Basic Electrical Engineering

MODULE I

Fundamentals of electricity

Resistance
It may be defined as the property of a substance due to which it opposes (or
restricts) the flow of electricity (i.e., electrons) through it.

The practical unit of resistance is ohm. A conductor is said to have a resistance of one
ohm if it permits one ampere current to flow through it when one volt is impressed across its
terminals.

Prefix Its meaning Abbreviation Equal to

Mega One million MΩ 106 Ω
Kilo One thousand kΩ 103 Ω
Milli One thousandth mΩ 10−3 Ω
Micro One millionth μΩ 10−6 Ω

Ohm’s Law

At a constant temperature current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional

to applied voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance of that conductor. In other
words

V
=a constant
I

V
=R
I

Where R is the resistance of the conductor

Limitations of this Law are: (1) It is applicable to Passive components (2) It is true when
temperature is constant (3) It is applicable to liner circuits

Laws of Resistance

The resistance R offered by a conductor depends on the following factors:

(i) It varies directly as its length, l.

(ii) It varies inversely as the cross-section A of the conductor.
(iii) It depends on the nature of the material.
(iv) It also depends on the temperature of the conductor.

Department of Electrical Engineering KGPTC, Prepared by Jayaprakash Lr in EEE Page 1

 Basic Electrical Engineering

Fig 1.1

Neglecting the last factor for the time being, we can say that

l l
R∝ ie R=ρ
A A

Where ρ is a constant depending on the nature of the material of the conductor and is
known as its specific resistance or resistivity.

If in Eq. (i), we put

l = 1 metre and A = 1 metre2, then R = ρ .

Specific Resistance:

Hence, specific resistance of a material may be defined as the resistance between the
opposite faces of a metre cube of that material. Unit of Resistivity is Ohm-m or Ohm- cm.

Kirchhoff’s Laws

Kirchhoff’s laws, two in number, the two-laws are

1. Kirchhoff’s Point Law or Current Law (KCL)

It states as follows : in any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents
meeting at a point (or junction) is zero.
Put in another way, it simply means that the total current leaving a junction is
equal to the total current entering that junction. Consider the case of a few conductors
meeting at a point A as in Fig. 1.2 (a). Some conductors have currents leading to
point A, whereas some have currents leading away from point A. Assuming the
incoming currents to be positive and the outgoing currents negative,

we have I1 + (− I2) + (− I3) + (+ I4) + (− I5) = 0

Department of Electrical Engineering KGPTC, Prepared by Jayaprakash Lr in EEE Page 2

 Basic Electrical Engineering

or
I1 + I 4 − I 2 − I 3 − I 5 = 0
or
I1 + I 4 = I 2 + I 3 + I 5
or
incoming currents = outgoing
Similarly, in Fig. 1.2 (b) for node A
+ I + (− I1) + (− I2) + (− I3) + (− I4) = 0
or
I= I1 + I2 + I3 + I4
We can express the above conclusion thus : Σ I = 0 . ...at a junction

Fig 1.2

2. Kirchhoff’s Mesh Law or Voltage Law (KVL)

It states as follows :
The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in each of the
conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a network plus the algebraic sum of the
e.m.fs. in that path is zero.
In other words,
Σ IR + Σ e.m.f. = 0 ...round a mesh
It should be noted that algebraic sum is the sum which takes into account the
polarities of the voltage drops.

Department of Electrical Engineering KGPTC, Prepared by Jayaprakash Lr in EEE Page 3

 Basic Electrical Engineering

Fig 1.3

Determination of Voltage Sign.

In applying Kirchhoff’s laws to specific problems, particular attention should be paid to the
algebraic signs of voltage drops and e.m.fs., otherwise results will come out to be wrong.
Following sign conventions is suggested:

(a) Sign of Battery E.M.F. A rise in voltage should be given a + ve sign and a fall
in voltage a −ve sign. Keeping this in mind, it is clear that as we go from the −ve
terminal of a battery to its +ve terminal (Fig. 1.4), there is a rise in potential, hence
this voltage should be given a + ve sign. If, on the other hand, we go from +ve
terminal to −ve terminal, then there is a fall in potential, hence this voltage should
be preceded by a −ve sign. It is important to note that the sign of the battery
e.m.f. is independent of the direction of the current through that branch.

Fig .1.4 Fig. 1.5

(b) Sign of IR Drop: Now, take the case of a resistor (Fig. 1.5). If we go through a
resistor in the same direction as the current, then there is a fall in potential because
current flows from a higher to a lower potential. Hence, this voltage fall should be
taken −ve. However, if we go in a direction opposite to that of the current, then
there is a rise in voltage. Hence, this voltage rise should be given a positive sign.
It is clear that the sign of voltage drop across a resistor depends on the direction of
current through that resistor but is independent of the polarity of any other source
of e.m.f. in the circuit under consideration. Consider the closed path ABCDA in
Fig. 1.6. As we travel around the mesh in the clockwise direction, different
voltage drops will have the following

I1R2 is − ve (fall in potential)

I2R2 is − ve (fall in potential)

I3R3 is + ve (rise in potential)

Department of Electrical Engineering KGPTC, Prepared by Jayaprakash Lr in EEE Page 4

 Basic Electrical Engineering

I4R4 is − ve (fall in potential)

E2 is − ve (fall in potential)

E1 is + ve (rise in potential)

Using Kirchhoff’s voltage law, we get

− I1R1 − I2R2 − I3R3 − I4R4 − E2 + E1 = 0

or
I1R1 + I2R2 − I3R3 + I4R4 = E1 − E2

Fig 1.6

Example 1. Using Kirchhoff’s Current Law and Ohm’s Law, find the magnitude and polarity
of voltage V in Fig. 1.7 (a). Directions of the two current sources are as shown.

Fig 1.7

Let us arbitrarily choose the directions of I1, I2 and I3 and polarity of V as shown in Fig.
1.7(b). We will use the sign convention for currents. Applying KCL to node A,

we have

− I1 + 30 + I2 − I3 − 8=0

or I1 − I2 + I3 = 22 ---------------(i)

Applying Ohm’s law to the three resistive branches in Fig. 1.7 (b), we have

V V V
I1= , I3 = , I2 = -
2 4 6

Department of Electrical Engineering KGPTC, Prepared by Jayaprakash Lr in EEE Page 5

 Basic Electrical Engineering

Substituting these values in (i) above, we get

V
2
–
−V
6
[ ]+ V4 = 22 OR V= 24V

I1 = V/2 = 24/2 = 12 A, I2 = - 24/6 = -4 A , I3 = 24/4 = 6A

The negative sign of I2 indicates that actual direction of its flow is opposite to that shown in
Fig. 1.7 (b). Actually, I2, flows from A to B and not from B to A as shown. Incidentally, it
may be noted that all currents are outgoing except 30A which is an incoming current.

Effect of Temperature on Resistance:

The effect of rise in temperature is :

(i) to increase the resistance of pure metals. The increase is large and fairly regular
for normal ranges of temperature. As would be presently clarified, metals have a
positive temperature co-efficient of resistance.
(ii) to increase the resistance of alloys, though in their case, the increase is relatively
small and irregular. For some high-resistance alloys like Eureka (60% Cu and
40% Ni) and manganin, the increase in resistance is (or can be made) negligible
over a considerable range of temperature.
(iii) to decrease the resistance of electrolytes, insulators (such as paper, rubber, glass,
mica etc.) and partial conductors such as carbon. Hence, insulators are said to
possess a negative temperature-coefficient of resistance.

Temperature Coefficient of Resistance

Let a metallic conductor having a resistance of R 0 at 0°C be heated of t°C and let its
resistance at this temperature be Rt. Then, considering normal ranges of temperature, it is
found that the increase in resistance Δ R = Rt − R0 depends

(i) directly on its initial resistance

(ii) directly on the rise in temperature
(iii) on the nature of the material of the conductor.

or Rt − R0 ∝ R × t or Rt − R0 = α R0 t ...(i)

where α (alpha) is a constant and is known as the temperature coefficient of

resistance of the conductor.
Rt−R 0 ∆R
Rearranging Eq. (i), we get α= =
R0 X t R 0 Xt
If R0 = 1 Ω, t = 1°C, then α = Δ R = Rt − R0
Hence, the temperature-coefficient of a material may be defined as the increase in
resistance per ohm original resistance per °C rise in temperature. From Eq. (i), we
find that Rt = R0 (1 + α t)

Department of Electrical Engineering KGPTC, Prepared by Jayaprakash Lr in EEE Page 6

 Basic Electrical Engineering

.Value of α at Different Temperatures:

So far we did not make any distinction between values of α at different temperatures.
But it is found that value of α itself is not constant but depends on the initial temperature on
which the increment in resistance is based. When the increment is based on the resistance
measured at 0°C, then α has the value of α0.

At any other initial temperature t°C, value of α is αt and so on.

It should be remembered that, for any conductor, α0 has the maximum value.

Suppose a conductor of resistance R0 at 0°C (point A in Fig. 1.7) is heated to t°C (point B).
Its resistance Rt after heating is given by Rt = R0 (1 + α0 t) ------------------ (i)

where α0 is the temperature-coefficient at 0°C.

Now, suppose that we have a conductor of resistance Rt at temperature t°C. Let this
conductor be cooled from t°C to 0°C. Obviously, now the initial point is B and the final
point is A. The final resistance R 0 is given in terms of the initial resistance by the following
equation

R0 = Rt [1 + αt (− t)] = Rt (1 − αt . t) ...(ii)

From equation (ii) we have 𝞪2 = (Rt – R0 ) / R0 × t

Department of Electrical Engineering KGPTC, Prepared by Jayaprakash Lr in EEE Page 7

 Basic Electrical Engineering

Work, Power and Energy.

Joule’s Law of Electric Heating. The amount of work required to maintain a current of I
amperes through a resistance of R ohm for t second is

W.D. = I2Rt joules

= VIt joules ( R = V/I)

= Wt joules ( W = VI)

= V2t/R joules ( I = V/R)

This work is converted into heat and is dissipated away. The amount of heat produced is

work done W .D
H= =
mechanical equivalent of heat J

where J = 4,186 joules/kcal = 4,200 joules / kcal (approx)

Work, If a force F moves a body through a distance S in its direction of application, then

Work done W = F × S

Unit of work is joule (J).

Department of Electrical Engineering KGPTC, Prepared by Jayaprakash Lr in EEE Page 8

 Basic Electrical Engineering

Power. It is the rate of doing work. Its units is watt (W) which represents 1 joule per second.

Electric power is the product of Voltage and current. Its unit is Watt. Represented by W.

Energy.

Energy is the ability to do work. Electrical energy is energy that’s stored in charged
particles within an electric field.

Electrical Energy = V× I×t

= W× t

= I2 R t

= (V2 / R) × t

Its unit is Wh or kWh, 1 kWh = 1000 Wh = 1 unit

Department of Electrical Engineering KGPTC, Prepared by Jayaprakash Lr in EEE Page 9