 2 = (ℎυ)2 −2 ℎυ ℎυ′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠Φ + ℎυ′ 2

……..(7)

According to theory of relativity the total energy of a particle,

E = KE + 𝑚0 𝑐 2 (8)

E = 𝑚0 2 𝑐 4 + 𝑝 2 𝑐 2 …(9)

From above two equation we can write

(𝐾𝐸 + 𝑚0 𝑐 2 )2 = 𝑚0 2 𝑐 4 + 𝑝2 𝑐 2

𝑝2 𝑐 2 = (𝐾𝐸)2 + 2𝑚0 𝑐 2 𝐾𝐸 ……(10)

 From equation (1)

KE = hυ - hυ′

Then we can write

𝑝2 𝑐 2 = (ℎυ)2 − 2 ℎυ ℎυ′ + (ℎυ′ )2 + 2𝑚0 𝑐 2 ℎυ − ℎυ′

……..(11)

Substituting this value of 𝑝2 𝑐 2 in equation (7) we finally obtain

2𝑚0 𝑐 2 ℎυ − ℎυ′ = 2 ℎυ ℎυ′ 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠Φ …………..(12)

The relationship is simpler when expressed in term of wavelength λ.

Dividing Eq. (12) by 2ℎ2 𝑐 2

𝑚0 𝑐 υ υ′ υ υ′
− = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠Φ)
ℎ 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
And also since υ/c=1/λ and υ′ /c=1/λ′

𝑚0 𝑐 1 1 11
− ′ = ′ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠Φ)
ℎ λ λ λλ

ℎ
λ′ −λ= 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠Φ
𝑚0 𝑐

This equation is derived by Arthur H. Compton in the early 1920s and

the phenomenon it describes, which he was the first to observe, is known
as the Compton effect . It constitutes very strong evidence in support of
quantum theory of radiation.