Invasive Species in North America

BIOL- 201
Jordyn Edgar, Zach Edmiston, Allison Hoover, and Sydney Chase

Abstract
For our group research project, we decided to go in-depth on Invasive Species in North
America. We broke these down into 4 subtopics: exotic pets, invasive reptiles, invasive aquatic
animals, and invasive insects, and in these we talked about each problem these different animals
cause. We discussed how large the exotic pet trade has become, how they compete for resources.
We also talked about how these pets can spread disease, and how competitive they are for food.
Aquatic animals can change the natural environment with their presence, how they are getting
over to North America, and also how they hybridize with native fish. We also talked about 2
different reptiles, Burmese Pythons and Cane Toad. The Burmese Python was brought over to
North America as house pets, but then they were set free into the wild, mating with more
animals. Cane toads were also brought over to control beetles on sugar-cane plantations, but they
also mated and reproduced. Finally, we discussed 2 types of insects, Stink Bugs and Beetles,
how they got here. Stink bugs and beetles are causing harm to plants and crops, and are hurting
farmers more than ever. Lastly, we talked about what preventative measures the EPA and we can
take to lower the chances are spreading more of these insects around.

Introduction
Introductions of plant and animal species to areas outside their native ranges can
destabilize ecosystems, contribute to biotic homogenization, impose public health risks, and
impose large economic costs through direct damage or mitigation efforts. The invasion of non-
native species is thought to be a major driver of worldwide biodiversity loss. Interactions
between indigenous and non-indigenous species are complex, and predicting the net effects of
invasion requires identifying the presence, direction, and magnitude of these direct and indirect
pathways. Further, discerning the variable importance of these interactions with respect to
seasonal, short-term, and long-term ecosystem processes is essential for understanding the
consequences of the invasion. Throughout the world, they cause problems from Asia and Europe
to North and South America. However, we will be researching their effects on North America.
All species ranging from exotic pets, reptiles, insects, to aquatic species.

Methods
Information gathered in this research paper was found in various scientific literature
online. Using the Indiana University of Pennsylvania online library database as well as Google
Scholar we searched through dozens of different articles. Focusing on our own important
keywords we were each able to find detailed research articles to utilize in the discussion of
invasive species in North America.
Invasive Exotic Pets
Exotic vertebrate species kept as pets have increased greatly around the world in recent
decades. The exotic pet trade has become one of the most significant pathways for the
introduction of invasive species (Magalhaes and Vitule 2013). Although this industry generates a
lot of money, especially with how much it has increased since the 1980s, it has extreme impacts
on natural environments. The release of exotic pets into new ecosystems can lead to invasions
and the spread of diseases and parasites. Numerous populations of native vertebrate species in
North America have suffered in some areas and their ecosystems have been altered. The most
common organisms involved in this trade and release are fish and amphibians but reptiles and
even birds are an issue too. Species that have been introduced through the pet trade in North
America include, but are not limited to, red-eared sliders, Burmese pythons, lionfish, carp,
loaches, crayfish, and monk parakeets. In addition to the impacts on natural ecosystems, some
species also have direct effects on humans such as monk parakeets feeding on agricultural crops
(Russello et al. 2008). Besides the direct consequences of invasive pets, indirect impacts can also
be seen through economic losses. The total economic loss due to invasive species in just the
United States is about $120 billion each year (Gurevitch and Padilla 2004). The major
consequences of the global pet trade include the spreading of diseases and viruses to livestock
and humans, the cost of billions of dollars in economic damages, the alteration of ecosystems,
and the declines in native species populations. Regulations on the importation and possession of
exotic species have increased greatly and change often but they are usually not enforced well
enough.
Population declines of native species can be attributed to competition for resources as
well as the spread of disease. Burmese pythons, lionfish, and red-eared sliders have all been
found to thrive very well and outcompete native species in some areas of the United States. The
impacts of invasive species are typically irreversible since the removal of these thriving species
is very costly and difficult. Recent studies have found that competition is not the only factor but
that diseases, viruses, and parasites have also contributed greatly to the decline of some
populations.
Many vertebrate species can carry diseases, viruses, and even parasites. Among these
include carp, loaches, and crayfish. Non-native loaches have been found to spread parasites to
amphibians like frogs. Studies have also found that carp not only have the ability to out-compete
native populations for resources but they also spread diseases that have greatly impacted the
native populations. In 2012, Blue Springs lake in Missouri experienced a dramatic decline in its
population of wild carp due to the Koi Herpesvirus (Allman et al. 2019). This virus is typically
carried and introduced by pet Koi or even goldfish. Koi fish, or Japanese carp, are often released
into streams and lakes most likely because they have become widely available as pets and
owners do not understand the size they can grow to and the care involved. The state of Maine has
gone as far as to ban the possession of these fish in recognition of this issue. Viruses and diseases
aren’t the only issues; fish can also spread parasites. The pond loach has become an invasive
species in North America. They originated from East Asia and are a common carrier for the
parasite Gyrodactylus jennyae which affects several other species but primarily American
bullfrog tadpoles. The parasite itself may not kill these amphibians but they cause epidermal
damage which has been linked to the facilitation of fungal infections sometimes resulting in
death (Paetow et al. 2009). Some pathogens affect not only other species in the immediate
ecosystem but they can also be spread to livestock and even humans (Daszak et al. 2000).
Exotic pets have become very appealing to many people in the past 40 years but the trade
of these animals has been conducted for much longer. The effects of this global trade are studied
in much more depth recently due to the major impacts that some species have had. There are
regulations and restrictions in place on certain exotic species but the lack of enforcement in most
situations has allowed the issue to continue to grow.

Invasive Reptiles and Amphibians

Introduced animal species interact with various ecological components within
ecosystems. In many warmer climates in North America, those invasive species causing
problems are reptiles and amphibians. They can destroy habitats and harm native species in
many different ways.
Burmese Pythons (Python bivittatus) are becoming a huge problem in the Florida
Everglades. The Burmese python may reach a length of 26 feet and a weight of more than 200
pounds. The average size of a Burmese python removed in Florida is 8 to 10 feet. Python
bivittatus is presumed to have been introduced to the Flamingo area of Everglades National Park
prior to 1985 and became established thereafter. They are originally native to Eastern Asia but
were brought to North America in the pet trade. They were able to become invasive by people
who bought them as pets, setting them free into the wild. Where they reproduced at a staggering
rate and are top predators, allowing them to over-consume native prey and cause many species to
go endangered. The establishment and expansion of python populations are correlated with
precipitous declines in the relative abundance of several mammal species [21–23]. Through the
diminished abundance or extirpation of mammalian mesopredators, a cascade of python-
mediated indirect effects is possible [24].
Most ecological research on cane toads (Rhinella marina) has focused on invasive
populations in Australia, ignoring other areas where toads have been introduced. Such as the
islands of Hawaii where they are causing many problems. Females averaged larger than males
(mean snout-urostyle length [SUL] 106.7 mm [SE = 2.39] vs. 99.4 mm [SE = 2.22]; mean mass
163.8 g [SE = 20.67] vs. 125.0 g [SE = 8.97]). Mean SUL per site ranged from 99 to 107 mm,
and mass from 113 to 176 g. Cane toads were introduced to O’ahu in 1932 (from Puerto Rico) to
control beetle pests in commercial sugar-cane plantations [7, 10]. More than 100,000 offspring of
the original 150 founders were collected and released on the Hawai’ian Islands over the next few
years. The international diaspora of the cane toad (Rhinella marina) offers a clear example of a
geographically heterogeneous research effort. Although translocated from the Americas to >40
countries worldwide [5,7], the species has attracted minimal research (and may have had a little
environmental impact) in most of those recipient areas. In contrast, cane toads have attracted
intensive research in Australia, where they have inflicted major ecological carnage by fatally
poisoning apex predators.
 Throughout all of the Americas, invasive reptiles and amphibians are causing many
problems for native species. Most have been introduced to help control some native populations
or get rid of certain pests in areas, or they were unintentionally introduced through the pet trade
where many were just discarded into the wild. In many cases, they have no natural predators or
are poisonous to predators. Causing their populations to boom furthering their negative impact
on these environments. Where they overconsume and overpopulate leading to a massive
reduction in many native species. Unfortunately, there is very little that can be done, since these
species are so well established by this time. But there are things that can be done to reduce their
populations and impacts.

Invasive aquatic animals

Freshwater systems have a greater biodiversity per surface area than any marine or
terrestrial ecosystems (Havel et al. 2015) Freshwater ecosystems have been the most transformed
as the invasive species act as ecosystem engineers and play a huge role in nutrient and water
cycling. The Hudson River has been transformed by the invasive species, the Zebra Mussel
(Dreissena polymorpha). High amounts of these Zebra Mussels alter the algae leaving little food
for native zooplankton and increases light for vascular plants (Havel et al. 2015) Invasive species
are known to restructure freshwater food chains, such as game fish that have been introduced by
fisheries and agencies (Havel et al. 2015) Omnivores also have large impacts on communities.
The non-native rusty crayfish consume macroinvertebrates as well as outcompeting the native
crayfish species, which indirectly affects the fish community.
Large ships carrying gravel and sand in conjunction with hundreds of species being
carried into their non-native waters. Ships are most likely the source of 25% of the species
introduced to the Laurentian Great Lakes since 1970, including Zebra Mussels (Havel et al.
2015) Exotic plants and invertebrates, that have been transported from the water for fish
stocking, is the source for introducing Eurasian water-milfoil. (Havel et al. 2015) Some of the
most problematic industries are the aquarium and water garden industry because of the high
demand for exotic plants and animals, this industry successfully gets a hold of illegal species to
sell. Fishing creates a top-down effect because of the removal of larger individuals resulting in
trophic cascades. (Kopf et al. 2019) Black bass (Micropterus salmoides) have been introduced
into non-native waters as they are popular game fish, especially in the southern United States
(Bangs et al. 2018), Black bass has weak reproductive barriers making it quite easy for the bass
to hybridize with the native fish.
Using biomass explore to explore microvariation in the food web can help examine how
invasive species and river flow regulation affect native fish biomass and fish communities (Kopf
et al. 2019) In Australia’s largest river system, Murray Darling, invasive species have obtained
higher biomass than the native species. Invasive common carp (Cyprinus carpio) were connected
to the extremely low levels of native fish biomass ranging from -47% to -68% (Kopf et al. 2019)
controlling these common carp has the potential to boost native fish biomass to more than double
their current level. Invasive species and river flow alteration, such as dams, are the two major
biodiversity changes in aquatic ecosystems worldwide. Physically and chemically alternated
habitats, like reservoirs, are more likely to carry invasive species.
Freshwater species in North America had exceptionally high biodiversity (Bangs et al.
2018) but, because of threats like climate change, modification of habitats, pollution, disease,
and introduced species, the biodiversity has declined. The decline in native fish from
hybridization can lower fitness and lead to genetic extirpation or extinction (Bangs et al. 2018)
Hybridization of native and non-native species have threatened commercial fish including trout,
pupfishes, peocilids, basses, carp, and suckers (Bangs et al. 2018)
Freshwater species have been the most affected by humans than terrestrial ecosystems
(Thomaz et al. 2015) The living planet index that is based on monitoring of animal populations,
has declined 76% between 1970 and 2010 in freshwater ecosystems. There was only a 39%
decrease in marine and terrestrial ecosystems (Thomaz et al. 2015) I have talked about climate
change several times in this article, but it is playing a huge part in why these non-native species
are so successful.

Invasive Insects
When you think of invasive insects, a few things come to mind. The common stink bug,
known as the Brown Marmorated stink bug, and beetles, though there are many kinds. A huge
reason these insects are migrating to environments and climates they once wouldn’t come to is
because of climate change. When thinking about climate change, most people think about the
ocean or the atmosphere, but many don't see the little things happening right in front of us that
we see, yet can't explain. Climate change is causing these insects to evolve and adapt to the
climate of North America, allowing them to mate and reproduce.
Stink bugs, Halyomorpha halys, are native to Asia and were introduced to North America
in the mid-1990s, possibly through shipping containers when trade was most prevalent (United
States). Stink bugs are very alarming for farmers because most feed on crops and plants when
they are in their immature and adult lives. Stink bugs are most commonly found in the mid-
Atlantic region of North America and have been successfully identified in 38 states (United
States). They are a major economic problem for fruit, vegetables, and field crops for farmers.
They are also indoor pests when winter seasons come around, as they like to head indoors to get
away from the hard cold snow. Fortunately, they do not bite animals or humans, but when
squashed, they can let out a bad-smelling odor. The EPA, The United States Environmental
Protection Agency, is taking preventative action to help farmers keep their crops safe from these
invasive species (United States). EPA has “approved the use of insecticides bifenthrin and
dinotefuran on tree fruit to help manage populations of the brown marmorated stink bugs”
(United States). “In 2011, EPA approved an additional use for an insecticide that may help
manage stink bugs in organic production systems. This product contains azadirachtin and
pyrethrins, which are derived from botanical ingredients. This product is approved for use on
many crops where stink bug management is needed and it can be used by organic farmers”
(United States).
 Japanese Beetles are the most common when you think of beetles, Popillia japonica.
They are native to Japan and were introduced to North America in the early 1990s (Kenis et al).
They were first discovered in 1916 and would have come to North America through the
transferring of plants and soil (Kenis et al). These beetles are also so destructive to plants, fruits,
vegetables, and crops. Adults feed on foliage and fruits of trees, shrubs, vines, and crops; while
larvae feed on roots and grasses (Kenis et al).
How do we control and protect ourselves from these invasive species? There are a few
things everyone can do to help prevent the spread of these insects, and they seem so small, but
could help make a huge difference for our plant life and health. First, when purchasing plants and
flowers for your garden, make sure they aren't invasive plants. If they are, they could have
invasive insects and bugs on them. Do your research before you pick plants (Invasive Species)!
Next, when you go hiking on that nice, sunny, summer day, clean your boot and book bag before
and after you go so you aren't taking new species into an area where they aren't common
(Invasive Species). Another thing is to make sure when camping, the foods you are packing
don’t sit out where insects can crawl on them (Invasive Species). Last, do your own research on
ways you can help slow down climate change. We all can do our part to help the spread of these
pesky bugs, but we also need to be cautious of the harmful things they will do to our
environment.

Conclusion
In conclusion, invasive species have made a large impact on every ecosystem. While
there are efforts to stop these invasive species from out-competing the native species, there are
also contributing factors to more invasive species that sets back our efforts to stop them. Invasive
species are ecosystem engineers and have been transforming ecosystems by altering the food
chains and taking over habitats. These species also cause danger to humans from invasive insects
destroying crops and toxic algae in waterways. Humans enhance invasive species by not only
being the ones to release them into their non-native habitats, but everything we have done to
enhance climate change has made it faster and easier for invasive species to take over.

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