Unit GC2 Revision Notes PDF

Unit GC2:
Controlling workplace hazards

Table of Contents
Element 1: Workplace hazards and risk control
Element 2: Transport hazards and risk control
Element 3: Musculoskeletal hazards and risk control
Element 4: Work equipment hazards and risk control
Element 5: Electrical safety
Element 6: Fire safety
Element 7: Chemical and biological health hazards and risk control
Element 8: Physical and psychological health hazards and risk control
Robert Wafula IDipNEBOSH, GradIOSH

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ELEMENT 1: WORKPLACE HAZARDS & RISK CONTROL
Key Learning Points:
On completion of this element, candidates should be able to demonstrate understanding of the content through
the application of knowledge to familiar & unfamiliar situations. They should be able to:
1.1 Outline common health, welfare and work environment requirements in the workplace
1.2 Explain the risk factors and appropriate controls for violence at work
1.3 Explain the effects of substance misuse on health and safety at work and control measures to reduce
such risks
1.4 Explain the hazards and control measures for the safe movement of people in the workplace
1.5 Explain the hazards and control measures for safe work at height
1.6 Explain the hazards and control measures for temporary works
1.1 Health, welfare and work environment requirements

Employers have a responsibility to ensure that workers have access to:
• Adequate space.
• Seating, with adequate backrests, should be stable and adjustable, to meet the needs of individual
workers.
• Suitable ventilation from windows or mechanical ventilation systems, which are regularly
cleaned, tested and maintained.
• A comfortable temperature.
• Suitable and sufficient light to work by, from a natural source, so far as is reasonably practicable,
or by means of artificial lighting.
• Noise – provision of controls to reduce excessive noise, if necessary.
Minimum Welfare Standards
Employers have a responsibility to ensure that workers have access to:
• An adequate supply of wholesome drinking water.
• Adequate and separate toilet facilities for men and women.
• Washing facilities with hot and cold water; showers or baths should also be provided where
the nature of the work is particularly strenuous or dirty, or there is a risk of contamination of
the skin from harmful or offensive substances.
• Changing rooms for men and women should also be available for workers who need to wear
special clothing or PPE for work.
• Suitable and sufficient secure accommodation for clothing which is not worn during working
hours and special work clothing such as overalls, uniforms, thermal clothing and hats worn for
food hygiene purposes, etc.
• Resting and eating facilities, away from normal work locations, particularly for pregnant and
nursing mothers.
Summary of Health and Welfare provisions
• Drinking water
• Sanitary conveniences
• Washing facilities
• Changing rooms
• Accommodation for clothing
• Rest and eating facilities
• First aid

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Drinking water • Wholesome,
• labelled if not
• Must be readily accessible to all workforce
• Supply must be adequate
• SOP for sampling & testing
Sanitary conveniences • Sufficient numbers
• Separate for men and women
• Protected from weather
• Clean, lit & ventilated
• Provision for the disabled
Washing facilities • Close to toilets and changing rooms
• Showers if required
• Hot and cold water, soap, towels
• Means of drying
Changing rooms • For special work wear

• Lit, cleaned and ventilated
• Separate facilities for men and women
Accommodation for • Lockers, etc.

clothing • Personal clothing clean and secure
• Separate storage for dirty work wear
Resting and eating facilities • Sufficient seats and tables

• Away from work location
• Hygienic environment
• Means of preparing hot food and drink
• Separate facilities for new and expectant mothers
Ventilation
• Should be effective & sufficient & free from any impurities
• Air inlets to be sited free from any potential contaminants
• Ensure workers are free from uncomfortable draughts
• Ensure continuous fresh air flow
• Use LEV or Dilute Ventilation if required
• Implementing ambient air quality standards
Heating & Temperature
• Ensure reasonable temperatures in all workplaces during working hours
• Air conditions to be used where possible
• AC to be regularly inspected & maintained
• Provide thermometers to indicate room temperature
• Provide suitable PPE where AC is not adequate e.g. on entering big restaurants' cold stores
Lighting
• Poor lighting increases the risk of accidents e.g. slips, trips & falls.
• Provision of sufficient & suitable lighting; shall be natural light if possible
• Provision of sufficient emergency lighting in all rooms, kitchens, rest rooms & emergency routes
• Consider using blinds on windows in cases of reflective screen glare
• Windows & skylights to be kept clean & free from obstruction
Seating & Workstations
• Sitting for prolonged periods can cause health risks; blood circulation problems & MSD(s)
• Workstations to be arranged so that work is done safely & comfortably
• Workstations to be arranged to allow safe evacuation in cases of emergency
• Work surface should be at comfortable height to the worker; avoid bending & stretching
• Workers should not stand for prolonged periods on solid floor.
• Refer to control measures of DSE

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The effects of exposure to extremes of temperature; preventive measures
Health and safety issues associated with working in
HOT, and COLD environments? Control Measures for working in HOT and COLD
Hot environments: Cold environments: Hot environments: Cold environments:
• Dehydration • Hypothermia • Ventilation • Prevent or protect from
• Muscle cramps • Lethargy • Insulate/shield heat draughts
• Heat stress • Frostbite sources • Shield/lag cold surfaces
• Lethargy • Slip hazards • Provide cool refuges • PPE - insulating
• Headaches • Freeze burns injuries • Drinking water • Provide warm refuges
• Fainting • Frequent breaks • Frequent breaks
• Heat exhaustion • Job rotation • Job rotation
• Heat stroke • Appropriate clothing • Access to warm food and drinks
• Burns, cancer, etc. • Treat icy floors
Prevention of falling materials through safe stacking and storage.

• Storage areas clearly defined
• Separate areas for different items
• Segregation of certain materials and substance
• Clean and tidy areas routinely inspected
• Appropriate warning signs
• No work activities in storage areas
Safe material stacking procedures: Safe storage of Flammable materials:
• Each stack for one material only • Liquids, solids, gases in separate stores
• Set maximum stack height • Store oxygen separate from other gases
• Stacks should be vertical • Open-air stores away from buildings
• Use pallets to keep materials off the ground • Fire-resistant internal stores
• Allow space between stacks for safe movement • Two exits for larger stores
• Protect stacks from being struck by vehicles • Warning signs / safety signs
• No hot work in or near storage areas
• Correctly rated electrical equipment
• Firefighting equipment provided
• Inspect regularly
1.2 Violence at work

Any incident in which a person is abused either verbally or physically, threatened or assaulted in circumstances relating to their
work
Risk factors relating to violence at work (both between employees/workers and third parties)
Appropriate control measures to reduce risks from violence at work
Risk Factors for Violence Groups/occupations at Control measures for violence at work
• Cash handling risk of violence • Assess the risk, record & review assessment
• Lone working • Healthcare / social • Organizations to enforce zero tolerance violence
• Representing authority care providers policy
• Wearing a uniform • Police • Avoid using cash; use credit cards
• Dealing with people under stress • Social workers • Means of communication: cell phones, alarms,
• Dealing with people under the • Bus and taxi drivers radios… etc.
influence of alcohol or drugs • Firefighters and • Physical barriers e.g. fences, bullet proof booths for
• Censuring or saying "no" paramedics ticketing
• Dissatisfaction with the • Traffic wardens • Use close circuit television cameras CCTV
treatment/service received • Railway staff • Strict security measures e.g. ID, finger print access,
• Bullying & harassment • Estate agents no visitors… etc.
• Terrorism is now included • Avoid lone working & night working
• Provide adequate training & information;
negotiation skills, stress management… etc.
• Report, investigate & record all incidents of
aggression

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1.3 Substance misuse at work
Types of substances misused at work, e.g.
• alcohol
• legal/illegal drugs
• solvent
Risks to health and safety from substance misuse at work
Effects of alcohol and drug abuse on safety Increased risk for:
performance: • Driving
• Sensory impairment • Operating machinery
• Skewed perception • Making decisions
• Impaired motor control • Work at height
• Fatigue and drowsiness • Electrical workers
General symptoms how they would affect the workplace:
• Late attendance of employees
• Increased absenteeism by employees
• Poor work quality
• Reduced output
• Increased dishonesty
• Development of bad habits e.g. theft
• Mood swings
• Poor relationships with other employees
Control measures to reduce risks from substance misuse at work.
Alcohol and drug abuse risk control measures include:
• Assess the risk & the size of the problem
• Drugs and alcohol policy:
• No alcohol at work or during working hours
• Statutory legal requirements
• Non-statutory requirements set by the employer
• Random drugs and alcohol testing
• Access for workers to rehabilitation and treatment
• Disciplinary procedures
• Information, instruction and training of managers, supervisors and workers

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1.4 Safe movement of people in the workplace
Hazards to Pedestrians
• Slips, trips and falls on the same level
• Falls from height
• Collision with moving vehicles
• Striking by moving, flying or falling objects
• Striking against fixed or stationary objects
• Maintenance activities
Slips: Trip Hazards:
• Due to reduced friction between feet & walking • Uneven or loose floor surfaces;
surface; • trailing cables;
• wet or dusty floors, • objects on the floor;
• spill contamination frost and ice; • loose carpets;
• unsuitable footwear, • floor holes;
• varnished wooden floors. • cables across walkways;
• rubbish and uneven floor.
NOTE: Slips & Trips are usually caused by poor housekeeping and lead to falls at the same level.
Falls from a Height (Fall Hazards): Striking against fixed or stationary objects:
• working next to an unprotected edge; • colliding against a part of a building,
• working on fragile material above a drop; • opened drawer, lying,
• using access equipment; • protruding steel bars and or any other object on
• using ladders; the floor… etc.
• Standing on objects to reach high levels
Collision with mobile equipment like vehicles: Being struck by moving, falling or flying objects:
• Pedestrian walkways that require pedestrians to walk in • moving parts of machinery,

vehicle traffic routes; • flying objects e.g. ejected parts or materials, thrown
• Pedestrian crossing points; objects;
• Exits that open onto vehicle traffic routes; • falling objects e.g. loads falling from height;
• Areas where people must work adjacent to moving • objects dislodged from height;
vehicles; • effect of weather conditions;
• poor lighting; • unstable objects
• over speeding of vehicles;
• no clear separation between pedestrians & vehicles;
• lack of warning signs & barriers.
Control measures for the safe movement of people in the workplace:

Risk Assessment is crucial to be done for all work activities & controls will be set per the level of risk following the Hierarchy
of control.
• Slip resistant surfaces;
• spillage control and drainage;
• designated walkways;
• fencing and guarding;
• use of signs and personal protective equipment;
• information, instruction, training and supervision
• good housekeeping,
• keeping a safe place of work,
• cleaning aisles & passage ways,
• consider introduction of slip resistant surfaces.
• Follow a Safe System of Work & issue PTW.
• Ensure a safe place of work in the design phase if possible.
• Suitable maintenance systems, reporting & procedures to follow up on corrective actions.
Maintenance of a safe workplace:
• cleaning and housekeeping requirements,
• access and egress,
• environmental considerations (lighting), including during maintenance activities.

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1.5 Working at height
Construction Hazards & Control
Safe place of work:
• Construction site locked & secured with Proper signs posted
• Secure & sound perimeter fence with signs posted, use CCTV
• Ladders safe & stored securely when not used
• All excavations fenced, signs posted & covered when not in use
• Secure storage & safe handling of all flammable & hazardous substances
• All scaffolds, hoists & cranes are safe for use
• Good housekeeping is crucial
• Proper arrangements for waste disposal
Working at height:
• All work activities where there is a risk of falling a distance liable to cause personal injury
• Working on scaffold or a mobile elevated working platform MEWP
• Working on top of a container & using ladders or stepladders
• Working with high trees & forestry
• Climbing permanent structure e.g. phone pole
• Painting & working near excavation in which worker could fall
• Roof & chimney working
Basic hazards and factors affecting risk from working at height include:
• vertical distance, • unprotected edges,
• fragile roofs, • unstable/poorly maintained access equipment,
• deterioration of materials, • weather and falling materials
Protection against falls from work at height:

• Carry out sufficient & suitable Risk Assessment
• Avoid working at heights where possible
• Implement safe system of work i.e. PTW
• Provision of a properly constructed working platform
• Use suspension equipment & collective fall arrest
• Individual fall restrainers (safety harness) as last resort
• If none of the above is practicable; use ladders/stepladders
Methods of avoiding working at height:

• Using extendable tools from ground level to remove the need to climb a ladder
• Installing cables at ground level
• Lowering a lighting mast to ground level
• Ground level assembly of edge protection
Practical examples of collective protection using work equipment to minimize the distance and consequences of a fall:
• Safety nets and soft-landing systems, e.g. air bags, installed close to the level of the work
An example of personal protection used to minimize the distance and consequences of a fall:
• Industrial rope access, e.g. working on a building façade
• Fall-arrest system using a high anchor point
If safety nets are used, make sure that:

• They are installed as close as possible beneath the roof surface; to minimize free fall distance
• They are securely attached and will withstand a person falling onto them
• They are installed and maintained by competent personnel.
• Safety nets and safety net installations shall be drop-tested at the jobsite after initial installation and before being used
as a fall protection system, whenever relocated, after major repair, and at regular intervals if left in one place.
• Defective nets shall not be used. Safety nets shall be inspected at least once a week for wear, damage, and other
deterioration. Defective components shall be removed from service.
• Materials, scrap pieces, equipment, and tools which have fallen into the safety net shall be removed as soon as
possible from the net and at least before the next work shift.

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If safety harnesses are used, make sure that:
• They are securely attached to an adequate anchorage point (trolley guard rails are not usually strong enough)
• They are appropriate for the user and in good condition
• They are properly used - ensuring this requires tight discipline.
• Limits free fall distance to a minimum.
• Safety netting is the preferred fall arrest option since it provides collective protection and does not rely on individual
user discipline to guarantee acceptable safety standards. They can simplify systems of work and can protect not only
roof workers, but also others such as supervisors.
Emergency rescue
Before work at height on site begins:
• Identify emergencies that could affect your work site.
• Establish a chain of command.
• Document procedures for responding to emergencies and make sure they’re available at the site.
• Post emergency-responder phone numbers and addresses at the work site.
• Identify critical resources and rescue equipment.
• Train on-site responders.
• Identify off-site responders and inform them about any conditions at the site that may hinder a rescue effort.
• Identify emergency entry and exit routes.
• Make sure responders have quick access to rescue and retrieval equipment, such as lifts and ladders.
During on-site work:
• Identify on-site equipment that can be used for rescue and retrieval, such as extension ladders and mobile lifts.
• Maintain a current rescue-equipment inventory at the site. Equipment may change frequently as the job progresses.
• Re-evaluate and update the emergency-response plan when on-site work tasks change.
• When an emergency occurs first responders should clear a path to the victim.
• Others should direct emergency personnel to the scene.
• Make sure only trained responders attempt a technical rescue.
• Prohibit all nonessential personnel from the rescue site.
• Talk to the victim; determine the victim’s condition, if possible.
• If you can reach the victim, check for vital signs, administer CPR, attempt to stop bleeding, and make the victim
comfortable.
After an emergency:
• Report fatalities and catastrophes to regulatory bodies.
• Identify equipment that may have contributed to the emergency and put it out of service.
• Have a competent person examine equipment. If the equipment is damaged, repair or replace it. If the equipment
caused the accident, determine how and why.
• Document in detail the cause of the emergency.
• Review emergency procedures. Determine how the procedures could be changed to prevent similar events; revise
the procedures accordingly.
• Make sure a competent team carries out a thorough accident investigation and identifies root causes.
Fragile roofs & surfaces:

• Requires specific Risk Assessment
• Implement safe system of work
• Hazards; roofing material that deteriorates with age & weather
• Exposed edges, unsafe access equipment & falls from ridges
• Must use safe means of access; scaffolding, ladders… etc.
• Provide suitable barriers, guard rails & warning signs
• Only competent & authorized personnel to work on roofs
• Use PPE & fall protection devices as last resort
Protection against falling objects:

• Involves construction workers & public members
• Provide covered walkways & suitable netting to catch falling objects
• Waste material to be brought down via chutes or hoists
• Only minimal quantities of building material to be stored on working platforms
• Appropriate guard rails with toe boards.
• Provide PPE; Head protection to workers, contractors & visitors
• Display signs illustrating mandatory head protection

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Inspection of access equipment.
1. Ladders Safety
Hazards associated with ladder use Controls & precautions when using ladders:
• Falls from height e.g. falling off the ladder Sited away from live overheads
• The ladder toppling sideways Solid, flat base
• The ladder base slipping out from the wall Hands on stiles, never on rungs
• Objects falling from height Correct angle (1:4 rule – 75o)
• Contact with live overheads Top of the ladder must be against solid support
Ladder secured at the top
Top of the ladder should extend above working platform
Only one person on ladder at any one time
Nothing should be carried while climbing (3-point contact)
Wooden ladders should not be painted
Ladders shall be inspected frequently, those with defects repaired
Precautions for the safe use of stepladders:

• Daily inspections before use • Don’t work off top 2 steps
• Fully open • Avoid over reaching
• Locking devices in place • Avoid side-on working
• Firm, level ground
Precautions for the safe use of trestles and staging platforms
• Large enough to allow passage of equipment/materials
• Free from trip hazards and gaps
• Fitted with toe boards and handrails
• Kept clean and tidy
• Not overloaded
• Erected on firm, level ground
2. Scaffolds safety
Main Components of a fixed scaffold
Standards – Uprights or vertical tubes
Ledgers – Horizontal tubes
Transoms – Short horizontal tubes spanning across ledgers
Bracing – Diagonal tubes
Base plates – Underneath the standards
Sole boards – Timber under base plates
Work platform – Fully boarded
Guardrails – Enclose work platform
Toe-boards – provide lip to platform
Hazards associated with fixed scaffolds Reasons why a scaffold may collapse.
Falls from scaffold during erection Overloaded work platform
Falls from work platform Soft ground
Falling objects Scaffold not tied in
Collapse Insufficient bracing
Standards not upright
Standards bent or damaged
High winds
Incorrect couplers
Scaffold struck by mobile plant
Scaffold erected by incompetent workers
Scaffold not inspected prior to use

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Controls & Precautions when using scaffolds:
• Scaffold construction only done by competent persons
• The footing or anchorage for scaffolds shall be sound and rigid to carry the maximum intended load
• Overhead protection must be provided for personnel on a scaffold exposed to overhead hazards.
• Guardrails & toe boards must be installed on all open sides.
• Observe the safe working load of the scaffolds
• Provision of a safe means of access to the working platform
• Ensure to stop work in bad weather e.g. storms, high winds, and ice or snow.
• Regular Inspections and maintenance of the scaffold must be made & recorded
• Provision of adequate training,
• Instructions & supervision
• Provision of adequate PPE & fall protection measures
Inspection Systems – Scaffolds Points to consider during scaffold inspection

• Often a legal requirement to inspect • Condition of tubes (especially standards)
• When first erected • Tying and bracing
• After substantial alterations • Condition of the work platform
• After any event, likely to have affected its strength or stability • Edge protection
• At regular intervals not exceeding 7 days • Ground conditions
• Before work at the start of every shift • Safe access
• Periodically • Safe working load
Mobile tower scaffold safety

Hazards of a mobile tower scaffold Precautions for safe working on a mobile tower scaffold
• Falls from the work platform • Ensure guardrails are properly installed
• Objects falling • Observe SWL to avoid overload
• Collapse of the structure • Ensure that its wheels are locked
• Overturn (toppling) • Ensure that its only used on a firm, levelled ground
• Unintended movement of the • People, materials off mobile tower when moved
wheels • Avoid using near overhead lines
• Contact with live overheads • Outriggers should be used where necessary
• No climbing outside of tower use access ladders
• Only trained operatives should use it
• Selection, erection & dismantling of mobile scaffold towers must be done
by competent personnel
• Persons should never over-reach
• Tower should be inspected on a regular basis & reports & records kept
Mobile Elevated Working Platform (MEWP)

Hazards of MEWPs Precautions for safe use of MEWPs
• Falls from height • Ensure equipment is used on a firm, stable ground
• Objects falling from height • Clearance of obstructions and overheads before use
• Collapse of the equipment • Installation of barriers to exclude vehicles, etc.
• Overturn (toppling) of the equipment • Ensure the that guardrails are installed on the cradle
• Contact with live overheads during work • Controls inside the cradle
• Unauthorised use of the equipment • Ensure that it’s not driven with the cradle raised
• Observe the SWL so as to avoid overload
• Ensure its inspected regularly and prior to its use
• Only trained, authorised staff should be allowed to use

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1.6 Hazards and control measures for works of a temporary nature
The impact on workplaces from hazards associated with works of a temporary nature (including building maintenance,
renovation, demolition and excavations)
1. Demolition:
Hazards associated with demolition works Demolition: Control:
• Falls from height or at the same level • Full written Risk Assessment
• Falling debris & premature collapse of structure • Full site investigation by a competent person
• Plant, vehicles, machinery • Arrangements to protect workers & public from hazardous substances
• Live overheads e.g. Asbestos
• Buried services • Safe system of work; PTW, Isolation… etc.
• Exposure to asbestos • Emergency arrangements; first aid, fire… etc.
• Dust and fumes • Means of preventing premature collapse or collapse of adjacent
• Explosives buildings
• Noise & vibration from equipment • Arrangements for waste disposal
• Biological hazards • Training & adequate work instructions
• Sharps • Arrangements with public & neighbor buildings
• Manual handling • Post relevant warning signs
• Fires • Provide adequate PPE
2. Excavations
Hazards associated with Excavations: Precautions & Controls:
• Collapse of the sides • Competent person should supervise the work & workers
• Materials falling on workers in the excavation • Arrangements to prevent sides of excavation from collapsing
• Falling of people or vehicles in the excavation e.g. digging at safe angle (sloping) or shoring up with timber
• Equipment e.g. pneumatic drill • Keep vehicles away & use audio /visual warnings
• Hazardous substances • Safe system of work; PTW
• Influx of ground or surface water & drowning or • Site must be well lit at night
entrapment • Isolate mains of water supply to avoid flooding
• Contact with underground services • Available underground service location drawings
• Access & egress to the excavation • Safe access by ladders is essential
• Fumes, lack of Oxygen & other health hazards • Provide PPE
Precautions for excavation work

Prevention of Prevention of vehicles and Preventing people from Precautions – Prevention of Striking
collapse materials from falling in falling: Buried Services
Battering Spoil heaps away from Barriers and toe-boards Plans of the area
Shoring excavation Good lighting and signs Detection equipment, e.g.
Use of trench box Barriers and signs Crossing points metal detectors
Stop-barriers (especially for Access ladders cable detectors
reversing vehicles)
Ladders to extend 5 ground radar
Minimise vehicles close to rungs above edge of
unsupported excavations Hand digging
excavation
Identification, support where necessary
Hard hats, steel toe caps
Mechanical digging
Inspection & reporting for excavations:

• After any event affecting the strength or stability of excavation (ex: climate)
• Before work at the start of every shift
• After accidental fall of any material
• Inspections & reports to be done by competent personnel
• Reports should be done periodically per legal and/or other requirements
• A copy of the report to be given to the manager, kept on site & retained for an adequate period after work is
completed

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Main risks associated with vehicles & traffic routes near excavations
• Overturning on slopes & at edges of excavations
• Poor maintenance of vehicles & braking systems
• Driver error due to lack of training / experience
Controls for risks associated with vehicles & traffic routes near excavations
• Designated traffic routes & signs
• Speed limits & speed monitoring
• Proper inspection & maintenance
• Wheel chocks when vehicles are parked
• Provision of roll-over protection & seat belts
• Visual & Audible warning
• Refer to "Element Seven" for more information
Fire & other Emergencies arrangements:
• Relevant Emergency Response plans should be in place;
• Medical Evacuation & structural collapse.
• Arrangements should include location of assembly points, provision of fire extinguishers
• Site evacuation procedures contact with emergency services
• Accidents reporting & investigation procedures
• Training, Instructions & drills
3. Electricity
Electricity hazards specific to construction
• Contact with overhead power lines
• Contact with buried services
Precautions of working with electricity
• Ensure that the distribution systems are suitable
• Ensure the use of control devices e.g. fuses, earthing, low voltage and RCDs used
• Ensure user checks are carried out
• Ensure that regular inspection and testing carried out
• Ensure that temporary systems properly designed and installed
• Ensure that electricity cables are protected from damage
Overhead Power Line – Precautions
• If possible isolating the power supply would be better (LOTO)
• Using SSW and permit systems
• Sleeve low voltage power lines
• Using barriers, signage and goal-posts
• Using banksmen
• Using non-conducting equipment
4. Maintenance works
It involves a wide range of activities, including:
• maintenance of lighting units
• Cleaning activities
• Maintenance of heating and ventilation systems
• Maintenance of services
• Maintenance of lifts
• Repair of the building structure
Main control measures relating to the management of works of a temporary nature
• Communication and co-operation
• Appointment of competent people
• Risk assessment
• Segregation of work areas
• Amendment of emergency procedures
• Welfare provision
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Identify the effects of extremes of temperature on the body.
2. Identify control measures in the workplace to reduce risks to pedestrians.
3. Explain the risks to workers from the misuse of substances at work.
4. Outline how an employer may determine the size of the problem of violence at work.

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ELEMENT 2 TRANSPORT HAZARDS & RISK CONTROL
On completion of this element, candidates should be able to demonstrate understanding of the content through the application
of knowledge to familiar & unfamiliar situations. In particular they should be able to:
1.1 Explain the hazards and control measures for the safe movement of vehicles in the workplace
1.2 Outline the factors associated with driving at work that increase the risk of an incident and the control measures
to reduce work-related driving risks
2.1 Safe movement of vehicles in the workplace

Hazards relating to vehicle movements arise from: Typical non-movement related hazards arise from:
• Driving too fast • Loading
• Reversing • Unloading
• Silent operations of machinery • Securing and sheeting loads
• Poor visibility • Coupling vehicles and trailers
• Maintenance work on vehicles
Typical Risks associated with Vehicle Operations
• Loss of control – due to mechanical or environmental reasons
• Overturning – laterally or longitudinally
• Collisions with other vehicles
• Collisions with pedestrians and fixed objects
• Driver error may cause or compound each of these hazards
Factors that could cause a forklift truck to overturn?

• Cornering whilst being driven too fast
• Uneven loading of the forks
• Driving over potholes
• Driving with the load elevated, especially cornering
• Uneven tyre pressures
• Driving across a slope (rather than straight up/down the fall line)
• Excessive braking
• Collisions, especially with kerbs
Factors that can increase the risk of collisions in a workplace:

• Driving too fast
• Inadequate lighting
• Reversing without the help of a banksman
• Blind spots, such as corners and entrances
• Bad weather conditions (e.g. rain)
• Obstructed visibility (e.g. overloaded forklift truck)
• Poor design of pedestrian walkways and crossing points
• Lack of vehicle maintenance
Control measures for safe workplace transport operations

• Vehicle-free zones • Good visibility
• Pedestrian-free zones • High-visibility clothing
• Traffic route layout • Signage
• Segregation • Maintained roads/pathways
• Marked walkways • Avoid gradients
• Separate access points
Parking rules for a forklift truck:
• Apply the handbrake
• Lower the forks and tip the mast forwards
• Remove the key
• Do not obstruct a traffic route
• Do not obstruct a pedestrian route
• Do not obstruct emergency escape routes

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Control measures which can reduce the risk of accidents from reversing vehicles include
• Avoidance of reversing by implementing one-way traffic systems
• Segregation of pedestrians and vehicles or the provision of refuges
• Good vehicle selection so that drivers have adequate visibility
• Provision of audible reversing alarms and flashing beacons
• Provision of mirrors at blind spots to see approaching pedestrians
• Use of high visibility clothing
• Ensuring that the area is well lit
• Provision of banksmen
• Training for drivers and pedestrians working in the area
Safe Vehicles
Suitable for their intended use
Suitable for the environment and conditions
Maintained in safe working order
Only driven by suitably trained, qualified staff
Inspected routinely before use
Fitted (if necessary) with:
• Seat for the driver (and any passengers) • Horn
• Seat belt • Audible reversing alarm
• Roll bar or roll cage • Beacon or flashing light
• Guard to protect the driver in the event of
falling objects
Fork lift pre-use checks

• Tyre pressure • Lifting and tilting
• Parking brakes and service breaks systems/hydraulics
• Steering • Audible warning
• Fuel, oil and water systems leak free • Lights
• Batteries and chargers • Mirrors
The Driver
The driver should be:
• Competent to drive the vehicle
• Medically fit to drive
• Provided with specific information, instruction and training
• Supervised
Vehicle Operations:
Loss of control & Overturning of vehicles; collisions with other vehicles, pedestrians or fixed objects can be caused by:
• Lack of Training, Driving training, Information, Instructions & supervision.
• Passageways are too narrow, too steep, slippery, uneven… etc.
• Place of work: Poor lighting, dust, noise… etc.
• Poor or no road markings, no barriers or clear safety signs, lack of warnings sound systems.
• Vehicles overloaded, load unbalanced or unsecured… etc.
• Poor maintenance; no system for scheduled maintenance.
• Over speeding, reversing inside building, operating without authorization, failure to wear PPE etc.
• Lack of management commitment.

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2.2 Driving at work
Manage driving like any other hazard
• Policy
• Responsibilities
• Organisation
• Systems
• Monitoring
• Legal responsibilities
Policy – An organisation’s policy should cover work-related driving and should recognise that this activity puts a duty on the
employer to manage the risk created. Specific arrangements must be made.
Responsibility – There must be top-level commitment to the organisation’s policy and responsibility must be allocated at a
senior level to ensure that necessary authority and resources are available to back that commitment.
Organisation – Work-related driving will often involve different groups of workers in different ways. An organisation’s policy
should be developed with all of those various groups of workers in mind and often involves various interested parties from
different parts of the organisation (e.g. training department, health and safety department, fleet managers).
Systems – Specific arrangements must be made to ensure that vehicles are maintained, inspected and tested in accordance with
manufacturer’s recommendations and law. Driver qualifications and fitness may have to be checked. These management systems
must be established and checked periodically to ensure that they are still working adequately.
Monitoring – Various methods can be used to monitor the effectiveness of arrangements made. For example, a road traffic
accident reporting system should exist
Legal responsibilities- individuals driving whilst at work are bound by the national laws governing road safety and road traffic
offences, an individual in breach of these laws could face personal penalties, although they were driving for work-related
reasons. For example, a sales representative caught speeding would be personally liable for the offence, not the organisation.
However, if offences were permitted with the knowledge of the organisation, the company may also face legal action.
Factors which affect the risk of being involved in a road traffic incident include:
• The distance travelled
• The driving hours
• Work schedules
• Stress
• Weather conditions
Evaluating the risks
Factors considered when carrying out a risk assessment for work-based driving?
Driver Vehicle Journey
Competency Suitability condition/ safety Time & Distance
Fitness and health ergonomics Weather & Routes
Training Scheduling
2. The Vehicle 3. The journey

1. The driver Scheduling – scheduling journeys at the right time of day:
Suitability
Competency • Minimum requirements, • Avoid travelling at peak traffic times.
• Driver’s license standards • Avoid travelling when drivers will feel naturally fatigued (2 -
checked • Insurance and MOT if private 6am and 2 - 4pm).
• Experience and ability • Allowing flexibility of deadlines.
vehicles used
Training Condition
Time – allowing sufficient time for the journey:
• Advanced or defensive • Time be realistic given the route chosen, weather conditions.
• Maintained • Unrealistic deadlines put pressure on drivers to speed.
driving courses • Pre-use inspections
• Vehicle safety, pre-use • Rest breaks must be factored into journey times.
• Defect reporting • There are statutory requirements for professional drivers
inspection Safety equipment Distance –
Fitness and health
• Seat belts, airbags, head restraints • travel distances must be reasonable:
• medical examination • Emergency triangles, first-aid kit, • minimise travel distances by using other forms of transport.
• eyesight checks spare tyre • Distance must not be excessive,
• drugs policy • Fire extinguisher Weather conditions – weather forecasts and adverse weather
Ergonomic conditions must be considered when journey planning and
• Adjustability of seat position and travelling:
• Drivers should have access to reliable weather forecast
controls
information so that they can journey plan accordingly.
• Drivers should be given guidance on adverse weather
conditions when they should not travel.
• Drivers should be given advice on additional safety during
adverse weather.

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Control measures to reduce work-related driving risks
The driver
• Employers duty to ensure drivers are competent, fit and in good health
• Hold a valid driving licence (needs to be seen)
• Regular assessments of driver competence and monitoring the validity of documentation (disqualification)
• May invalidate insurance
• Drivers may have to maintain a certificate of professional competence
The vehicle
Ensure safety equipment is available and used, for example:
• Seat belts and air bags installed, maintained and used correctly
• Two-wheeled vehicle users should have appropriate safety helmets and protective clothing
• Vehicles fitted with speed-limiting devices and electronic trackers
• Vehicles to carry first-aid equipment
• Additional equipment, such as high-visibility clothing, warning triangle, warm clothing or a blanket, shovel, portable
lighting and welfare facilities
The journey
• Planning and scheduling is essential
• Plan routes thoroughly
• Realistic scheduling
• Sufficient time allocated to complete journeys
• Plan overnight stops
• Bad weather/traffic conditions
• Delivery schedules adjusted
Incident reporting
• Record information about all incidents
• Report “near-misses”
• Emphasis in training on how to recognise, analyse and learn from such events
• Data provided should be analysed
• Any changes or improvements noted
• These should be communicated to those concerned and the work-related road safety procedures updated
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Outline control measures to reduce work-related driving risks.
2. Identify TWO design features of the vehicle intended to minimise the consequences of an overturn.
3. Outline the possible causes of a dumper truck overturning.
4. Explain how non-movement related hazards may result in injury to drivers.
5. Outline the measures that could be used to segregate pedestrians and vehicles in the workplace.

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ELEMENT 3 MUSCULOSKELETAL HAZARDS & RISKCONTROL
of knowledge to familiar and unfamiliar situations. In particular they should be able to:
1.1 Explain work processes & practices that may give rise to work-related upper limb disorders & appropriate control
measures.
1.2 Explain the hazards & control measures which should be considered when assessing risks from manual handling
activities.
1.3 Explain the hazards, precautions & procedures to reduce the risk in the use of lifting & moving equipment with
specific reference to manually operated load moving equipment.
1.4 Explain the hazards & the precautions & procedures to reduce the risk in the use of lifting & moving equipment
with specific reference to powered load handling equipment.
3.1 Work-related upper limb disorders

Musculoskeletal Disorder and Work Related Upper Limb Disorders (WRULDs)
Work-related musculoskeletal disorders (MSD’s) are disorders of various parts of the body caused by work and/or working
conditions.
Most MSDs are cumulative disorders resulting from repeated exposure to high or low intensity loads over a long period of time
These mainly affect areas such as: Back, Neck, Shoulders and Upper limbs (arms)
Typical forms of ill-health associated with poor ergonomic design are:
• Back injuries and back pain – associated with repetitive manual handling or poor posture and movement whilst
standing or sitting for long periods of time.
• Work-Related Upper Limb Disorders (WRULDs) – conditions that affect the arms and hands, e.g. carpal tunnel
syndrome (inflammation of a nerve in the wrist that causes tingling sensations, pins and needles, numbness in the
fingers and arm pain) and tenosynovitis (inflammation of the tendons in the forearm that makes finger movement
difficult and painful).
• Other chronic soft-tissue injuries e.g. Sprains, Strains, tone muscle etc.
Collectively these conditions can be referred to as musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs).
Meaning of WRULDs
Work-related upper limb disorder (WRULD) is a generic term for a group of disorders that affect the neck and any part of the
arm from fingers to shoulders.
Examples of WRULDs
• Carpel tunnel syndrome
• Tenosynovitis
• tendonitis
• epicondylitis (tennis or golfer's elbow);
• bursitis (knee, elbow or hand).
High-Risk Activities (Repetitive Operations)

Repetitive activities involve significant risk of musculoskeletal disorders, including:
• Display Screen Equipment (DSE) use.
• Factory assembly of small components.
• Bricklaying.
• Supermarket and airport checkout operations.
The ill-health effects of poorly designed tasks and workstations include issues such as:
• Fatigue or strain on the eyes
• Headaches
• General fatigue
• Aches, pains and muscle strains
• Aches and pains from poor seating design and positioning

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Assessment of a display screen equipment workstation
Display screen equipment (DSE) is a device or equipment that has a display screen for graphics, words or numbers. Main risks
arising at work with DSE are musculoskeletal disorders. While carrying out a DSE assessment, consider:
• Display screens • Document work • Laptop
• Keyboard • Desk • Environment
• Mouse • Chair • Individual
• Software • Working posture
The Ill-Health Effects of Poor Task and Workstation Design

• Fatigue or strain on the eyes from excessive glare, poor lighting, screen flicker, etc.
• Headaches from excessive glare, noise or poor lighting.
• General fatigue.
• Aches, pains and muscle strains from making certain movements.
• Aches and pains from poor seating design and positioning.
Display Screen Equipment (DSE) use is associated with three basic ill-health hazards:
1. Musculoskeletal Disorders MSD(s)
• Tenosynovitis is the most common to affect the wrist of the user
• If the condition is ignored; tendon & the tendon sheath around the wrist will be permanently injured
• Commonly caused by continuous use of a keyboard & can be relieved by by the use of wrist supports.
• Other WRULD resulting from poor posture can cause: pain in the back, neck, shoulders & arms.
2. Visual problems
• Eye strain & visual fatigue, very common
• Sore eyes & headaches
• Reflective glare, screen distance from user & screen alignment with head are among the most common causes of
visual problems related to DSE
3. Psychological problems:
• Stress related problems
• May have environmental causes; noise, heat, humidity or poor lighting.
• Sick building syndrome
• Lack of understanding of the software packages being used
Preventative & Precautionary measures for WRULDs
• Elimination of repetitive & strenuous actions; perform job in a different way.
• Ensure correct equipment is always used
• Use mechanical aids
• Introduce job rotation; reduced time of exposure
• Ensure poor posture is eliminated in design phase
• Undertake a suitable & sufficient Risk Assessment
• Introduce a Health Surveillance program
• Ensure employees are given adequate training, information & work Instructions
• Ensure a program of preventative maintenance is introduced
• Keep up-to-date with advice on equipment from manufacturers.
Musculoskeletal Disorders Risk Factors
Task Environment Equipment
Repetition Lighting Equipment design
Force Glare Equipment adjustability
Posture Other environmental parameters
Twisting
Rest
What factors relating to the task increase the risk of musculoskeletal injuries?
1. Repetition – the need for repetitive movements when carrying out the task (e.g. typing for several hours).
2. Force – the physical force required to perform the task and the strain this puts on the body (e.g. closing stiff catches on a
machine).
3. Posture – any requirement to adopt an awkward posture (e.g. stooping over into a bin to pick out contents).
4. Twisting – any twisting action required by the task (e.g. twisting the wrist when using a screwdriver).
5. Rest – the potential for the worker to rest and recover from any fatigue (e.g. a worker on a production line cannot stop the
line; they have to keep working even when fatigued).

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Risks associated with display screen equipment use DSE Control Measures
• WRULDs • Carry out an assessment of the user’s workstation to
• Eye strain ensure that:
• Back pain ✓ The equipment and environment meet minimum
• Fatigue and stress standards.
✓ The workstation can be adjusted to suit the
user.
• Provide basic DSE workstation equipment that meets
minimum standards.
• Plan the user’s work routine so that they can take short,
frequent breaks from screen and keyboard use.
• Provide DSE users with a free eye test.
• Provide information and training on the safe use of DSE
Factory Assembly Line
Factory Assembly Line Risks General Control Measures Specific Control Measures
• WURLDS – handling small • Carry out an ergonomic • Automating the process to eliminate the
components assessment of the workstation to MSD risk entirely.
• Eye strain – temporary ensure that it is appropriate and • Changing the layout of the workstation to
fatigue can be adjusted to suit the allow comfortable posture and to minimise
• Back Pain – sitting or worker’s needs. overreaching, stooping, twisting, etc.
standing in a fixed position • Plan the worker’s work routine so • Provide seating (if it is not already available).
• Fatigue and stress – due to that they can take recovery • Provide comfortable shoes and floor mats to
infrequent rests and a breaks. relieve foot pressure when standing.
demanding work schedule • Provide information and training to • Allow short, frequent breaks from the
workers on potential MSD health production line or introduce job rotation to
risks and the preventive measures. prevent long duration on one task.
• Ensure lighting is appropriate to the task.
• Introduce ergonomically-designed hand
tools.
3.2 Manual handling hazards and control measures

Meaning of manual Handling
"Manual handling" is the movement of a load by human effort alone; transporting or supporting loads directly or indirectly using bodily
force. OR Pushing, pulling, lifting and support of a load by human effort alone.
Common Manual Handling Hazards:
• Too Heavy loads & Poor posture during lifting.
• Dropping load.
• Sharp edged or hot loads.
Common manual handling injuries:
• Back injuries – such as a prolapsed disc caused by wear and tear to the intervertebral discs from twisting, lifting or
pushing loads.
• Tendon and ligament injuries – painful tears.
• Muscular problems – muscle tissue tears.
• Hernias – rupture of the musculature of the body cavity wall.
• Work-Related Upper Limb Disorders (WRULDs) – affect the soft tissues of the wrist, neck, shoulders and arms.
• Cuts, burns, dislocation and broken bones.
Assessment of manual handling risks
Four main factors considered while assessing manual handling risks
1. The task – the nature of the handling operation and identification of high-risk activities.
2. The load – the characteristics of the object(s) being handled.
3. The individual – the physical characteristics of the persons doing the handling operation and their ability in terms of
knowledge and skills.
4. The working environment – the immediate physical surroundings within which the handling operation takes place.
(Are the floors in good condition? Is the lighting adequate? Is movement restricted?)

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The Load The Individual The task The Environment
• Weight • Capability, Strength & Fitness. • Height of load • Space restrictions
• Size and bulk • Heart disease, High Blood • Repetition of movement • Floor condition e.g.
• Easy shape to lift? Pressure… etc. • High work rate slippery / uneven
• Stability • History of back pain or injury, • Distance • Changes in level
• Centre of gravity hernia… etc. • Awkward position e.g. • Light levels
• Grip • Pregnancy in women. stooping / twisting • Temperature
points/handles? • Proper PPE to be used; Gloves, • Rest breaks • Humidity
• Is it hot, sharp, safety boots… etc. • Vertical distance
etc.? • Competency; proper manual handling • Lifting above shoulder height
training, Information, experience of • Distance of load from body
the task & attitude.
Avoiding or Minimising Manual Handling Risks
Control of manual handling risks can be achieved by using a simple hierarchy of controls:
• Eliminate the manual handling – by automation or mechanisation of the handling activity.
• Assess manual handling that cannot be eliminated – by looking at the four factors of: task, load, environment, and
individual capabilities.
• Use handling aids – such as: trolleys, barrel lifts, gin wheels, trucks, hoists and lifts that require some manual effort to
lift or support the load but give the worker mechanical advantage.
• Modify the task, load or environment:
◼ The task: introduce rest breaks or job rotation to minimise time on repetitive handling; change the layout to
eliminate stooping.
◼ The load: break a heavy load down into smaller parts; use several workers rather than one to handle a heavy
load; attach handles to a load that is difficult to grasp.
◼ The environment: allow more space for the handling activity; level an uneven floor; provide additional lighting
in a poorly lit location.
• Ensure individual capabilities are matched to the activity: train workers in any specific technique that is required.
Controls: Load: Controls: Individual: Controls: Task: Controls: Environment:

• Reduce the weight; • Select right person for • Use mechanical lifting • Good House Keeping;
divide the load to more the task; competent. mechanisms. Clean up spills & avoid
than one package if (Proper training, • Do not lift while seated; loose carpets, rugs…
possible. information & best to lift at waist height. etc.
• Provide better grasp experience). • Ensure adequate recovery • Provide adequate
e.g. use handles. • Use proper PPE & time between tasks. lighting, ventilation,
• Secure the loads warm up prior to start • Team lifting, no bending, avoid dust, noise &
properly & ensued manual handling. twisting or stretching… vibration
balance. • Do not lift heavy etc. • Avoid working in
• Avoid too hot, cold, objects in cases of: • Reduce travel distance & extremes of weather
sharp edges or pregnancy, hernia, back lifting duration. conditions, dust
hazardous materials. injury, heart disease… • Avoid awkward postures. storms… etc.
• Provide information & etc. • Implement proper lifting
instruction on the techniques (see below)
package e.g. Fragile.
Efficient movement principles for manually lifting loads to reduce risk of musculoskeletal disorders due to lifting, poor
posture and repetitive or awkward movements.
1. Design
2. Automation
3. Mechanisation
4. Other considerations
Design
• Risks from manual handling may be minimised using good design of the workplace
• Can involve placing items where they can be conveniently handled
• Improving work layouts so that travel distances are minimised
• The design of loads can also minimise risks
• Can include designing the load to be smaller
• Can also mean designing in handles or features that make it easier to grip the load, such as ‘sticky grip’ areas on plastic
sacks

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Automation
High volume applications
Usually introduced where food processing or high-volume component dispatch is required
Examples include:
• Bottle or can filling
• Sorting, such as with letters and parcels
• Transferring of materials into warehousing
Systems are dependent on the movements of goods and material from one point to another
Using either conveyer systems and/or remotely operated material transfer trucks
Mechanisation
Other considerations
Ergonomic approach
Involving the workforce
Training
Efficient Movement Principles
• Before lifting – check the weight; plan the lift; establish a firm grip.
• The lift – bend the knees; keep the spine as straight as possible; hold the load close to the body; avoid twisting and
jerking.
• Setting down – same principles as lifting; maintain a good balance; set load down.
Recommended Proper Lifting Technique:
1. Use proper PPE, check the load, clear the route you intend to take & make sure it's clear, well lit & safe, ask for help if the load is too
heavy or hard to grasp.
2. Get as close as possible to the load.
3. Position one foot ahead of the other to maintain your line of strength, both feet should be on both sides of the load.
4. Bend your knees & get a firm grip of the load.
5. Look forward & keep your back straight in line with your head & neck.
6. Lift using your lower limb muscles.
7. Keep the load at waist level & as close to your trunk you can.
8. Move your feet & do not twist, use side stepping if possible.
9. Put down the load in the same method you lifted it up.
10. In case of team lifting; a plan should be set on how to lift, move & put down loads.

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3.3 Manually operated load handling equipment
Manually operated load handling equipment e.g.
There are two categories of mechanical handling devices:
1. Manually operated devices – where the weight of the load is taken by the devices which are then pushed or
pulled manually (e.g. trolley, sack truck, pallet truck) or where power for the device used to raise a load
comes solely from the person operating it (e.g. pulley hoist).
2. Powered devices – where the power to lift and/or move the load is provided by a motor or other
mechanical means, possibly in conjunction with manual power (e.g. forklift truck, conveyor, crane).
Hazards and Controls for Manually Operated Load-Handling Equipment
Hazards associated with this type of equipment include: Precautions for safe use include:
• Manual handling risk associated with pushing or pulling • Avoidance of uneven ground and slopes.
the truck. • Use of ramps over steps.
• Instability of the load causing the load to fall. • Observing the safe working load limits of the truck.
• Moving up, down or across slopes causing loss of control. • Securing the load if necessary.
• Poor parking of the truck causing obstruction in a traffic • Using the brakes (if fitted) whenever the truck is
route. stationary.
• Other pedestrians may be struck during maneuvering. • Care when moving or lowering the load.
• Trapped feet under the wheels or when lowering the • Safe parking and storage to avoid obstruction.
load. • Routine inspection and maintenance.
• Use of safety shoes or boots to avoid crush injuries.
Factors that might increase the risk of injury using trolleys:
• Trolleys are difficult to maneuver.
• Trolley wheels are poorly maintained.
• Manual handling
• Surfaces over which trolleys are pushed are uneven or mismatched.
• Trolleys are moved over large distances or up steep slopes.
• Trolleys are difficult to grip due to the absence or poor location of handles.
• The person pushing the trolley is unable to see over the load.
Control measures using trolleys:
• Replace trolleys with automatic conveyors.
• Mechanize the movement of trolleys, e.g. use a trolley-towing device.
• Ensure trolley wheel size and type are suitable for the job.
• Reduce the weight of the load placed on the trolley.
• It is safer to push rather than pull a trolley.
• Provide trolley brakes.
• Provide an appropriate trolley handle design.
• Locate trolley handles at a height, which suits the worker.
• Restrict the maximum stacking heights of trolleys to improve visibility, weight and posture for users.
• Ensure regular pre-planned maintenance of trolleys.
• Provide low gradient ramps.
• Provide automatically opening doors.
Hazards and controls of pallet trucks
• Crushing, trapping, manual handling strain injuries and electricity hazards
• Control measures include training and authorised use, identification of safe working loads, inspection and maintenance,
designated areas for parking
Hazards and controls of people handling aids
• Manual handling risk of injury to the care giver back
• Route should be inspected
• Hoist wheels should always be locked before loading or unloading
• Consideration should be given to the care giver footwear
• Ceiling hoists run on permanently fixed tracks
• Considerable risk of workers experiencing musculoskeletal disorders
• Slide sheets allow basic handling without the need to lift the patient
• Slide sheets reduce manual handling effort and strain, minimising the risk of back and other injuries to care givers

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3.4 Powered load handling equipment
Examples of powered/Mechanical lifting & handling Equipment include:
• Forklift trucks • Cranes
• Lifts and hoists • Lifting accessories
• Conveyors
Hazards associated with the use of powered load handling equipment
Each type of equipment will present its own hazards (see table) but general hazards
associated with powered lifting devices include:
• Mechanical failure. • Noise.
• Overloading. • Contact with moving parts or crushing hazards.
• Collision with pedestrians, other vehicles or • Smoke, dust, fumes from the exhaust gases.
structures. • Fire and/or explosion when refuelling.
• Falls of materials or persons.
Hazards and controls for each group of powered load handling equipment
1. Forklift trucks
Forklift Trucks Hazards: Forklift Trucks Controls:
• Overturning; uneven driveways, sudden braking, • Adequate driver training & use of competent drivers.
wheels hitting an obstruction… etc. • Clear work Instructions & supervision.
• Overloading; exceeding the SWL, insecure & • All Forklifts to be marked for SWL.
unbalanced load. • Never lift humans & avoid reversing.
• Collisions & striking pedestrians (unaware of the • Safe stacking & balanced loads.
silent operating electrical truck) • Secure the load. No overloading.
• Overhead obstructions and poor vision/visibility • Obey speed limits & drive only in marked lanes.
• Lack of maintenance & speeding. • Park & recharge in designated areas; never block
• Lack of driver training, information, experience & emergency exits.
supervision. • Be aware of pedestrians, use audio signals & lights for
• Lifting humans. warning.
• Noise, vibration, exhaustion fumes & manual • Drive with forks down, brakes on, engine off, forks down
handling hazards. • Never allow unauthorized operation.
• Planned preventive maintenance & drivers to check truck
prior to operation & report any unsafe conditions.
2. Conveyors
Conveyor systems Hazards: belt conveyors, roller conveyor Conveyor systems Controls:
• Trapping of hands between rotating rollers & belt; • Warnings to alert, prior to moving.
• in running nip. • Guards on moving parts.
• Entanglement e.g. of hair or loose clothing. • Emergency stops.
• Loads falling from conveyor. • Barriers to exclude people.
• Impact against overhead system; people riding • Guards beneath overhead conveyors to catch falling
conveyors objects.
• Contact with sharp edges, burns, cuts… etc. • Information, instruction and training.
• Manual Handling hazards, noise, vibration & electrical • No loose clothing/long hair/jewellery.
hazards… etc. • Inspection and maintenance.
• Defect reporting system.
2. Cranes
Crane Hazards: Tower cranes, Mobile cranes, Crane Controls:
overhead cranes, crawler cranes etc. • Competent operators; proper training, instructions,
• Over turning, over loading & poor slinging. experience & supervision.
• Insecure & unbalanced load; falling load. • Good visibility & adequate lighting & assessing distance to of
• Collision with overhead structure, striking a movement.
pedestrian… etc. • Safe drive ways & weather conditions.
• Operator's error, lack of training & • Use of safety signs, audible & visual warnings.
competence. • Barriers to stop any pedestrians from entering a crane
• Lack of maintenance, Regular inspection & operation area; PPE.
reporting. • Regular planned preventive inspections & maintenance.
• Ensure adequate communication.
• Never exceed the SWL. Secure the load & conduct thorough
Inspection prior to each use.
• Operators to report any unsafe condition immediately.

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Requirements for Safe Lifting Operations
• Ensuring the crane or lifting device is of the correct type for the job and terrain.
• Ensuring that the load to be lifted is within the safe lifting capacity of the crane.
• Carefully siting the crane on even, stable ground in a safe position away from structures or overheads that might be
struck.
• Using the outriggers correctly.
• Checking that the crane has been properly maintained.
• Restricting use of the crane to trained and competent operators only.
• Ensuring that each lift is planned and supervised by a competent person and that the driver and slinger are competent.
• Providing a banksman.
• Ensuring that safety devices are operational and are used correctly.
• Checking that there are no obstructions in the vicinity of the lift.
• Checking weather conditions.
• Lifting the load as close to the ground as possible; never lifting the load directly over a person.
• Using PPE.
• Using signs to warn of the operations and exclusion of personnel from the area.
• Special requirements for lifting equipment used for lifting people
Factors which will affect stability of cranes
• Soft or uneven ground conditions
• Underground voids or cellars
• Load bearing capacity
• Adverse weather conditions
• Workers or people nearby
• Insufficient room
• Proximity to overhead power lines, buildings or other cranes
• Tall cranes
4. Hoists
Hoists Hazards: Hoists Controls:
• Overloading & failure of lifting chains or ropes; Falling • Secure the load & never exceed SWL.
loads. • Competent & well-trained personnel.
• Striking moving parts or fixed objects. • Adequate lighting & weather conditions.
• Being struck by falling loads or moving parts of the • Never allow passengers on goods hoist.
hoist. • Thorough inspection prior to each operation; Safe System
• Falling from a hoist; when used unsafely to carry of Work.
humans. • Implemented planned preventive maintenance & inspection
system; reporting any unsafe conditions immediately.
Thorough Examination of lifting equipment:
• visual check,
• testing components,
• testing under operating conditions;
•
Requirements for Periodic Examination of Lifting Equipment
A thorough examination should be conducted by a competent person with the experience, knowledge and skills to assess the
condition of the particular equipment.
In general, lifting equipment should be thoroughly examined:
• Before it is used for the first time (unless it has an in-date certificate of thorough examination from the manufacturer
or previous owner).
• Before it is used for the first time where the way that it has been installed will make a difference to its strength and
stability.
• Periodically.
• After an event that may have affected its strength and stability.
The frequency of ‘periodic’ thorough examination will typically be:
• Every 12 months where it is not used to carry people.
• Every six months where it is used to carry people.
• Every six months for lifting accessories.

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ELEMENT 4 WORK EQUIPMENT HAZARDS & RISK CONTROL
of knowledge to familiar and unfamiliar situations. In particular they should be able to:
4.1 Outline general requirements for work equipment
4.2 Explain the hazards and controls for hand-held tools
4.3 Describe the main mechanical & non-mechanical hazards of machinery
4.4 Explain the main control methods for reducing risk from machinery hazards
4.1 General requirements for work equipment

Types of Work Equipment
“Work equipment” refers to a wide range of tools, machinery and equipment:
1. Simple hand tools, e.g. a hammer, screwdriver or chisel.
2. Hand-held power tools, e.g. a portable electric drill or circular saw.
3. Access equipment such as ladders and stepladders.
4. Single machines, e.g. bench mounted abrasive wheel, photocopier, lathe or compactor.
5. Mobile work equipment and vehicles, e.g. a tractor or mobile crane.
6. Machine assemblies, where several machines are linked together to form a more complex plant, such as a bottling plant.
Suitability of work equipment for the task; work equipment must conform to some standards:
• All work equipment must be fit for purpose and for the work environment in which it is used.
• The location where work equipment is used must be assessed for likely risks, i.e. power tools used in damp or
flammable atmospheres.
• Machinery must satisfy minimum health and safety requirements and comply with country specific standards. In the
EU, the CE mark on machinery signifies that it conforms to all the relevant essential health and safety requirements.
Manufacturers & suppliers need to make sure the machinery is safe when supplied and has the CE marking. Manufacturers
should:
• Assess all foreseeable risks & find out about HS hazard likely to be present when the machinery is used.
• Consider safety issues in design phase & Design the machinery free of HS risks is possible.
• Provide appropriate safe guards, use warning signs, to warn of hazards.
• Fix CE marking on the machine to show they have complied with relevant supply laws.
• Provide the buyer with information & instructions to explain how to install, use & maintain the machinery safely.
• Issue a Declaration of Conformity" for the machine to show it complies with essential HS requirements.
Prior to purchasing new equipment, Buyers need to consider:
• What the equipment will be used for.
• Where & how it will be used.
• Who will use it; skilled personnel, employees…etc.
• What HS risks might come out?
• How well manufacturers control HS risks.
Safe Use & Maintenance of Equipment with specific Risks; Hierarchy of control:
• Eliminating the risks
• Taking physical Engineering controls to control risks e.g. guards
• Appropriate administrative controls; safe system of work
The Use, repairs, servicing or maintenance of such equipment should be restricted to designated authorized personnel who:
• Received sufficient Training.
• Received adequate information & familiar with work instructions.
• Have enough experience & sufficient skills to carry out such tasks.
Information, Instruction & Training;
Personnel (employees, workers, supervisor, managers…etc.) using & maintaining work equipment need to receive sufficient
information, instruction & training which at least should cover:
Training, information and, where appropriate, written instructions will include those on the:
• Conditions and methods of use of the work equipment, including the capacities and limitations of the equipment
• Risks that may arise from use of the equipment
• Precautions to be taken to avoid and reduce risk
• Safe operating procedures provided by the manufacturer/supplier
• Those drawn from experience in using the work equipment

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Prevention of Access to Dangerous Parts of Machinery
The levels of protection (hierarchy of controls) are:
• Fixed enclosed guards.
• Other guards and protection devices (e.g. interlocked guards and pressure mats).
• Protection appliances (e.g. jigs, holders and push-sticks).
• Provision of information, instruction, training and supervision.
These safeguards use one of three distinct principles:
• Placing a physical barrier between a person and the dangerous part.
• Using devices that only allow access while the equipment is in a safe condition.
• Detecting a person’s presence and stopping the machine.
Other Significant Principles
• Restricting use – use of work equipment presenting specific risks should be restricted to competent operators only.
• Information, instruction and training – all users of work equipment should be informed and trained; managers and
supervisors should have adequate information and training to allow them to manage effectively.
• Routine checks and maintenance must be thorough and undertaken by competent people, according to any legal
standards and manufacturers’ recommendations. Maintenance staff can be exposed to additional risks.
• Operation and emergency stop controls should be located on each item of machinery and when activated should
override all other controls.
• Environmental conditions should ensure that equipment is stable, and workstations are clear of obstructions, well
lit, with clear signs warning against risks.
• Users of the machines must keep to proper procedures and act in a responsible manner.
Maintenance:
• must be done by competent well-trained maintenance personnel.
• A safe System of Work to be used; ensure safe environment, proper isolation procedures, right tools & equipment for the
job…etc. e.g. to implement Permit To Work.
1. Planned Preventive maintenance; regular scheduled maintenance to replace parts & service as appropriate in a proactive
manner.
The main benefits of PPM are:
• Extended life of components
• Assurance of reliability
• Confirmation of condition of components
• Reduced risk of loss-producing failure events
• Ability to carry out work at a suitable time
• Better utilisation of maintenance staff
• Less standby facility required
• Demonstrates the employer has taken steps to meet the legal duties to maintain safe equipment
2. Condition Based maintenance; monitoring the condition of critical parts & carrying out maintenance as necessary.
3. Break down based maintenance; reactive & only takes place when failures occur.
Inspection:
• After installation for the first time.
• After assembly at a new site or a new location.
• At reasonable intervals & following incidents.
• Prior to each use in high risk equipment & as a part of the Work Permit procedures.
Maintenance hazards
• Mechanical: Entanglements, machinery traps, contact, shearing traps, in-running nips, ejection, unexpected start-up
• Electrical: Electrocution, shock, burns
• Pressure: Unexpected pressure releases, explosion
• Physical: Extremes of temperature, noise, vibration, dust
• Chemical: Gases, vapours, mists, fumes
• Structural: Obstructions, floor openings, voids
• Access: Work at heights, confined spaces
Maintenance controls
• Isolation
• Lockout and tagout

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Risks to Maintenance Staff Maintenance Precautions
• Guards and enclosures removed • Work is carefully planned and controlled: May be several people working.
• Safety devices removed or disabled • Hazards are communicated.
• Power sources exposed • Services are isolated and locked off.
• Stored power released, e.g. • Ensure stored energy is released, cover live parts with insulating material, and
compressed spring use additional PPE
• Access awkward • Ensure that all workers are competent.
• Manual handling heavy parts • If dangerous moving parts are accessed, ensure they run at very slow speed OR
• Additional hazards, e.g. power tools fit purpose-made maintenance guards
• Precautions for safe access
• Use manual handling aids
When should the inspection machines be done?

• After installation for the first time.
• After assembly at a new site or a new location.
• At reasonable intervals & following incidents.
• Prior to each use in high risk equipment & as a part of the Work Permit procedures.
Operation controls & the working place: Operators' responsibilities:
• Equipment controls to be easily reached from any Users of Work Equipment should:
operating position. • Only operate equipment authorised to use
• Not to permit accidental startup of equipment. • Follow instruction and training
• Adequate Red Emergency stop buttons • Only use equipment for its intended purpose
• Be clearly marked to show what they do • Carry out safety checks before use
• Equipment should be stable; bolting or clamping • Not use equipment if it is unsafe
• Maintain housekeeping (clear & unobstructed) always • Report defects immediately
• Adequate light & ventilation clean & tidy up the equipment if not in use • Not use equipment under the influence of drugs or alcohol
• Controls to be isolated from high-risk operations. • Keep equipment clean and in safe order
• Provide adequate work instructions & clear warning signs.
4.2 Hazards and controls for hand-held tools

Hand Tools Hazards Hand Tools' Controls
Hazards Controls
• Tool may shatter • Tools suitable for the task
• Handle may come loose • Information, instruction and training
• Tool may be blunt requiring excessive force • Visual inspection of tools
• Human error, e.g. hits thumb with hammer • Substandard tools maintained or discarded
• Misuse & poor maintenance; • Maintenance of tools
• Broken handles • Supervision of practices
• Flying particles • Protected & isolated for electrical use
• Electric shock or burns • Good quality material which will not chip of, fly off
• Regular documented inspection of hand tools
• Proper storage to prevent damage or corrosion
Hand-held Power Tools' Hazards Hand-held Power Tools' Controls
Hazards Controls
• Electrical hazards • Careful selection considering task and environment
• Entanglement in rotating parts • Instructions from manufacturer and in-house rules
• Dust & particles flying off cutting • Training and information, competence of user
• Cut wounds due to sharp blades. • Supervision to ensure proper use
• Tripping hazards from extended cables. • Tools used for intended purpose
• High noise levels. • Guards and safety devices in place
• fuel • Power cables controlled, do not abuse
• vibration • Ejected parts controlled, e.g. secured work area
• Control of noise, dust, vibration, petrol and electrical equipment
• Protect against electricity by isolation and earthing.
• Regular maintenance, inspection & report defects.
• Maintain clean & tidy work area.
• Only use accessories & parts recommended by manufacturer.
• Manual Handling & hand to arm vibration risks.
• Use correct PPE; safety glasses, gloves, respirators & dust masks

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4.3 Mechanical and non-mechanical hazards of machinery
Mechanical Hazards i.e. contact with or being caught up in moving parts
Non-Mechanical Hazards i.e. From power source or things being emitted by the machine
Main mechanical and non-mechanical hazards
Mechanical Non-mechanical
• Crushing – the body or part of the body is trapped between two moving • Noise affects both users and those in the vicinity.
parts of a machine or between moving and static objects such that they • Vibration can affect the functioning of various parts of the
meet together, e.g. collapse of a hydraulic lift crushing a person underneath. body. The effect may be localised, as from holding hand tools,
• Shearing – a part of the body (usually fingers) is trapped between two parts or it may pass through the whole body.
of the machine, one moving past the other with some speed. The effect is • Electricity hazards are common with machines powered by
like a guillotine, shearing off the trapped body part. electricity and can give rise to electric shock or burns.
• Cutting or severing – a sharp-edged part of the machinery comes in contact • Temperature – people can be burnt by hot/cold surfaces or
with the person, e.g. the blade of a bandsaw. can be affected by working in hot/cold environments.
• Entanglement – usually an item of clothing gets caught on the rotating part. • Radiation – ionising radiation is more serious because it
• Drawing in or trapping – a part of the body is caught between two moving penetrates the body and breaks down body cells and causes
parts and drawn into the machine, e.g. at ‘in-running nips’ where two cancer and reproductive disorders. Non-ionising radiation (i.e.
counter-rotating rollers meet. sunlight and lasers) is less dangerous but affects workers
• Impact – a powered part of a machine hits the person, e.g. the arm of a outside. Electric arc welding can cause ‘arc-eye’, a form of
fast-moving industrial robot. conjunctivitis of the eye.
• Stabbing or puncture – a sharp part of the machine or part of the process • Hazardous materials and substances can be found in
(e.g. ejected swarf or broken tooling) penetrates the person, or from machines but also on the work site (i.e. oils, dust and
cartridge tools, e.g. a nail gun. woodchip).
• Friction or abrasion – coming into contact with a fast-moving surface, e.g. a • Ergonomics refers to the way in which, under normal
belt sander. conditions, the operator works in relation to the machinery
• High-pressure fluid injection – fluid at very high pressure is ejected from and includes such factors as reach distances required, working
the machine position, extent to which the operator can control the pace
of work, etc.
4.4 Control measures for reducing risks from machinery hazards

Machinery Safeguarding Methods
1. Fixed guards – physical barriers preventing access to the hazard. Include enclosing guards which encase all parts of the
hazard and distance guards which reduce access.
2. Adjustable guards – are manually adjusted to give protection and should only be used if conditions make it impracticable to
use another device and where conditions are suitable (i.e. good lighting). They can be easily overridden so operators need to
be very careful.
a) User adjusted; fixed or movable which are adjusted by user for a operation, its limitation is that it needs frequent
adjustment.
b) Self-adjusting guards; adjusts itself to accommodate the passage of material for instance, it still may allow access to
dangerous parts & requires careful maintenance.
3. Self-adjusting guards – fixed or movable guards which adjust to the materials being used and are therefore not fully
foolproof as blades are temporarily exposed.
4. Interlocking guards – link the primary guard system to a secondary safety device to complete stoppage or prevent machine
operation.
5. Sensitive protective equipment (trip devices) – stop or reverse motion when a person enters the hazard area. Trip
devices rely on contact being made with a sensor such as a mechanical/electronic trigger, a photo-electric guard or trip/switch
mat.
And:
1. Two-hand controls – offer a limited means of protecting the hands of an operator where guarding is impracticable.
2. Hold-to-run controls – require the operator to hold a control at all times while the equipment or machine is in operation.
3. Emergency stop controls – can be buttons or pull-cords and should be positioned at easily reached positions on the
machine and associated control panels.
4. Protective appliances (jigs, push-sticks, holders, etc.) – hand-held tools or hand-controlled fixed devices which allow
the operator some control of the work piece but offer less protection.
5. Personal protective equipment and clothing – offers immediate and short-term protection but should not be seen as a
substitute for guards.
6. Employers must provide information, instruction, training and supervision.

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Type of Guard Merits Weaknesses Means of Overriding
Fixed No moving parts. Machine will still operate Special tool for removal may
Cannot be interfered with by with guard removed. be too widely available.
operator.
Virtually maintenance-free.
Interlocked Require Can be bypassed so that machine can Connectors may be bent Spare magnets may be used.
some effort to defeat. be operated with the guard open. out of place.
Manual adjusting Allows various sized work pieces to Relies on people using it Can be adjusted out of range.
guard be used. properly.
Self-adjusting pieces. Allows variable sized work Easily overridden. Can be adjusted out of range.
Sensitive protective Useful when approach by person No physical barrier. Time Operators can avoid devices.
equipment (trip required as part of job. delay in stopping machine
devices) may be too long.
Two-handed control Keeps operator’s hands away from Protects only operator’s Two people can override the
moving parts. Rapid manual hands, not other parts of system by each holding one
movement of guard into place. body or other people. handle.
Hold-to-run control Releasing the control will disconnect Do not protect any parts of Can be held or operated by a
power from the machine and it will the operator’s body. Can be person other than the
cease to function. easily defeated by the operator.
operator.
Requirements for Guards and Safety Devices
• Suitable for the intended purpose.
• Meets relevant standards.
• Strong and robust – to withstand the forces it may be subjected to, e.g. ejection of parts.
• Compatible – must not interfere with machine operation.
• No rough or sharp edges.
• Not easy to defeat or bypass.
• Vision – must not interfere with any need to see in.
• Ventilation – must not interfere with any ventilation required.
• Ease of maintenance.
• Removal for maintenance – ideally the guard should not have to be removed to allow maintenance on the machine to
take place.
• Does not increase overall risk to the operators.
Application of Safeguards to a range of machines:

Machinery Hazards associated Appropriate Safeguards
Office • Contact with moving parts; when clearing a • All enclosing case
Photocopier paper jam. • Access doors are interlocked;
• Electrical; during maintenance • Machine switches off automatically when gaining access.
• Exposure to Ultraviolet light • Isolation of internal live electric parts
• Health hazards; toner & ozone • Maintenance
• Noise & Ergonomics • Use the cover to protect from UV
Office • Drawing in between rotating cutters. • Enclosed fixed guards around the cutters
Document • Contact with rotating cutters. • Interlocks fixed to the cutter heads
Shredder • Electrical & Noise • Trip device; starts the machine when paper is fed in.
• Possible dust from cutting.
Manufacturing • Contact with the rotating wheel • Wheel enclosed as much as possible in strong casing
& • Drawing in between the rotating wheel & a • Adjustable screen to be fitted over the wheel.
maintenanc badly adjusted tool rest. • Only proper trained personnel should use it
e – Bench • Bursting wheel - ejecting fragments. • Maximum speed to be marked on the machine
top grinder • Electrical; faulty wiring. • Adjustable tool rest to be adjusted as close as possible
• Noise & Vibration to the wheel
• Health hazards; Dusts • Implement Portable Appliance Testing
• Fires due to sparks & hot fragments. • Dust extraction

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Manufacturing • Entanglement around rotating parts • Motor & drive to be fitted with
& • Contact with drill or work piece; cutting or • fixed guards.
maintenance – puncturing • Spindle to be guarded by an adjustable guard
Pedestal • Being struck by work piece • Use clamp/vise to secure work piece
Drill • Electrical; faulty wiring/lack of grounding • Use goggles
• Dusts • Keep the machine clean, tidy & unplugged when not in
use
Agricultural / • Contact & Entanglement with rotating blades • Design should restrict access to bottom blade trap.
Horticultural • Trapping of hands by rotating blades • Drives & motor to be enclosed in fixed guard
Cylinder mower • Health hazards; dusts, fumes & hay • Use suitable dust mask & only run engine in open air
• Noise & Vibration • Silencers for noise
• Manual Handling /Ergonomics.
Agricultural • Entanglement in the rotating part. • Moving engine parts enclosed
/Horticultural • Cutting on contact with the cutting head • Rotating head to have fixed top guard
Strimmer • Ejection of particles • Run engine only in open air
• Noise / Vibration • Proper safety boots
• Ergonomics; musculoskeletal • Anti-vibration handles
• Health hazards from herbicides & or/ animal • Dust masks & hearing protection & gloves
faeces
Retail - • Crushing; between ram & machine sides. • Access doors to loading area to be
Compactor • Trapping & Entanglement with rotating parts • interlocked.
• Electrical • Dives of motors to be properly guarded
• Manual Handling • Regular inspection & testing
Retail – Check • Drawing in between belts & rollers • All traps between belt & rollers to
out conveyor • Entanglement have fixed or interlocked guards
system • Electrical • Emergency Stop Buttons
• Manual Handling
Construction – • Entanglement with the moving parts of motor • Design should allow the user to see anyone in the
Cement mixer • Trapping trapping area.
• Dusts / Noise • Drum gearing to be enclosed
• Manual Handling • No one allowed to stand on machine
• Eye injury; in case of cement splash • Goggles & PPE
Construction – • Contact with the cutting blade • Fixed guards to the blade below the bench
bench mounted • Ejection of the work piece • Adjustable top guard to the blade above the bench
Circular saw • Entanglement with moving parts of the motor • Extraction ventilation for wood dust
• Dusts / Noise / Vibration • Safety glasses & Dust masks
• Electric; faulty wiring, grounding.
"The use of PPE is crucial as the last line of defense to control machinery & handheld tools hazards;
• Coveralls; protects against loose parts of clothing getting entangled.
• Safety Glasses; protects against ejected parts of material.
• Ear protection; protects against machinery noise
• Safety boots; protects against feet crushing by pieces of work falling onto them
• Hair nets; prevent hair from getting entangled in moving machinery parts.
Do not wear gloves where there is a risk of them becoming entangled in moving parts of machinery"
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Outline the duties of workers when they discover a damaged piece of work equipment.
2. Outline the benefits of introducing a scheme of planned preventive maintenance for equipment in regular use.
3. Explain the term lock-out and tag-out (LOTO).
4. Outline how the use of LOTO systems reduces the risk to maintenance workers.
5. Outline the purpose of emergency stops fitted to machinery.
6. Identify the design and positioning requirements for emergency stops.
7. Explain why stability of work equipment is important when in use.
8. Identify factors which may affect the stability of work equipment.

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ELEMENT 5 ELECTRICAL SAFETY
On completion of this element, candidates should be able to demonstrate understanding of the content through the application of
knowledge to familiar and unfamiliar situations. In particular they should be able to:
5.1 Outline the principles, hazards & risks associated with the use of electricity in the workplace
5.2 Outline the control measures that should be taken when working with electrical systems or using electrical equipment in
all workplace conditions.
5.1 Principles, hazards and risks associated with the use of electricity at work
Current (I): is the flow of electrons from one position to another;
• Direct Currents: type of current that moves only in one direction i.e. -ve to +ve e.g. batteries
• Alternating Current: type of current that flows in two directions e.g. mains supply).
Electrical pressure (Voltage - V): The driving force or pressure which “pushes” an electrical current around a circuit; its
measured in volts
Resistance to flow (R): The resistance of a circuit to the passage of the electrons, it is measured in Ohms
V=I×R I = V/R R = V/I

Main Hazards associated with Electricity
• Electric Shock
• Electric Burns
• Fires & Explosions
• Arcing
• Portable Electrical Equipment
• Secondary Hazards
Electric Shock:
Occurs when the body becomes part of the electrical circuit; the current enters the body at one point and must leave at another.
Three basic ways to be shocked:
1. Contact with both wires of an electrical circuit.
2. Contact with one wire of an electrical circuit and ground source.
3. Contact with ground source and a metal part that is in contact with a wire of an electrical circuit.
The effect of an electric shock on a human body depends on:
• Voltage – the higher the voltage, the greater the current
• Duration – the length of time that a person is exposed
• Current path – the route that the electricity takes through the body
• Frequency – of the AC current
• Resistance – skin condition, clothing, etc.
• Contact surface area – the more skin that is in contact, the more severe the injury
• Environnemental factors – metal surfaces, humidity, etc.
Causes of electrical fires
• Electrical equipment may be faulty and overheat
• The system may be overloaded
• Equipment may be misused
• A flammable atmosphere may be present
• Electrical equipment may produce heat or sparks as part of its normal operation
• Poor internal connections
Static Electricity
• Build-up of potential difference (volts) between surfaces, it is caused by friction
• Surfaces become "charged"
• Spark caused on contact with earth
Arcing
Ability of electricity to “jump” across an air gap
Usually involves high voltage
Main hazards associated with arcing include:
• Electric shock
• Burns (direct, indirect)
• Damage to eyes from UV radiation emitted
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Portable Electrical Equipment
Many electric shock accidents involve portable electrical equipment (defined as having a flex and plug and movable from one
location to another). Accidents are generally caused by:
• Misuse or using faulty or inappropriate equipment.
• Physical abuse of equipment.
• Lack of routine inspection, testing and maintenance.
Conditions and practices that are likely to lead to accidents while working with electrical equipment:
• Using unsuitable equipment
• Using equipment in wet, damp or humid conditions
• Misuse of electrical equipment
• Physical abuse such as driving over cables
• Repairs carried out improperly
• Continued use of faulty, defective equipment
• Chemical/abrasion damage to the flex
• Physical damage due to hostile environments
• Lack of inspection testing or maintenance
Secondary effects of exposure to electricity
Physical injury caused by an electrical incident, such as:
• Cuts
• Bruises
• Fall from height
• Burns
Further Hazards, Risks and Dangers of Electricity
Use of Poorly Maintained Electrical Equipment
Electrical equipment that is not maintained and inspected can easily fall into disrepair, resulting in increased risk of electric shock,
fire, etc.
Work Near Overhead Power Lines
Most overhead power lines are uninsulated; any work carried out near to these power lines has a risk of electrical arcing. The
distance that the arc can jump will depend on the voltage of the electrical system and environmental factors, such as air humidity.
Contact with Underground Power Cables
Striking buried power cables is a significant risk associated with excavation work. It can lead to electric arcing, shock and burns, and
disruption to service users.
Work on Mains Electricity Supplies
Any work on or near exposed live mains supply conductors is inherently high risk because of the severity of injury that might result
in the event of an accident.
Use of Electrical Equipment in Wet Environments
Water decreases the resistance of objects and environments to the passage of electricity, so any work using electrical equipment in
wet environments increases the risk. Electric shock accidents more likely to happen in these conditions and the severity of injuries
received can be greater.
Consider the following precautions

• Using battery powered or low voltage equipment
• Use RCDs
• Locate cables carefully
• Use double insulted equipment
• Carry out pre-use checks
• Train operators in correct use
• Avoid using in wet conditions
• Routine visual inspection and testing

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5.2 Control measures when working with electrical systems or using electrical equipment
in all workplace condition
Protection of Conductors
Insulated to prevent contact with live conductor:
• Cable coverings unbroken
• Equipment casing intact Inspect to ensure protection is in place Ensure electrical panels are locked
Strength and Capability
Factors considered while selecting electrical equipment:
• The electrical system that it will become a part of.
• The task that it will perform.
• The environment in which it will be used.
• No electrical equipment should be put into use where its electrical strength and capability may be exceeded.
Advantages and Limitations of Protective Systems
Protective devices incorporated into electrical circuits or the equipment itself serve to cut off the electricity supply in
the event of a fault and/or to reduce the strength of an electric shock should someone come into contact with the
power supply.
• A fuse forms a weak link in a circuit by overheating and melting by design if the current exceeds the safe limit.
They are cheap and reliable but very easy to bypass.
• A Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) is a mechanical device in the form of a switch which automatically
opens if the circuit is overloaded. They do not have to be removed in order to be reset and so they are more
tamper-proof than fuses.
• Earthing the exposed metal parts which should not normally carry a current provides any fault current with a
low impedance path to earth should it become live. The integrity of the earth conductor is vital because if it
fails, the protection is removed.
• Isolation of supply involves physically separating equipment from any source of electric power and ensuring
that it cannot be inadvertently re-energised, whereas switching off refers to depriving the equipment of electric
power, but leaving it still connected.
• Double insulation is used to ensure that the live parts of any equipment are covered by two layers of
insulating material. It relies on insulation rather than the electrical system itself for safety but must be routinely
visually inspected because there is no earth protection.
• Residual Current Devices (RCDs) or sensitive current-operated Earth Leakage Circuit Breakers (ELCBs)
can compare the currents flowing in the live and neutral conductors and therefore detect a leakage current too
small to operate a fuse, but large enough to deliver an electric shock or to start a fire. While they do not
reduce current voltage or current flow, they do reduce the time the current actually flows and ensure that any
shock is not lethal.
• Reduced or low voltage systems should be used where environmental conditions are harsh or wet, and
there is a high risk of electric shocks, to reduce the effect of any shock. For hand-held portable tools and the
smaller transportable units, the 110 volt, Centre-Tapped to Earth (CTE) system is recommended, using a
transformer to reduce the voltage from the public supply. The system relies on the mid-point of the
transformer being earthed (centre-tapped).

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The use protective systems e.g.
Device Working mechanism
Fuses • Designed to protect the equipment not the people!
• Form a weak link in a circuit
• Designed to overheat and melt if the current exceeds the fuse rating
• Rating should be above operating current required by equipment but less than the current rating of the
cable in the circuit
Advantages of fuses:
• Very cheap and reliable.
• Offer a good level of protection for the electrical equipment against current overload that might damage the equipment or cause
overheating, fire or explosion.
Limitations of fuses:
• Protect equipment and not people
• Very easy to bypass, e.g. by wrapping the fuse in tinfoil.
Miniature Circuit • Protects equipment not people

Breakers • Electro-mechanical device which does the same thing as a fuse
• Rating should be above operating current required by the equipment but less than the current rating of the
cable in the circuit
• Tamperproof
Circuit breakers are resettable fuses

Advantages of MCBs - they do not have to be removed to be reset and so they are more tamper-proof than fuses.
Limitations of MCBs are like those for fuses.
Earthing • Outer metal casing connected to earth by wire

• Provides fault current with a low resistance path to earth
• Electric shock should be minor
• Will usually blow the fuse
Advantages of earthing:
• It protects the person from fatal electric shock.
• It often provides secondary protection to the equipment because a large fault current flowing to earth will overrate the fuse or MCB.
Limitations of earthing:
• A poor or broken earth connection will prevent the earth from working properly, but since the earth wire does not take part in the
normal functioning of the equipment this fault can go completely undetected.
• It is easy to disconnect and disable.
Isolation of • Deprives the circuit of power

supply • Ensures that it cannot be re-energised by applying some form of lock
• Should be clearly labelled
• Circuit should be tested
• Often referred to as Lock-off/ Tag-out LOTO
Advantage of isolation as a form of protection is that it is a very effective method of ensuring that
people cannot be injured by electrical energy when working on an electrical system.
Limitation of isolation is that, by definition, the electrical system is dead. Certain types of testing, fault
finding and electrical installation and repair work should be carried out with the electrical system on and live. In these circumstances
isolation cannot be used.

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Double • Live parts cannot be touched
Insulation • Two layers of insulation
• Either layer sufficient to provide protection
• Eliminates need for earth protection
The advantage of double insulation is that it relies on insulation rather than the electrical system itself for safety.
The limitation of double insulation is that the insulation must be routinely inspected because there is no earth protection.
Residual Current • Designed to protect people
Devices (RCD’s) • Interrupt supply in event of a small leak of current to earth
• Very sensitive: 30 mA
• Very fast: 30 MS
• Compare current in live and neutral
• Should be regularly tested
The advantage of RCDs is that they provide excellent protection for people in the event of electric
shock.
The limitations of RCDs are that they:
• Do not provide over-current protection (they are not a fuse and work on a completely different principle).
• should be tested periodically and this is often not done.
• Can cause repeated circuit tripping, this can encourage people not to use them or to disable them.
Reduced and • For hand tools, the 110 volts centre-tapped (CTE) system is recommended
Low Voltages • System relies on the mid-point of the reduced voltage transformer being earthed
• Maximum shock voltage is 55 volts, but full 110-volt supply powers the equipment
• Systems reduced to 25 volts are often used for lighting on construction sites
The advantage of low voltage systems is that the system is inherently safer.
The limitation is that low voltage systems are inefficient at transmitting power and therefore cannot be used for many industrial
applications
Competent Knowledge of electricity and electrical work

Person Ability to understand electrical system, hazards and precautions.
Training in the safe working with electricity
Experience of electrical work
Safe Systems of Work

1. Work “dead” whenever possible
2. Work on or near live electrical equipment only under exceptional circumstances and if controlled tightly
Working on a Dead System Working on a Live System
Before working on a machine check: May be controlled by national laws SSOW to include:
• Isolation and lock-off • Permit-to-work
• Warning signs • Competent person
• Prove test equipment • Insulating PPE e.g. Boots, gauntlets
• Prove dead • Insulated tools
• Prove test equipment again • Designated work areas
Working on or near buried Cables Working on or near overhead power lines

May be struck during excavations Usually uninsulated, protection through:
Can result in: arcing, shock, burns, fire • Isolating the power supply when working near power lines. If power cannot be
Precautions isolated, it may be possible to sleeve low voltage power lines.
• Check plans • Using SSoW and permit systems to control access into danger areas.
• Detection equipment • Using barriers, signage and goal-posts to keep plant and vehicles a safe distance from
• Expose by hand digging power lines.
• Identify and label • Using banksmen when plant is maneuvering near power lines.
• Using non-conducting equipment, such as fiberglass ladders.

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Emergency action in case of contact with live electrical systems
• Don’t touch the casualty
• Call for help
• Isolate casualty from the power supply
• Call for ambulance
• Check casualty for breathing
• Place the casualty in recovery position if he/she is still breathing
• Start CPR if not breathing
• Treat any burns
• Treat for physical shock
• Ensure medical help is obtained
Electrical Inspection and Maintenance
This applies to both fixed wiring systems and portable electrical appliances. There are mainly three forms
1. User checks
2. Formal visual inspection
3. Combined inspection and testing
1. User Checks 2. Formal Visual Inspection 3. Combined Inspection and Test

• Damage to cable sheath • Remove plug cover and check fuse • Often known as Portable
• Damage to plug • Check if the cord grip is ok Appliance Testing (PAT) testing
• Flex fully insulated, no kinks/splits • Check if terminals are • Visual inspection may fail to detect things
• Inadequate joints like loss of earth integrity, deterioration of
• secure and no signs of internal
• Unsecured sheath insulation
damage
• Wet or contaminated • Inspection and test is justified when suspect
• Only done by competent person
• Damage to casing of equipment equipment is defective, after
• Burns / scorch marks repair/modification and at appropriate
intervals
Factors that determine the frequency of PAT:

• Legal standards and codes of practice
• Type of equipment
• Manufacturers’ recommendations
• Initial integrity/soundness of the equipment
• Age of the equipment
• Working environment
• Frequency and duration of use
• Foreseeable abuse of the equipment
• Effects of any modifications or repairs
• Analysis of previous maintenance records
Advantages and Limitations of Portable Appliance Testing
Advantages Limitations
• Detection of faults not visible to the eye. • Provides proof of safety at one moment in time only.
• Early removal/repair of unsafe equipment. • Does not ensure safe use or prevent misuse.
• Demonstration of legal compliance. • Items may be missed and then remain untested.
• Trends or patterns of faults may be spotted. • Cannot be applied to all equipment (e.g. computers).
REVISION QUESTIONS
Explain the progressive effects that electrical shock may have on the body.
Explain how an electrical earth protects against indirect electric shock.
Explain the purpose of electrical double insulation.
Identify typical user checks that should be carried out, prior to using a portable item of electrical equipment.
Outline the factors to consider when determining the frequency for the inspection and testing of electrical equipment.
Identify the advantages and disadvantages of the use of a fuse as a protective device in an electrical circuit.

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ELEMENT 6: FIRE SAFETY
Learning outcomes
On completion of this element, candidates should be able to demonstrate understanding of the content through the application of
knowledge to familiar and unfamiliar situations. In particular they should be able to:
4.1 Describe the principles of fire initiation, classification & spread
4.2 Outline the principles of fire risk assessment
4.3 Describe the basic principles of fire prevention & the prevention of fire spread in buildings
4.4 Outline the appropriate fire alarm system and fire-fighting arrangements for a simple workplace
4.5 Outline the factors which should be considered when implementing a successful evacuation of a workplace in the event
of a fire
6.1 Fire Initiation, Classification and Spread

Basic principles of Fire
What is Fire?
Fire is a rapid chemical process in which oxygen combines with another substance (“fuel”) in the presence
of a source of heat
This reaction is called combustion. During this reaction heat, flames and smoke are produced
The Fire Triangle has mainly three things needed for a fire to start FUEL/HEAT/OXYGEN:
1. Sources of ignition: 2. Sources of Fuel: 3. Oxygen:

• Naked flames • Solids; wood, paper, rubber, plastics, • Air, wind, ventilation systems
• External sparks fabrics • Cylinders for medical or welding
• Internal sparking • Liquids; paint, varnish, petrol, diesel, purposes.
• Hot surfaces kerosene • Oxidizing agents e.g. peroxides
• Static electricity • Gases; LPG, Acetylene & Hydrogen.
Methods of extinguishing a fire:

1. Cooling: reducing temperature e.g. use water
2. Smothering/suffocation: reducing Oxygen level e.g. use fire blanket
3. Starvation: limiting fuel e.g. switching off gas valve
4. Chemical reaction: interrupt combustion reaction e.g. use Halon extinguishers
Classification of FIRE
CLASS DESCRIPTION
Class A Combustible solid materials – wood, paper, plastic, fabrics and rubber
Flammable liquids and liquefiable solids – petroleum products, paints, solvents, adhesives
Class B
Flammable gases – propane, butane, acetylene, hydrogen sulphide, methane, hydrogen
Class C
Class D Combustible metals – potassium, magnesium, sodium
Class F High temperature fat

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Principles of heat transmission and fire spread
a. Direct burning – the simplest method of fire spread where a flame front moves along or through the burning
material.
b. Convection – the principle that hot air rises and cold air sinks. Hot gases generated by the fire rise straight up from
the fire:
• Inside a building these hot gases will hit the ceiling and then spread out to form a layer underneath the ceiling.
When these hot gases touch any combustible material (such as a wooden curtain pole) they may heat that
material up sufficiently so that it bursts into flame.
• Outdoors these convection currents will contain embers that are carried on the currents until the air cools and
the embers are dropped to the ground. This is a common way for forest fires to travel and jump over obstacles
(such as roads).
c. Conduction – the principle that heat can be transmitted through solid materials. Some metals conduct heat very
efficiently (e.g. copper). Any pipes, wires, ducts or services running from room to room can act as conduits for heat
and spread the fire.
d. Radiation – heat energy can be radiated through air in the form of infrared heat waves which travel in
• straight lines (just like light) and can pass through transparent surfaces (such as glass). Radiant heat generated by
a fire shines onto nearby surfaces and is absorbed. If the material heats up sufficiently it can burst into flames.
Common causes & consequences of Fires in workplaces
Causes Consequences
• Faulty electrical equipment • Death; overcome by smoke, burns… etc.
• Deliberate ignition (arson) • Personal Injury
• Hot work • Building damage
• Smoking • Loss of business & Jobs
• Cooking appliances • Environmental damage
• Heating appliances • Transport routes disruption
• Unsafe use & storage of flammable liquids and gases • Legal effects
• Mechanical heat
• Chemical reactions
6.2 Fire Risk Assessment

The main reasons for carrying out a fire risk assessment are to:
• Determine the chances of a fire starting
• Prevent harm to people
• Minimise the cost of fire in the workplace
• Ensure an organisations fire safety procedures, prevention measures and precautions are all in place and working correctly
• Comply with legislation/law
Factors to be considered in carrying out the assessment

Measures include:
• Reduction of the risk of fire
• Prevention of fire spread
• Adequate means of escape from fire
• Maintenance measures to ensure means of escape
• Means to detect and warn of fire
• Fire actions/instructions and training
• Actions to mitigate the effects of a fire
1. Identify Fire hazards

• Identify any combustibles: amount of combustibles at work place should always be minimal, never obstruct fir exits, Good
housekeeping is crucial.
• Identify any sources of heat: heaters, boilers, engines, smoking… etc.
• Identify area with high content of Oxygen; medical wards, welding areas.
• Identify Unsafe acts & Unsafe conditions

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2. Identify locations & Persons at significant risks:
• Consider people in the premises
• Consider how fire, heat or smoke could spread to areas that people occupy
• Identify where the people are that may be at risk
• Identify people who are especially at risk
• Consider how people will be warned of fire
• Consider members of the fire response team
Step 3 - Evaluate, remove or reduce and protect from risk

Risk reduction by prevention:
• Reduce sources of ignition
• Minimise potential fuel for a fire
• Reduce sources of oxygen
Risk reduction by protection:
• Reducing unsatisfactory structural features
• Fire detection and warning
• Means of escape
• Means of fighting fire
• Maintenance and testing
• Fire procedures and training
NOTE
1. Low Risk: is where there are minimal risks to people; low likelihood of fire to take place and where people have plenty of time
to react to a fire alarm.
2. Medium Risk: where an outbreak of fire is likely to remain, confined or spread slowly. Effective fire warning & evacuation
procedures.
3. High Risk: is where the available time needed to evacuate is limited; presence of highly flammable material and high fire risk to
people in the premises.
Decide if existing control measures are adequate or more are needed:
• Means of escape adequate to the size of workplace & number of employees.
• Means of fire detection & giving warning in case of fire
• Fire safety signs e.g. fire exit, no smoking, manual call point
• Firefighting equipment & systems; extinguishers, sprinklers.
4. Recording the findings:

Findings of the assessment must be recorded for purpose of:
• showing duty of care,
• evidence in accident investigation & prosecution,
• insurance
• legal requirement
• auditing.
The record should include:
• Date the assessment was made
• Hazards identified
• Personnel affected
• Actions to be taken & controls in place or planned & when.
• Conclusions & risk Evaluations
The significant findings should include details of:
• The fire hazards identified
• The actions that have been or will be taken to remove or reduce the chance of fire occurring
• Persons who may be at risk, particularly vulnerable groups
• The actions that have been taken to reduce the risk to people from the spread of fire and smoke
• The actions people need to take in case of fire, including details of any person nominated to carry out a specific function
• The information, instruction and training that has been identified.

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Emergency plans
An emergency plan should be devised to include:
• How people will be warned if there is a fire • Safe evacuation of people who need assistance to
• Action on discovery of fire escape, including any phased evacuations
• Action on hearing alarm • Safe working practices in high risk areas
• Details of the evacuation process • Procedures for calling the Fire Service
• Means of escape - travel distances • Appliances/machines/power sources that need to be
• Location of assembly points stopped or isolated if there is a fire
• Identification of escape routes - signs, emergency • Staff training needs and arrangements for providing
lighting training
• Arrangements for fighting the fire • Arrangements for inspection and maintenance of all
• Specific staff duties equipment.
5. Monitor & review Assessment on regular basis:

The assessment and the fire safety measures must be reviewed regularly
A review should be done if:
• In cases of incidents
• After audits
• Change in activity, place, equipment or personnel
• At reasonable intervals of time
• In cases of change in legislations or regulations
Consideration of temporary workplaces and changes to workplaces.
• Serious fires can occur during maintenance and construction work.
• Additional fire precautions may be needed
• Ensure to carry out a new fire risk assessment
• There is an increased risk of fire due to increase in sources of ignition or fuel
• Temporary works affect controls in place at the premises
• Because of isolation of smoke detectors or an alarm system
• Well controlled escape routes may become cluttered during temporary work
Well controlled escape routes may become cluttered, pay attention to:
• Accumulation of flammable waste and building materials
• Obstruction or loss of exits and exit routes
• Fire doors being propped open/wedged open or removed
• Openings created in fire resisting structures
• Isolation of fire detection or fixed fire-fighting systems
• Additional electrical equipment
• The addition of new people to the premises that may be unfamiliar with fire arrangements, for example, alarms, routes,
roll calls, assembly points
• Use of hot work process
• Introduction of flammable products
• Addition of new people to the premises that may be unfamiliar with fire arrangements
• People working in unusual locations
• People working outside normal working hours
Need for continual review as work progresses
In all workplaces, there is a need to actively review and revise the fire risk assessment
This may result in changes to the fire safety measures that apply and the fire/emergency plans
This aspect of fire safety is vital in construction sites or any other workplace where layout changes are constantly taking place
Depending on the number of changes, fire safety should be inspected weekly or even daily
The following fire safety measures should not be compromised:
• Escape routes • Fire protection/fire resistant structures within the
• Access to fire alarms building
• Audibility of fire alarm systems • Introduction of new fire hazards, for example, hot
• Access and availability of fire-fighting equipment works
• Suitability of fire safety signage • Correct storage/use of flammable materials
• Need for and suitability of escape lighting • Site security/arson prevention
• New staff and the need for ‘fire induction’

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6.3 Fire prevention and prevention of fire spread
Control Measures to minimize the Risk of Fire in a Workplace
1. Elimination or reduction
• Where possible employers should seek to eliminate the use of flammable materials in the workplace
• If not possible the amount used should be reduced and kept to the minimum
• Stored in suitable containers
• Flammable materials not in use be kept in a purpose designated well-ventilated storage area.
• Dispose of in a controlled manner if no longer needed
• Control delivery and storage
2. Control sources of ignition:

Hot work is any process that can be a source of ignition, including welding, cutting, grinding, brazing and soldering processes
Precautions
• SSOW i.e. hot work permit
• Combustible materials must be removed from the area or covered over
• Suitable fire extinguishers need to be readily available
• Consideration must be given to the effects of heat on the surrounding structure, and to where sparks, flames, hot residue
or heat will travel
Smoking
• Smoking in public buildings (including workplaces) is prohibited by national laws
• Enforce inhouse no smoking policy
• Designate a smoking area with ash tray and suitable fire extinguisher
Arson:
External security
• Control of people with access to building/site
• Patrol guards
• Lighting at night/CCTV
• Control of keys
• Structural protection
• Siting of waste containers/skips at least 8m from buildings
Internal security
• Good housekeeping/clear access routes
• Inspections/audits
• Visitor supervision
• Control of delivery/dispatch pick up areas
• Control of sub-contractors
• Control door access by keypad or electronic locks
Mechanical heat
• Friction from drive belts or bearings
• Controlled by routine maintenance
• Drive-belt tension examined, and belt condition checked for signs of overheating
• Bearings can be lubricated or greased
• Maintenance should include replacement of wearing parts
Electricity
• Equipment must be maintained, inspected and tested
• Ensure circuits and their insulation are not damaged
• Ensure system is not overloaded
• Portable and fixed electrical appliances should be checked
Cooking and heating appliances
• Must not be left unattended
• Their use closely supervised
• Source of energy (gas or electric) must be maintained, inspected and tested
3. Implement Safe System of Work:

• Safe person
• Safe materials
• Safe equipment
• A safe environment (workplace)
Implement a permit to work system for activities such as welding, high voltage and any hot work.

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4. Good house Keeping; is Crucial in preventing fires, always clean up wastes, non-used solid materials & clean up spills of
dangerous substances.
Safe storage & use of Flammable liquids:
The following safety principles should be applied:
V = Ventilation • Well ventilated, dry & cool place.
I = Ignition • Clear warning signs & barriers
C = Containment • No sources of ignition
E = Exchange • Segregate; incompatible chemicals do not mix
S = Separation • Construction to be fire resistant
• Away from heat & direct sunlight
• Provided with firefighting systems & extinguishers
• Adequate fire Exits & Emergency response plan
• Proper training, instructions & supervision
• Provided with Secondary spill containment
Control measures for storage in open air include:
• Storage away from ignition sources • Protection from sunlight
• Formal storage area on a concrete pad • Flameproof lighting
• Bunded all around • Provision for spill containment materials
• Away from other buildings • Fire extinguishers nearby
• Secure fence and gate 2m high • Full and empty containers separated
• Marked by signs warning of flammability • Clear identification of contents
• Signs prohibiting smoking or other naked flames • Clear of combustible materials
Liquefied petroleum and other gases in cylinders

1. Storage
Safe storage requirements include:
• Storage area should be in a clear open area outside • Acetylene may be stored with LPG
• Stored in a secure compound - 2m high fence • Controlled access to stores
• Safe distance from hazardous materials, liquids or • More than one exit may need to be available
general waste • Lock storage compound when not in use
• Stored safe distance from any building • Protection from sunlight
• If stored inside building, kept away from exit routes • Flameproof lighting
• Well ventilated area • Empty containers stored separate from full
• Oxygen cylinders at least 3m away from flammable • Fire extinguishers located nearby
gas cylinders
2. Transport
Safe transportation requirements include:
• Upright position
• Secured to prevent falling over
• Protection in event of accident
• Transport in open vehicle preferably
• Avoid overnight parking while loaded
• Park in secure areas
• Driver hazard information and warning signs
• Driver training
• Fire-fighting equipment
3. General use
General requirements for use of LPG and other gas cylinders include:
• Any spare cylinders must be secured in a purpose- • Requirements include:
built store until required for use • Upright position
• Fixed position to prevent falling over • Secured to prevent falling over
• Well ventilated area • Protection in event of accident
• Away from combustibles • Transport in open vehicle preferably
• Kept upright unless used on specifically designed • Avoid overnight parking while loaded
equipment • Park in secure areas
• Handled carefully - do not drop • Driver hazard information and warning signs
• Allow to settle after transport and before use • Driver training
• Consider manual handling and injury prevention • Fire-fighting equipment

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Properties of common building materials
Structural element Behaviour in fire
Concrete Usually performs well in a fire
Steel Severely affected by high temperatures
Brick Usually very resistant
Timber Thin timber will burn quite quickly; thick timber will survive for longer
Glass May shutter if not reinforced with Georgian wire
Structural measures to prevent spread

• Measures to prevent spread of fire and smoke include:
• Fire-resisting structures
• Compartmentation
• Fire stopping of ducts, flues and holes
• Fire-resisting self-closing doors
• Smoke seals and intumescent material
• Early and rapid detection of a fire by use of sophisticated fire alarm systems
• Sprinklers in large compartments
• Control of smoke and toxic fumes by ventilation systems
Characteristics of a fire door
• Able to withstand fire for a set time
• Fitted with self-closing devices
• Fitted with fire resistant hinges
• Fitted with intumescent strip
• Fitted with a cold smoke seal
• Have vision panels of fire-resistant glass
• Clearly labelled
Protection of openings and voids
• Use of fire barriers such as fire shutters, cavity barriers and fire curtains
• Minimise the effect on the structure being worked on
• Involves planning for the prompt re-instatement of protection of openings and voids
• The temptation to leave all breaches to the end of work and then re-instate them should be avoided
• The longer that breaches are left open the higher the risk from fires
• Fire doors also used to ensure openings are protected in the event of a fire
• Fire doors can often withstand fires for 30 minutes
• Fire doors can be fitted with mechanical systems to keep the door open or contain self-closing devices
Use of suitable electrical equipment in flammable atmospheres
Classification of areas where explosive atmospheres may occur
There are three zones for gases and vapours:
Zone 0: Flammable atmosphere highly likely to be present for long periods/continuously
Zone 1: Flammable atmosphere possible but unlikely
Zone 2: Flammable atmosphere unlikely except for short periods of time
There are three zones for dusts:
Zone 20: Dust cloud likely to be present continuously or for long periods
Zone 21: Dust cloud likely to be present occasionally in normal operation
Zone 22: Dust cloud unlikely to occur in normal operation, but if it does, will only exist for a short period
Selection of equipment and protective systems
Different forms of electrical equipment will provide a different equipment protection level (EPL), the types of protection include:
‘Intrinsically safe’ - cannot produce a spark with sufficient energy to cause ignition
‘Flameproof’ - ingress of explosive atmosphere is controlled and any ignition is contained in the equipment
‘Increased safety’ equipment - do not produce sparks or hot surfaces

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6.4 Fire Alarm Systems and Fire Fighting Arrangements
Fire Detection
Essential that some form of fire detection and alarm system is used in the workplace:
• Heat detection
• Radiation detection
• Smoke detection
• Flammable gas detection
Smoke detectors Heat detectors
• Detect small smoke particles • Detect excessive heat generated by a fire
• Two main types: ionising and optical
• Usually less sensitive and give later warning
• Can give rise to false alarms
• Two main types: rate of temperature rise and fixed temperature types
• May not detect fires that are giving off smoke but not much heat
Types of fire alarms

The sophistication will depend on the complexity of workplace
• Simplest system – someone shouts "Fire!"
• Simple with more noise – hand bell, whistle or air horn
• Manually-operated fire alarm – manual call points
• Automatic fire detection and alarm – automatic detectors, manual call points, linked to sounders/lights
Single-stage alarm: Sounds throughout the whole of the building and signals a total evacuation
Two-stage alarm: An evacuation signal is given in the affected area, together with an alert signal in other areas
Nominated worker alarms: In some premises, an immediate total evacuation may not be desirable. A controlled evacuation by the
nominated workers may be preferred, to prevent distress and panic to the occupants
Portable fire extinguishers

Portable fire extinguishers should always be sited:
• On the line of escape routes
• Near, but not too near, to danger points
• Near to room exits inside or outside
• In multi-storey buildings
• In groups forming fire points
• So that no person need travel more than 45 metres to reach one
• With the carrying handle about one metre from the floor
• Away from excesses of heat, cold, dirt or dust
Fire-fighting equipment training requirements

Training should include:
• Understanding of principles of combustion/classification of fires
• Identification of various types of fire extinguisher available
• Identifying if the extinguisher is appropriate to the fire and ready to use
• Principles of use and limitations of extinguishers
• Considerations for personal safety and the safety of others
• How to attack fires with the appropriate extinguisher(s)
• Any specific considerations
Extinguishing media
1. Water (portable fire extinguisher - colour code - red)

2. Foam (portable fire extinguisher - colour code - cream)
3. Dry powder (portable fire extinguisher - colour code - blue)
4. Carbon dioxide (CO2) (portable fire extinguisher - colour code - black)
5. Wet chemical (Portable extinguisher - colour code - Yellow)

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Extinguisher type Class of fire suitable for
Water – Red Label A
Carbon dioxide – Black label A, B and electrical fires
Foam – Cream label A and B
Dry Chemical Powder (DCP) – Blue label A, B, C and electrical fires (class D is special)
Wet chemical– Yellow label A and F
WATER – suitable for Class A fires. Works by cooling the fire. Standard water extinguisher is not suitable for use on Classes B, D
or F fires or live electrical equipment (risk of shock). Certain specialised water extinguishers are available for use on Class B and F
fires
CARBON DIOXIDE – suitable for Class A and B fires, especially fires involving live electrical equipment. Works by
smothering the fire. Not suitable for use on Class D fires. Must be used with care because the body of the extinguisher gets very cold
during use and can cause a freeze-burn injury.
FOAM – suitable for Class A and B fires. Works by smothering the fire or by preventing combustible vapours
from mixing with air.
DRY POWDER – suitable for all classes and use on live electrical equipment. Works by smothering the fire. Can be very messy.
WET CHEMICAL – suitable for fires involving high temperature cooking oils and fat
Limitation of Extinguishers
• MUST use the correct extinguisher on the right fire
• Water can boil, causing burning liquids to “explode” in a fireball
• Water conducts electricity so NEVER use on electrical fires
• Powder is effective but may destroy electrical equipment
Other Fire-Fighting Equipment
Fire blankets – physically smothers fires, e.g. fat fires in kitchens
Hose reels – used in large buildings for fire teams
Sprinkler systems – sited in buildings and warehouses, automatically dowses the fire
Siting of Extinguishers should be:
On fire exit routes
Close to exit doors
Close to specific hazards Clearly visible and signed Unobstructed access
Maintenance of Extinguishers
Inspection should be: Regular and frequent Ensure they're in place In good working order
Maintenance should be: Usually once a year by a certificated engineer
Inspection, testing, dismantling
NB: Records of the above all should be kept in Fire Log
Access for fire and rescue services and vehicles
Ensure the fire and rescue services can access a building as quickly as possible to prevent wastage of time.
The responsible person should ensure that facilities, equipment and devices provided are maintained
Vehicle access
• Minimum access requirements for pumping appliances and high reach appliances will vary
• Access will be required for a minimum to 15% of the perimeter or within 45m of every point of the footprint of the
building, up to a maximum of 100% of the perimeter

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6.5 Evacuation of a Workplace
Means of escape
Travel distances Stairs
• Significant component of a successful means of If stairs are part of the escape route, the following must be
escape plan ensured:
• Travel distances are judged based on distance to a • Fire resistant structure
place of safety in the open air and away from the • Fitted with fire doors
building • Doors must not be wedged open
• The distance needs to be kept to the minimum • Wide enough to take the required number of people
• Must lead direct to open air
• Non-slip/trip and in good condition
• No combustible storage within staircase
• Adequate lighting
Passageways Doors
• Route should lead directly to the open air • Exits to open outwards
• Via a protected route where necessary • Easily operated
• Route to be kept unobstructed • Should not be locked
• Provided along escape routes
• Prevent spread of fire & it’s a means of escape
• Not wedged open
• Lead to open air – safety
• May be fitted with a vision panel
Emergency lighting Exit and directional signs
Emergency escape lighting system should cover: • Fire escape signs are provided to guide escape via a place of
• All exit door from a work area relative safety to the place of ultimate safety
• All escape routes • Fire escape signs are not needed on the main route into or
• Intersections of corridors out of a building
• Outside all final exit, external escape routes • Alternative escape routes and complicated escape routes do
• Emergency escape signs need to be signed
• Fire alarm call points and firefighting equipt • Signs directing to the assembly point will also be needed
• Equipt that need shut down in an emergency
• Lifts/stairways
• Changes in floor level
Assembly points
• An assembly point is a place of safety where people can wait whilst an accident/incident is being investigated
• Confirmation that everyone has evacuated
The main factors to considered in selection are:
• Safe distance from building
• Sited in safe position
• Not sited to obstruct the fire and rescue service
• Able to walk away from assembly point back to a public road
• Clearly signed
• More than one provided with communication between points
• Measures provided to decide if evacuation successful
• Identify person in charge to meet fire/rescue service
Emergency evacuation procedures
• The employer should establish appropriate procedures, including fire drills, to be followed in the event of serious and
imminent danger
• They should nominate enough competent persons to implement evacuation procedures
• Evacuation procedures need to reflect the type of emergency, the people affected, and the premises involved
These would include:
Fire instruction notices

• Placed at conspicuous positions in all parts of the location
• Adjacent to all fire alarm call points
• Printed notices stating the action to be taken on discovering a fire and on hearing the fire alarm
• It is usual to also state what someone must do when they discover a fire
Fire action

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On discovering a fire: On hearing the alarm: On evacuation:
• Sound the fire alarm • Leave the building using nearest exit • Do not stop for personal belongings
• Call the fire service • Close doors behind you • Do not use lifts
• Go to the assembly • Go to the assembly point • Do not return to the building unless
point • Get out of the building and stay out authorised to do so
• Report to assembly point
Fire training
The training should cover:
• Fire prevention
• Recognition of fire alarms and the actions to be taken
• Understanding the emergency signs
• Location of fire escape routes and assembly points
• Requirements for safe evacuation
• Location and operation of call points
• How the fire service is called
• Location use and limitations of fire-fighting equipment
• Consideration of people with special needs
• Identity and role of fire marshals
Role and appointment of fire marshals
• A person should be nominated to be responsible for coordinating the fire evacuation plan
• They may appoint persons such as fire marshals to assist
• The way in which they assist will vary between organisations
• Fire marshals’ appointment should be made known to workers
• The appointment of fire marshals helps the employer to meet the general responsibility to establish competent persons to
assist with health and safety
Day – to- day role of fire wardens

• Monitor general fire safety
• Report unsafe practices /conditions
• Report faults, incidents and near misses
• Discuss evacuation arrangements with staff and offer guidance on procedure
• Remain familiar with escape routes and check accessible
• Take a lead role during fire drill
• Provide feedback on success of fire drills
Role of fire wardens when the fire alarm sounds continuously

• Wear-high visibility clothing
• Instruct people to leave via the nearest escape route
• Ensure that all persons have left their designated area
• Help people to leave the premises
• Shutdown vital or dangerous equipment
• Be the last person to leave their area and report to any person in charge that it is clear or that they are waiting in a refuge
for assistance
• Report to a central assembly point
• Communicate with other wardens /senior warden/incident controller
• Liaise with fire and rescue service on arrival, if required
Fire drills
• Fire emergency response routine should be tested regularly to ensure staff is familiar with action to be taken.
• Drills (simulation exercises) are the best way to practice emergency response
• Drill should be carried out twice a year or more frequently according to the risk rating of the workplace.
• A program of fire drills should be planned, implemented & reported with corrective actions for coming drills.
• Drills should be recorded with timing in details & reported to senior management.
• Fire alarm system should be testing for functioning every week.
• All employees should get adequate training, instructions & information on fire emergency response & first stage firefighting
where appropriate.

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Importance of fire drill exercises:
• Act in a calm, orderly and efficient manner
• Those designated with specific duties carry them out in an organised and effective manner
• The means of escape are used in accordance with a predetermined and practised plan
• Enables people involved to practice and learn under as near realistic conditions as possible
• Identifies strengths and weaknesses in the evacuation procedure
• Helps people to respond quickly to the alarm
• Should be carried out at least once a year
Roll call
All registers including visitor’s books, staff login records should be brought to the assembly point
Provisions for people with disabilities
• When planning a fire evacuation system, employers need to consider who may be in the workplace, their abilities and
capabilities
• Any disability, for example, hearing, vision, mental or mobility impairment must be catered for
• Some arrangements may be to provide the person with a nominated assistant(s) to support their speedy escape
• In some cases, disabled people may need to use a refuge area, a relatively safe waiting area for short periods
• Some buildings may be equipped with an evacuation lift
Building plans to include record of emergency escape

• Record emergency escape arrangements
• Aid the national emergency services
• Help identify the quickest and shortest route
• Can also be used to aid search and rescue
Plans should clearly identify:

• Call points
• The siting of fire-fighting equipment/sprinklers (if fitted)
• Fire doors
• Travel distances
• Escape routes
• Refuge areas for the disabled
• Assembly points
Provision for vulnerable groups, the employers should:

• Identify & make special risk assessment for all vulnerable people who require special help.
• Consider possible appropriate escape routes
• Enable safe use of lifts
• Enable people with disabilities to summon help in emergencies
• Train staff to be able to help their disabled colleague e.g. implement a "buddy" system
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Describe how an understanding of the principles of the fire triangle has been used to develop techniques for
extinguishing fires.
2. Outline TWO methods, with an example for each, how a fire can be extinguished.
3. Outline the main methods by which fires may spread through a structure.
4. Outline the reasons for carrying out a regular review of fire safety measures.
5. Explain why good ‘housekeeping’ in the workplace is essential to ensure safe escape in a fire.
6. Identify EIGHT items that should be included in a hot work permit-to-work.
7. Outline the factors which should be considered before the location of a fire assembly point is decided upon.

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ELEMENT 7 CHEMICAL & BIOLOGICAL HEALTH HAZARDS &
RISK CONTROL
Learning Outcomes
7.1 Outline the forms of, the classification of, and health risks from exposure to, hazardous substances
7.2 Explain the factors to be considered when undertaking an assessment of the health risks from substances commonly encountered in the
workplace
7.3 Explain the use and limitations of Occupational Exposure Limits including the purpose of long term and short term exposure limits
7.4 Outline control measures that should be used to reduce the risk of ill-health from exposure to hazardous substances.
7.5 Outline the hazards, risks and controls associated with specific agents.
7.6 Outline the basic requirements related to the safe handling and storage of waste.
7.1 Forms of, Classification of and Health Risks from Hazardous Substances
Forms of chemical agent:
Two or More elements combined into one substance form a chemical compound.
Chemical Substances have many forms.
• Dust • Liquids
• Fumes • Smoke
• Gases • Solids
• Mist • Fibres
• Vapours
Forms of biological agents:
• fungi,
• bacteria
• viruses
Main classification of substances hazardous to health:
• irritant, • carcinogenic,
• corrosive, • mutagenic
• harmful, • reproductive toxin
• toxic/very toxic,
Classification of Chemicals Hazardous to Health
Harmful: Substance, which if swallowed, inhaled or penetrates the skin, causes limited health risks. Risks can be minimized or
removed by following the instruction provided with the substance.
Irritant: Non-corrosive substance, which can cause skin or lung inflammation after, repeated contact. People who react that way to a
substance are sensitized or allergic to that substance.
Corrosive: Substances that will cause chemical burns to human tissue. Usually strong acid or alkali e.g. sulphuric acid.
Toxic: Poisonous substance which will prevent the function of one or more organs within the body e.g.
liver, kidney… etc.
The effect on health depends on the concentration & the toxicity of the substance, the frequency of exposure & the effectiveness of
controls in place.
Carcinogenic: Substances suspected to promote abnormal development of cancer cells e.g. Asbestos.
Mutagenic: Substance that damage genetic material causing abnormal changes that can be passed on from one generation to another.
The effects on health of hazardous substances may be either acute or chronic

Acute: short duration, appear rapidly after short term exposure & usually reversible e.g. nausea & vomiting
Chronic: long duration, develop over a long period of time which may take many years, produced by prolonged exposure to
hazardous substances resulting in gradual, usually irreversible illness e.g. cancer.
Acute Chronic
• High levels of exposure • Lower levels of exposure
• Short exposure time • Longer exposure time
• Quick effect • Long term effect
E.g. high concentration of chlorine gas E.g. repeated exposure to solvents

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7.2 Assessment of Health Risks associated with hazardous substances
Routes of entry of hazardous substances into the body and body reaction.
1. Inhalation
• inhalable dust
• respirable dust (<7microns)
2. Ingestion
3. Absorption through the skin
4. Injection through the skin
• needle stick
• cuts and grazes
• bites
Defence mechanisms
Respiratory defences include:
• Sneezing & coughing • Macrophages
• Nasal hair/mucous • Inflammatory response
• Ciliary Escalator
1. The sneeze reflex.
2. Filtration in the nasal cavity (which has a thick mucus lining that particles stick to). This is very effective at removing large
particles; only particles less than 10 microns in diameter pass through.
3. Ciliary escalator – the bronchioles, bronchi and trachea are lined with small hairs (cilia). Mucus lining these passages is gradually
moved by these cilia up out of the lungs. Any particles trapped in this mucus are cleaned out of the lungs by this mechanism. This
filtration mechanism is effective at removing all particles larger than 7 microns in diameter.
4. Macrophages – scavenging white blood cells that attack and destroy particles that lodge in the alveoli
(where there are no cilia to extract them).
5. Inflammatory response – any particles that cannot be removed by macrophages are likely to trigger an inflammation response.
This causes the walls of the alveoli to thicken and become fibrous. This can be temporary or may result in permanent scarring (as
with silicosis).
Skin Defences
Waterproof barrier comprised of:
• Outer layer of dead cells (epidermis)
• Sebum – biocidal properties
• Inflammatory response
Assessment of Health Risk
• Identify the hazardous substances present and the people who might potentially be exposed.
• Gather information about the substance.
• Evaluate the health risk.
• Identify any controls needed and implement them.
• Record the assessment and action taken.
• Review.
Factors to consider when carrying out an assessment of hazardous substance exposure:
• Hazardous nature of substance • Quantity • Duration of exposure
• Potential ill-health effects • Concentration • Existing control measures
• Physical forms • Number of people
• Routes of entry • Frequency of exposure
Sources of Information
Product Labels Guidance Documents
• Name of substance In the UK, Workplace Exposure Limits are published by the Health and Safety Executive
• Hazardous components (HSE) in Guidance Note EH40. In the USA, Threshold Limit Values are published by the
• Risk phrases indicating danger American Conference of Government Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH).
• Precautions In the EU, Indicative Limit Values are published by the EU
• Details of supplier
Manufacturers’ Safety Data Sheets
• Details of substance and supplier • Physical/chemical properties
• Composition of substance • Stability and reactivity
• Hazard identification • Toxicological information
• First aid measures • Ecological information
• Fire-fighting measures • Disposal requirements
• Accidental release measures • Transport information
• Handling and storage • Regulatory information
• Exposure controls/PPE • Other information

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The sources of information we have highlighted are important, but they have limitations in assessing health risk:
• They contain general statements of the hazards. They do not allow for the localised conditions in which the substances are
to be used which affect the risk.
• The information can be highly technical and therefore meaningless to the non-specialist.
• Individual susceptibility to substances varies; a person can be very prone to the health effects of a certain chemical.
• They provide information about the specific substance or preparation in isolation and do not consider the effects of mixed
exposures.
• The information represents current scientific thinking and there may be hazards present that are not currently understood.
Hazardous Substance Monitoring should be done when:
• Failure or deterioration of the controls can result in serious health effects
• To ensure an OEL is not exceeded
• To check effectiveness of control measures
• After any change occurs which could affect control
• Techniques for inhalation exposure assessment to measure the quantity of the hazardous substance in the atmosphere
surrounding the workplace
Hazardous substance monitoring methods
1. Stain Tube Detector (semi-quantitative): Grab sampler
• Direct reading glass indicator tubes filled with chemical crystals à change color when a hazardous substance passes through
them.
• The glass tube is opened at each end & fitted into a pumping device.
• Very like the technique used by the police to test breath alcohol in motorists.
• A specific quantity of contaminated air is drawn by means of a pump through the tube & the crystals change color.
• The tube is calibrated that the extent of the color change along the tube indicates the concentration of the substance within
the air sample.
Advantages: Limitations:
• Low cost • Cannot be used to measure concentrations of dusts or
• Quick • fumes, only good for gases and vapours
• Gives immediate result • It is substance specific
• Beneficial in emergencies • Inaccurate
• Cheap • Can only give instantaneous results not TWA.
• No additional analysis needed • Fragile
• Used incorrectly
2. Passive Sampling: 3. Dust Monitoring Equipment
• No pumping mechanism • Worn by worker whilst working
• Long-term sampling • Indicates personal exposure
• Gases and vapours • Pre-weighed filter
• Sample diffused on to absorbent surface • Pumped air
• Laboratory analysis • Filter re-weighed
• Highly accurate • Gives average value over time
• Can be used for personal monitoring of TWA
4. Smoke Tubes/Sticks 5. Dust Lamp (Tyndall Lamp)
• Simple devices • Strong beam of light
• Generate inert smoke • Highlights fine particles of dust
• Visualise air currents • Used to determine efficiency of exhaust
• Assess effectiveness of extraction systems ventilation
Limitations of the above Monitoring methods

• Accuracy of results
• Variations in personal exposure
• Absence of a standard
• Other exposure routes

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7.3 Occupational exposure limits
“The maximum concentration of an airborne substance averaged over a reference period, to which employees may be
exposed by inhalation.”
Occupational Exposure Limits OEL is a generic term for occupational air standards, used for personal monitoring to assess if workers
are exposed to unacceptable levels of hazardous substances.
Exposure limit Period Combat ill-health effects of:
Short term exposure limits • Acute effects
(STEL) 15 minutes • Very high exposure for a short time
Long term exposure limits • Chronic effects
(LTEL) 8 hours • Lower exposure over longer period
Significance of Time-Weighted Averages

• A worker can be exposed to different levels of inhalation of a hazardous substance throughout the working day. At sometimes
they may be exposed to high levels of contaminant. At other times the exposure level may be low. In many cases, it will not be
practical to measure an individual’s exposure for all the working period.
• A time-weighted average is equal to the sum of the part of each period which is multiplied by the exposure level of the contaminant
in that period. It is then divided by the hours in the working day (usually eight hours) and the level indicated as a time- weighted
average (as seen above). That is, the average of all the total exposures in a working day. This can be significant where the
concentration of the chemical changes through the day or the time exposure varies.
Limitations of Exposure Limits
• Being below a limit does not prove it is safe:
• Only concerned with inhalation
• No account of individual sensitivity or susceptibility
• Many developed on male physiology
• No account of synergistic or combined effects
• Invalid if normal environmental conditions change
• Organisation may not realise that controls are no longer effective and limits are not adhered to
• Monitoring equipment may become inaccurate
• Some limits are only “guidelines”
• Non-inhalation effects, e.g. Dermatitis, aren’t considered
UK USA No global standard as yet

• OELs are known as • OELs known as Threshold Limit Values (TLV’s) • EU
Workplace Exposure • Published by American Conference of IOELVs are EU legal limits of exposure to
Limits (WEL’s) Government Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) chemicals that are set to protect workers in
• Published by HSE, full the EU from the ill-health effects of hazardous
substances in the workplace
Application of Relevant Limits
What is the difference between an 8hr TWA and a 15-minute STEL?
• An 8hr TWA is intended to control longer term exposure to lower levels of a substance to prevent chronic effects
• A 15 min STEL is intended to control short term exposure to high levels of substance to prevent acute effects
Limit Values IOELV
Efforts of global Harmonization: United Nations Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals GHS (the
purple book)
The GHS is a system for standardizing & harmonizing the classification & labeling of chemicals. It is a logical
& comprehensive approach to:
• Defining health, physical & environmental hazards of chemicals;
• Creating classification processes that use available data on chemicals for comparison with the defined hazard criteria; and
communicating hazard information, as well as protective measures, on labels & Safety Data Sheets (SDS).
• Developed under UN through ILO and IOMC:

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7.4 Control Measures
The Principles of Good Practice Implementing the Principles of Good Practice
• Minimise emission, release and spread of hazardous substances • Elimination or substitution
• Account for relevant routes of entry • Process change
• Use control measures proportionate to the risk • Reduce exposure times
• Ensure effectiveness and reliability of controls • Enclosure or segregation
• Use PPE where control cannot be achieved by other means • Local Exhaust Ventilation
• Regular checks and review of control measures • PPE
• Provide information and training • Personal hygiene and protection
• Ensure controls do not increase overall risks • Health Surveillance/monitoring
Elimination and Substitution Change the Process

• Eliminate process e.g. outsource painting Do the job differently, e.g.
• Change work e.g. screw rather than glue • Applying solvent by brush rather than spraying
• Dispose of unwanted stock • Vacuuming rather than sweeping to keep dust levels down
• Substitute hazardous for non-hazardous e.g.
irritant to non-hazardous floor cleaner, or
corrosive to irritant
Reduce Exposure Times Enclosure or Segregation Segregation

• Job rotation Enclosure Keep people away
• Exclude non-essential personnel • Totally enclose the substance Designated areas
• Link to WEL’s • Prevent access to it
Local Exhaust Ventilation

The Basic components of a LEV System
1. An intake hood that draws air from the workplace in the immediate vicinity of the contaminant.
2. Ductwork that carries that air from the intake hood.
3. A filter system that cleans the contaminant from the air to an acceptable level.
4. A fan of some sort that provides the motive force to move the air through the system.
5. An exhaust duct that discharges the clean air to atmosphere
Factors that can affect the Effectiveness of LEV
• Poorly positioned intake hoods
• Damaged ducts
• Excessive amounts of contamination
• Ineffective fan
• Blocked filters
• Buildup of contaminant in the ducts
• Sharp bends in ducts
• Unauthorised additions to the system
Inspection of LEV Systems
Routine visual inspection: Integrity checks, e.g. filters, contaminant build up, etc. Planned preventative maintenance e.g. replacing filters,
lubricating fan bearings, etc. Periodic testing: Ensure air velocities are adequate
Dilution ventilation Limitations of Dilution Ventilation

Diluting the contaminant • Not suitable for highly toxic substances
Changes the air • Compromised by sudden release of large
Passive dilution - vents
quantities of contaminant
Active dilution - powered fans
Used where: • Do not work well for dust and where the
• WEL is high contaminant is released at a point of source
• formation of gas or vapour is slow • Dead areas may exist
• operators are not close to contamination Important to know whether
contaminant is lighter or heavier than air

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Respiratory Protective Equipment (RPE)
There are two types:
1. Respirators which only filter contaminated air
2. Breathing apparatus (BA) used in oxygen depleted atmospheres to provide clean source of air
Use and benefits Limitations

Filtering Face-Piece Respirators
Cheap Low level of
Easy to use protection Seal not
Disposable effective
Uncomfortable
Half Mask or Ori-nasal Respirator
Good level of filtration No built-in eye protection
Good fit Negative pressure inside face-piece
Easy to use Uncomfortable
Full Face Respirator
Good level of filtration Restricts vision
Good fit Negative pressure inside face-piece
Protects the eyes Uncomfortable
Powered Respirator
Intermediate level of filtration Heavy to wear

Air movement cools wearer No tight face seal
Air stream prevents inward leak Limited battery life
Fresh Air Hose BA: Air demanded by user or pumped
Air from outside the work room Hose must be tethered

Supply not time restricted Bends or kinks make breathing difficult
User restricted by limited hose length
Compressed Air BA: Air under pressure
Supply of air is not time-restricted Positive pressure inside face- Hose can be long, but not endless
piece Wearer not burdened with cylinder
Self-contained BA Pressurised cylinder
• Complete freedom of movement • Supply is time-restricted Equipment bulky and heavy

• Positive pressure inside face-piece More technical training required

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What factors do you think should be considered when selecting RPE for use by workers? (The
Suitability of RPE) Factors to consider
• Concentration of the contaminant and its hazards
• Physical form of the substance
• Level of protection offered by the RPE
• Presence or absence of oxygen
• Duration of time that it must be worn
• Compatibility with other items of PPE
• Shape of the user’s face
• Facial hair
• Physical requirements of the job
• Physical fitness of the wearer
RPE Information, Instruction and Training (areas covered) Other PPE that may be required
• Users should understand: Hand protection
• How to fit the RPE • gloves, gauntlets
• How to test it to ensure that it is working effectively • chemicals, biological agents,
• The limitations of the item infection through cuts
• Any cleaning requirements Eye protection
• Any maintenance requirements (e.g. how to change filter) • spectacles, goggles, visors
Body protection
• overalls, aprons, whole body protection
Personal Hygiene and Protection

• Hand-washing routines
• Careful removal and disposal of PPE to prevent cross-contamination to normal clothes
• Prohibition of eating, drinking and smoking in work areas
• Washing facilities
• Changing facilities
• Rest areas
Vaccination
• Against biological agents, e.g. Hepatitis B, Tetanus, Typhoid
• Worker consent is required
• Immunity not always achieved
• Creates a false sense of security
Health Surveillance
Health monitoring
• signs of disease,
• symptoms of chronic conditions, e.g. flour workers have lung function tests to check for asthma
Biological monitoring
• checks for contaminants within the body, e.g. lead
Pre-employment screening
• establishes a ‘baseline’
Control of Carcinogens, Mutagens and Asthmagens
In addition to standard control measures:
• Total enclosure of process or handling systems
• Prohibition of eating, drinking and smoking
• Regular cleaning
• Warning signs
• Safe storage, handling and disposal

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7.5 Specific Agents
Organic Solvents:
• Used widely in the industry as cleansing & degreasing agents.
• Used as varnishes, paints, adhesives, glue strippers, thinners & printing inks.
• Divided into Hydrocarbons & Non-Hydrocarbons.
• All are heavier than air, sensitizers & irritants to eyes & respiratory system
• Some are narcotics, cause dermatitis or affect the brain & nervous system.
• Some causes kidney & liver failure on the long run.
• Very volatile & evaporates fast at room temperature
Carbon Dioxide:
Characteristics of CO2 Typical controls:
• Colourless, odourless gas • Competent engineers for gas systems
• By-product of combustion, e.g. poorly maintained boilers • Maintenance and testing of boilers and flues
• Inhalation hazard • Good ventilation
• Prevents red blood cells absorbing oxygen • LEV for workshop vehicle exhausts
• Chemical asphyxiation • Siting of equipment containing combustion engines
• Low levels – worsening headaches • CO alarms
• High levels – rapid unconsciousness and death • Confined space entry controls
Carbon Monoxide:
• Colorless, odorless & tasteless gas, impossible to detect without detection device.
• It enters the blood & binds with the red blood cells more readily than Oxygen forming Carboxyl hemoglobin, thus,
restricting Oxygen supply to vital organs.
• Its effects include: headaches, nausea, drowsiness, flushed appearance & ultimately asphyxiation.
• Produced as an exhaust gas from a vehicle or a heating system because of incomplete combustion.
Lead:
• Heavy, soft & easily worked metal.
• Affects mainly the brain & spinal cord, the blood & blood production.
• Effects are usually chronic & cumulative, normally enters body by inhalation, ingestion or skin contact.
• Early symptoms include colic, headache & nausea
• It also causes weakened muscles of the upper & lower limbs
• Widely used in roofing & plumbing work.
• Major uses in lead alloys & in the production of solder, pigments & ammunition.
Wood dust: Typical controls
• Inhalation hazard • Alternative work methods
• Causes asthma • Dust suppression by water LEV
• Hard woods can cause cancer • RPE
• Heath surveillance
Silica: Typical controls
• Component of rock • LEV
• Quarries, pottery and construction industry • Vacuuming rather than sweeping
• Inhalation hazard • RPE
• Causes scar tissue to form in lungs • Health surveillance
Asbestos:
Naturally occurring mineral fibres used for fire-resistant building and lagging materials
1. Blue (crocidolite);
2. Brown (amosite);
3. White (chrysotile)
Why was asbestos used in industry and buildings?
• asbestos cement roofs
• ceiling tiles
• fire break walls
• floor tiles
• downpipes
• pipe lagging
Where might it be found? Boiler gaskets; Asbestos brake linings etc.

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Health Risks: Work with Asbestos - Controls
• asbestosis In general:
• lung cancer • Work must be notified to the enforcement agency
• mesothelioma • Work area sealed
• diffuse pleural • PPE and RPE
thickening • Negative pressure ventilation system with efficient filters
• Asbestos waste securely double bagged, labelled, disposed as hazardous waste
• Dust levels monitored inside and outside sealed work area
• Worker exposure must not exceed control limit
• Health surveillance provided
Managing Asbestos in Buildings

• Occupiers/owners must be aware of presence of asbestos
• Need an asbestos management plan
• Maintain asbestos register – identify locations
• Record of regular inspections
• Monitoring condition
Left alone and undisturbed asbestos will not cause harm to anyone.
Cement:
Harmful effects:
Irritation of the eyes, respiratory tract, skin
Allergic dermatitis and corrosive burns to skin on repeated/prolonged contact
Typical controls:
• Eliminating or reducing exposure
• PPE – gloves, dust masks, eye protection
• Removal of contaminated clothing
• Good hygiene and washing skin on contact
Leptospirosis: Weil's disease

Leptospirosis Typical controls
• Infected urine from: rats, mice, cattle and horses • Good housekeeping, pest control
• Contaminated water in contact with cuts, grazes, etc. • Good personal hygiene
• Dairy farmers, sewage workers, water sports instructors • PPE, especially gloves
• Flu-like symptoms, jaundice, liver damage (Weil’s disease) • Covering cuts and grazes
• Issuing ‘at risk cards’ to workers
Legionella:
Legionnaire’s disease Typical controls
• Water-loving soil bacteria • Enclosing water systems
• Inhalation hazard • Water treatment, e.g. chlorination
• Mists particularly high risk • Hot water >60oC
• Flu-like fever, pneumonia • Biocides (treatment chemicals)
• Prevention of limescale
• Routine cleaning of cooling towers
• Water sampling and analysis
Blood Borne Viruses

HIV/AIDS Typical controls:
Hepatitis A • PPE: gloves, eye protection
• contracted orally by cross contamination of faecal matter, e.g. sewage • Disposal of material as clinical waste
workers • Prevention of needle stick injuries
• Decontamination and disinfection
Hepatitis B
• Vaccination
• transmitted in body fluids, e.g. blood
• Accident procedures, e.g. needle tick injuries
• health care workers, fire-fighters, police
Symptoms – jaundice, liver damage

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7.6 Safe Handling and Storage of Wastes
Waste is:
“Something that is discarded or is going to be discarded”
General hierarchy of control
• Prevention
• Prepare for Reuse
• Recycling
• Other Recovery
• Responsible disposal
Classification of Waste
Hazardous wastes are generally highly flammable, toxic, carcinogenic or corrosive. May include many household products
such as refrigerators, freezers, televisions, fluorescent light tubes and computer monitors which, although not immediately
hazardous, may cause longer-term problems.
Non-hazardous waste - refers to materials which are not covered by the above description of hazardous waste and includes
household waste, paper, wood and other biodegradable materials.
Hazards associated with waste: Control measures for waste

• Spills • Sufficient size / suitable location, bunded if necessary
• Manual handling • Clearly labelled.
• Contamination of people who handle it • Secure.
• Unlabelled therefore unknown hazard • Minimise risk of water pollution.
• Overflow of waste into water courses • Separate different wastes.
• Waste is stolen • Avoid incompatibilities.
• Mixes with incompatible waste • Use appropriate, sound containers.
• Unsuitable containers fail to contain it • Minimise quantities.
• Waste is dumped • Protect from the elements.
• Skip lorries reversing • Proper disposal of special / hazardous wastes – consignment
• Compactors for cardboard notes etc.

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ELEMENT 8: PHYSICAL & PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTHHAZARDS
& RISK CONTROL
Learning Outcomes
8.1 Outline the health effects associated with exposure to noise and appropriate control measures
8.2 Outline the health effects associated with exposure to vibration and appropriate control measures
8.3 Outline the health effects associated with ionising and non-ionising radiation and appropriate control measures
8.4 Outline the meaning, causes and effects of work related stress and appropriate control measures
8.1 Noise
Effects of Exposure to Noise
Physical effects: Psychological effects:
• Temporary reduction in hearing sensitivity • Stress
• Temporary ringing in the ears
• Difficulty concentrating
• Noise Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL)
• Tinnitus (persistent ringing in the ears) • Increased errors
• Inability to hear vehicles, alarms and speech
Sound Pressure:
• The difference between the average local pressure of the medium outside of the sound wave in which it is traveling through (at a
given point and a given time) & the pressure found within the sound wave itself within that same medium.
• Sound pressure can be measured using a microphone in air & a hydrophone in water.
• The unit for sound pressure is the Pascal (symbol: Pa).
Sound Intensity:
• The sound power per unit area
• The units of intensity are W/m2 (watts per square meter).
Frequency:
• Number of cycles per unit time.
• Measured in cycles per second 7 he unit is Hertz Hz
• The human ear detects vibrations from 20 to 20 000 Hz
Decibel dB:
• It is a logarithmic unit of measuring noise
• It is not linear; doubling the intensity of noise increases its level by 3dB
• dB (A) is a weighting filter used to approximate the human ear's response to sound (other units like dB (C) and dB (B) are for
higher noise levels and uncommonly used at workplace)
Noise assessment
Different types of noise meter that can be used to undertake noise measurement include:
Simple sound level meter – measures instantaneous noise levels and can be used for spot checks or for very simple surveys.
Integrating sound level meter – measures noise over a period and gives a time-weighted average
over that period; useful for most noise surveys.
Dosimeters – integrating sound level meters worn by the worker to give a measure of personal noise exposure; useful for work areas
where people move around a lot. The results of a noise survey need to be interpreted to give an accurate estimate of workers’
exposures. These exposures can then be compared to the legal standards and any necessary action identified.
Noise measurement and assessment is a complex topic that should only be undertaken by a competent person.
Acceptable & Unacceptable Levels of Noise:
Exposure Action Value: level of noise at which certain action must be taken. Exposure Limit Value: level of noise above which an
employee must not be exposed. These Exposure action & Limit Values are:
a) Lower Exposure Action Level: 80 dB (A) / 8 hours / day b) Upper Exposure Action Level: 85 dB (A) / 8 hours / day c) Exposure
Limit Value: 87 dB (A) / 8 hours / day
If the daily noise exceeds the lower exposure action level, a noise assessment should be carried out by a competent person.
If the working day is 12 hours, then the action levels must be reduced by 3 dB (A) because the action levels
assume 8-hour working day.

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General Requirements for Noise Control:
• Assess the noise levels & keep records.
• Constantly review assessments
• Reduce risk from noise exposure by using engineering controls
• Reduce time of exposure
• Provide adequate Training, information & work instructions
• Review manufacturer's recommendations & information on equipment’s' noise level
• Consult employees & representatives on noise issues
• Establish hearing protection zones; marked by signs & notices.
• Educate employees to see their doctor if they feel any hearing problems
• Provide appropriate Hearing Protection as needed
Basic Noise Control Measures
Source Pathway Receiver
Eliminate Insulation Acoustic haven
Substitute Isolation Hearing protection
Modify process Absorption
Maintenance
Damping
Silencing
Outline reasons why hearing protection is an inefficient method of reducing noise exposure in a noisy workplace
Don’t enclose the sound – only protects 1 person
Rely on:
• Use for all exposure time –meaning short exposure without them has big effect on dose received
• Uncomfortable
• Require supervision
• Require maintenance
• May interfere with communications, alarms etc.
Muffs:
• Muffs may be incompatible with another PPE
• Good fit – no facial hair, jewellery etc. for muffs
Ear plugs:
• Must be fitted properly into ear canal
• May introduce infection
• Not easy to supervise – can’t see them
• May be wrong frequency type or attenuation level
Ear defenders or muffs
• Easy to supervise and enforce • Uncomfortable when worn for a long time
• Less chance of ear infections • Must be routinely inspected, cleaned and maintained
• Higher level of protection possible • Efficiency may be reduced by long hair, spectacles or earrings.
• Can integrate with another PPE • Incompatible with some other items worn (e.g. spectacles)
• Reusable • Needs dedicated storage facility
Ear plugs
• Cheap and easy to use • Difficult to see when fitted, so supervision and
• Disposable • enforcement difficult
• Available in a range of types and designs • Risk of infection if dirty
• Often more comfortable to wear • Need to be correctly sized to fit the individual
• Do not interfere with any other items worn (e.g. • Effectiveness decreases with usage
PPE) • Interfere with communication
Hearing protection should be given with:
• Information, instruction, training and supervision
• Safe storage
• Cleaning
• Maintenance
• Replacement

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Attenuation
Information is required on the:
• Noise in the workplace from survey
• Attenuation characteristics of the hearing protection from manufacturer
• Ear muffs give higher attenuation than ear plugs
Health Surveillance
Audiometry allows:
• Identification of workers with pre-existing hearing damage; with new hearing damage
• Removal/exclusion of such workers from high noise areas
• Investigation of noise controls to rectify problems
Identify occupations at risk from noise induced hearing loss and the potential causes.
• Construction workers – Plant, machinery, e.g. concrete breakers
• Uniformed services – Small arms and artillery
• Entertainment sector workers – Loud music
• Manufacturing sector workers – Industrial machinery
• Call centre workers – Acoustic shock from headsets
8.2 Vibration
Effects of Exposure to Vibration
Hand-Arm Vibration Syndrome (HAVS)
• Vibration white finger (blanching)
• Nerve damage
• Muscle weakening
• Joint damage
Hand Arm Vibration HAV: Preventive & Precautionary measures:

• Caused by exposure of the hand & arm to external • Avoid the use of vibration equipment (when possible)
vibration • Carry out Risk Assessment; estimation of employees'
• Examples: Pneumatic drills, sanders, grinders, powered exposure to vibration
lawn mowers & chain saws • Develop good maintenance & inspection regime for tools &
• Best-known disease is Vibration White Finger; circulation machinery
of blood in the hands is adversely affected. • Introduce work pattern that reduces exposure to vibration
• Early symptoms; tingling & numbness after work • PPE; gloves & warming clothes
• Sensory nerves are then affected as well as muscles • Establish & implement a reporting system for the employees
• Late symptoms; pins & needles, loss of grip strength, so that any symptoms are recorded & investigated
Carpal • Health Surveillance
• Tunnel Syndrome & loss of sense of touch. • Follow up & measure Vibration exposure limits & make sure
• Risk depends on: vibration exposure level, duration of it is always within international permissible limits
exposure & the tightness of the grip on the tool. • Stop smoking
Whole-Body Vibration
• Damage to spinal discs Preventive & Precautionary measures:
• Vertigo • Proper risk assessment & exposure level monitoring
• “Whole-body vibration is shaking or jolting of the human • Proper training, awareness & supervision
body through a supporting surface (usually a seat or the • Provide vibration isolation for operator seats; proper seat
floor), for example when driving or riding on a vehicle suspension
along an unmade road, operating earth-moving machines • Provide padded seats with dampening material
or standing on a structure attached to a large, powerful, • Introduce work schedules to avoid long periods of exposure
fixed machine which is impacting or vibrating.” in a single day and allow for breaks where possible
• Whole body vibration in a seated position has been • Access to the cab which is not awkward or difficult
found to increase the prevalence of reported low back • Adjustable seats with back support
pain. • Proper Maintenance of vehicles and using those with best
• Operations such as tractor driving, forklift operating, suspension system for the job
truck driving, and driving earth moving machines have • Follow the manufacturer’s instructions’ manual
• Health surveillance and educating workers when and how to
been found to result in increased back pain. report any early signs of back pain to the health care provider

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Vibration Exposure Limits
Standards vary according to national law
At or above the Daily Exposure Action Value
• Vibration risk assessment
• Reduce exposure level
• Training
• Health surveillance
At or above the Daily Exposure Limit Value (ELV)
• Vibration risk assessment
• Reduce exposure below the ELV
The role of Health Surveillance in vibration:
• Identify anyone exposed or about to be exposed to hand-arm vibration who may be at risk, for example people with
blood circulatory diseases
• Identify any vibration-related disease at an early stage in employees regularly exposed to hand-arm vibration;
• Help you prevent disease progression and eventual disability;
• Check the effectiveness of your vibration control measures.
The role of supplier/manufacturer in vibration prevention & control:
• Design and construct vehicles and/or machines which reduce whole-body vibration to the minimum that can be achieved
• Provide instructions on safe use of the machine in its intended application;
• Instructions on vibration emissions & the proper use of machinery
• Any maintenance procedures to maintain the performance of vibration reduction
• Features; whether there is likely to be any remaining risk from vibration;
• Instructions on how to use the equipment to avoid risk from vibration
• Transparent communication about any manufacturing problems that may be found out, emergency contact numbers and
updates about new technologies that may be designed to minimize risk and render the older machinery obsolete
• Providing professional technical Hands on training to clients when as needed
8.3 Radiation
There are two major categories:
Ionising Non-ionising
• higher energy • lower energy
• can change the structure of atoms • heating effects
• does not change the structure of atoms
Types of Ionising Radiation
Can penetrate the body and cause serious and permanent harm:
• Alpha particles • Gamma rays
• Beta particles • Neutrons
• X-Rays
Alpha Particles Beta Particles

Weak penetrating power Can penetrate skin and living tissue
Stopped by thin material, e.g. paper, skin Health effects:
Health effects: • Inside and outside body – hazardous
• Outside body - not particularly hazardous Occupational uses:
• Inside body (ingestion/inhalation) - very hazardous • Sterilisation, thickness gauges
Occupational uses:
• Smoke detectors,
• medical labs
X-Rays Gamma Rays
Can be generated and switched off Very penetrating
High penetrating power Health effects:
Health effects: • Inside and outside body - very hazardous
• Inside and outside body - very hazardous Occupational uses:
Occupational uses: • Industrial radiography, e.g. pipelines
• Medical radiography
• Baggage security

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Neutrons Occupational Sources uses of Ionising Radiation
Emitted by some radioactive sources Alpha particles – smoke detectors and science labs.
Very high penetration Beta particles – science labs and thickness gauges. X-rays –
Health effects: medical radiography and baggage security scanners.
• Outside body - very hazardous Gamma-rays – industrial radiography.
Occupational uses: Neutrons – nuclear power stations.
• Nuclear power stations
Effects of exposure to ionising radiation

Acute Health Effects Chronic Health Effects
Radiation sickness (The larger the dose, the greater the risk) • Cancer
• Nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea • Genetic mutation
• Blistering and ulceration of skin
• Birth defects
• Hair loss
• Dermatitis
• Cataracts The larger the dose, the greater the risk
• Anaemia
• Reduced immune system
• Infertility
Protection from Ionising Radiation
Basic radiation Control Strategies: (TDS – Time/Distance/Shield)
• Carry out a specific sufficient & suitable Risk Assessment
• Avoid using radioactive material as far as possible
• Engineering controls to enclose source of radiation e.g. thick concrete, lead barriers
• Reduce the time of exposure; job rotation & shifts
• Implement Health surveillance & dose monitoring
• Segregate by increasing the distance between workers & radiation source as far as reasonably possible
• Effective Emergence response planning
• Prominent fencing & signs around radiation areas with authorized access (controlled area)
• Provide adequate training, information & strict work instructions
• High standard of personal hygiene
• Correct disposal of radiation waste
• Radiation Protection Supervisor: employee appointed to ensure control arrangements are implemented.
• Radiation Protection Adviser: Expert in radiation appointed to give advice on compliance with Radiation.
• Proper adequate Personal Protective Equipment PPE; last resort e.g. whole-body radiation suites.
Non-Ionising Radiation
Non-ionising radiation is present in most workplaces and is used for various applications. Typical sources include:
1. UV – sunlight; arc-welding.
2. IR – red-hot steel in a rolling mill; glass manufacture.
3. Visible light – laser levelling device; laser pointer.
4. Microwaves – industrial microwave oven in a food factory; telecommunications equipment (e.g. antenna).
5. Radiowaves – radio, TV or radar antennae.
Types Sources Health Effects

Ultra-violet (UV) Sunlight Skin burns
Arc welding Arc eye (photokeratitis) Skin cancer
Visible light lasers Temporary blindness
Infra-red (IR) Red hot steel Redness and skin burns, retinal burns, cataracts
Glass manufacture
Microwaves Food preparation Internal heating
Telecommunications Organ damage
Radiowaves Radio, TV Internal heating
radar Organ damage

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Protection from Non-Ionising Radiation
Types Protection
Ultra-violet (UV) • Cover exposed skin
• Protect eyes
Visible light, lasers • Low class: avoid shining in eyes
• High class: eye protection, shielding, non-reflective surfaces
Infra-red (IR) • Cover exposed skin
• Protect eyes
Microwaves • Safe distance
• Isolate and lock off
Radiowaves • Safe distance
• Isolate and lock off
Health Surveillance Types of examination include:

• May be legally required by an approved physician: • Skin checks
• Before working as a classified worker • Respiratory checks
• During periodic health reviews (medicals) • Exposure records
• Special surveillance if dose limit is exceeded • Sickness records
• After ceasing work as a classified worker
8.4 Physiological Stress

Physiological Stress
Stress is an adverse reaction to excessive pressure
Health effects: Causes of stress
• psychological Demands - excessive
• physical Control - weak
• behavioural Support - poor
• serious ill-health if prolonged Relationship - difficult
Role - undefined
Change - uncertainty
OR
Causes of Stress:
• Content of the job: work overload, work too easy, time pressure, deadlines etc.
• Work organization: long working hours, shift work, non-consulted organizational changes
• Workplace culture: communication, involvement in decision making, feedback, support etc.
• Environment: noise, temperature, lighting, ergonomics
• Work role: conflict of interest, clarity of role
• Home-work interface: transportation problem, childcare issues, relocation
• Relationships: bullying, harassment, verbal & physical abuse
Effects of Stress
Psychological Physical Behavioural

• Anxiety • Sweating • Sleeplessness
• Low self-esteem • Heart rate • Poor concentration
• Depression • Blood pressure • Poor decision-making
• Skin rashes • Mood swings
• Muscle tension • Irritability
• Headache • Alcohol consumption
• Dizziness • Drug misuse
• Absence from work

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OR
Ill-health effects of stress: Stress Control:
• Increased irritability & sleep difficulties • Identify stressors & Assess the risk
• Increased intake of drugs, cigarettes & • Improve ergonomics & working environment
alcohol • Interpersonal communication skills training
• Digestive system disorders • Stress awareness & Time management & time off work
• Circulatory system disorders e.g. high blood
• Provide achievable demands relative to the hours of work
pressure
• Decreased immunity & increased • Avoid overloading the employees
susceptibility to infection • Provide a space of decision making
• Consult on organizational change & involve employees in it
• Anxiety & depression
• MSD(s), fatigue & chronic headache • Employees receive adequate support
• Employees have control over the pace of work
• Employees are not subjected to unacceptable behavior
• Employees understanding their clear roles & responsibilities
• Employees receive regular & constructive feedback

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Unit GC2:

Controlling workplace hazards

Element 1: Workplace hazards and risk control

Element 2: Transport hazards and risk control

Element 3: Musculoskeletal hazards and risk control

Element 4: Work equipment hazards and risk control

Element 5: Electrical safety

Element 6: Fire safety

Element 7: Chemical and biological health hazards and risk control

Element 8: Physical and psychological health hazards and risk control

Robert Wafula IDipNEBOSH, GradIOSH

1.1 Health, welfare and work environment requirements

Robert Wafula IDipNEBOSH, GradIOSH

Changing rooms • For special work wear

Accommodation for • Lockers, etc.

Resting and eating facilities • Sufficient seats and tables

Robert Wafula IDipNEBOSH, GradIOSH

Prevention of falling materials through safe stacking and storage.

1.2 Violence at work

Robert Wafula IDipNEBOSH, GradIOSH

Robert Wafula IDipNEBOSH, GradIOSH

• Pedestrian walkways that require pedestrians to walk in • moving parts of machinery,

Control measures for the safe movement of people in the workplace:

Robert Wafula IDipNEBOSH, GradIOSH

Protection against falls from work at height:

Methods of avoiding working at height:

If safety nets are used, make sure that:

Robert Wafula IDipNEBOSH, GradIOSH

Fragile roofs & surfaces:

Protection against falling objects:

Robert Wafula IDipNEBOSH, GradIOSH

Precautions for the safe use of stepladders:

Ledgers – Horizontal tubes

Transoms – Short horizontal tubes spanning across ledgers

Bracing – Diagonal tubes

Base plates – Underneath the standards

Sole boards – Timber under base plates

Work platform – Fully boarded

Guardrails – Enclose work platform

Toe-boards – provide lip to platform

Robert Wafula IDipNEBOSH, GradIOSH

Inspection Systems – Scaffolds Points to consider during scaffold inspection

Mobile tower scaffold safety

Mobile Elevated Working Platform (MEWP)

Robert Wafula IDipNEBOSH, GradIOSH

Precautions for excavation work

Inspection & reporting for excavations:

Robert Wafula IDipNEBOSH, GradIOSH

Robert Wafula IDipNEBOSH, GradIOSH

2.1 Safe movement of vehicles in the workplace

Factors that could cause a forklift truck to overturn?

Factors that can increase the risk of collisions in a workplace:

Control measures for safe workplace transport operations

Robert Wafula IDipNEBOSH, GradIOSH

Fork lift pre-use checks

Robert Wafula IDipNEBOSH, GradIOSH

2. The Vehicle 3. The journey

Robert Wafula IDipNEBOSH, GradIOSH

Robert Wafula IDipNEBOSH, GradIOSH

3.1 Work-related upper limb disorders

High-Risk Activities (Repetitive Operations)

Robert Wafula IDipNEBOSH, GradIOSH

The Ill-Health Effects of Poor Task and Workstation Design