Ten Principal

Disciples

The ten principal disciples were the main

disciples of Gautama Buddha.[1]
Depending on the scripture, the disciples
included in this group vary. In many
Mahāyāna discourses, these ten disciples
are mentioned, but in differing order.[2][3][1]
The ten disciples can be found as an
iconographic group in notable places in the
Mogao Caves. They are mentioned in
Chinese texts from the fourth century BCE
until the twelfth century CE, and are the
most honored of the groups of disciples,
especially so in China and Central Asia.[1]
The ten disciples are mentioned in the
Mahāyāna text Vimalakīrti-nideśa, among
others. In this text, they are called the "Ten
Wise Ones" (pinyin: shih-che), a term which
is normally used for the disciples of
Confucius.[4]
The Buddha and his disciples. Kandy, Sri Lanka

Śāriputra
Śāriputra (Sanskrit: शा रपु ,
romanized: Śāriputra; Tibetan: ་རི འི་ ་, Pali:
Sāriputta) (lit. "the son of Śāri"); born
Upatiṣya (Pali: Upatissa); was one of the
top disciples of the Buddha.[5] He is
considered the first of the Buddha's two
chief disciples, together with
Maudgalyāyana (Pali: Moggallāna).[6]
Śāriputra had a key leadership role in the
ministry of the Buddha and is considered
in many Buddhist schools to have been
important in the development of the
Buddhist Abhidharma.[7][8] He appears in
several Mahayana sutras, and in some
sutras, is used as a counterpoint to
represent the Hinayana school of
Buddhism.[9][10]

Buddhist texts relate that Śāriputra and

Maudgalyāyana were childhood friends
who became spiritual wanderers in their
youth.[11] After having searched for
spiritual truth for a while, they came into
contact with the teachings of the Buddha
and ordained as monks under him, after
which the Buddha declared the friends his
two chief disciples.[12][13][14] Śāriputra was
said to have attained enlightenment as an
arhat two weeks after ordaining.[15][14] As
chief disciple Śāriputra assumed a
leadership role in the Sangha, doing tasks
like looking after monks, giving them
objects of meditation, and clarifying points
of doctrine.[16][7][17] He was the first
disciple the Buddha allowed to ordain
other monks.[18] Śāriputra died shortly
before the Buddha in his hometown and
was cremated.[19][20] According to
Buddhist texts, his relics were then
enshrined at Jetavana Monastery.[21]
Archaeological findings from the 1800s
suggest his relics may have been
redistributed across the Indian
subcontinent by subsequent kings.[22][23]

Śāriputra is regarded as an important and

wise disciple of the Buddha, particularly in
Theravada Buddhism where he is given a
status close to a second Buddha.[24] In
Buddhist art, he is often depicted
alongside the Buddha, usually to his
right.[5] He was known for his strict
adherence to the Buddhist monastic rules,
as well as for his wisdom and teaching
ability, giving him the title "General of the
Dharma" (Sanskrit: Dharmasenapati; Pali:
Dhammasenāpati).[25][7][14] Śāriputra is
considered the disciple of the Buddha who
was foremost in wisdom.[26] His female
counterpart was Kṣemā.[27]

Maudgalyāyana
Maudgalyāyana (Pali: Moggallāna), also
known as Mahāmaudgalyāyana or by his
birth name Kolita, was one of the Buddha's
closest disciples. He is considered the
second of the Buddha's two foremost
male disciples, together with Śāriputra.[25]
Traditional accounts relate that
Maudgalyāyana and Śāriputra become
spiritual wanderers in their youth.[28] After
having searched for spiritual truth for a
while, they come into contact with the
Buddhist teaching through verses that
have become widely known in the Buddhist
world.[29][30] Eventually they meet the
Buddha himself and ordain as monks
under him. Maudgalyāyana attains
enlightenment shortly after that.[31]

Maudgalyayana and Śāriputra have a deep

spiritual friendship.[32] They are depicted in
Buddhist art as the two disciples that
accompany the Buddha,[33] and they have
complementing roles as teachers.[25] As a
teacher, Maudgalyayana is known for his
psychic powers, and he is often depicted
using these in his teaching methods.[34] In
many early Buddhist canons,
Maudgalyāyana is instrumental in re-
uniting the monastic community after
Devadatta causes a schism.[35]
Furthermore, Maudgalyāyana is connected
with accounts about the making of the first
Buddha image.[36] Maudgalyāyana dies at
the age of eighty-four, killed through the
efforts of a rival sect.[25] This violent death
is described in Buddhist scriptures as a
result of Maudgalyāyana's karma of having
killed his own parents in a previous life.[31]
Through post-canonical texts,
Maudgalyāyana became known for his
filial piety through a popular account of
him transferring his merits to his
mother.[35] This led to a tradition in many
Buddhist countries known as the ghost
festival, during which people dedicate their
merits to their ancestors.[37]
Maudgalyāyana has also traditionally been
associated with meditation[38] and
sometimes Abhidharma texts, as well as
the Dharmaguptaka school.[39] In the
nineteenth century, relics were found
attributed to him, which have been widely
venerated.[40]
Mahākāśyapa
Mahā Kāśyapa or Mahākāśyapa (Pali:
Mahākassapa) is regarded in Buddhism as
an enlightened disciple, being foremost in
ascetic practice. Mahākāśyapa assumed
leadership of the monastic community
following the paranirvāṇa (death) of the
Buddha, presiding over the First Buddhist
Council. He was considered to be the first
patriarch in a number of early Buddhist
schools and continued to have an
important role as patriarch in the Chan and
Zen tradition. In Buddhist texts, he
assumed many identities, that of a
renunciant saint, a lawgiver, an anti-
establishment figure, but also a "guarantor
of future justice" in the time of Maitreya[41]
—he has been described as "both the
anchorite and the friend of mankind, even
of the outcast".[42]

In canonical Buddhist texts in several

traditions, Mahākāśyapa was born as
Pippali in a brahmin family,[43] and entered
an arranged marriage with a woman
named Bhadra-Kapilānī. Both of them
aspired to lead a celibate life, however, and
they decided not to consummate their
marriage. Having grown weary of the
agricultural profession and the damage it
did, they both left the lay life behind to
become mendicants.[44] Pippali later met
the Buddha, under whom he was ordained
as a monk, named Kāśyapa,[45] but later
called Mahākāśyapa to distinguish him
from other disciples.[46] Mahākāśyapa
became an important disciple of the
Buddha, to the extent that the Buddha
exchanged his robe with him, which was a
symbol of the transmittance of the
Buddhist teaching.[47] He became
foremost in ascetic practices[48] and
attained enlightenment shortly after met
the Buddha.[49] He often had disputes with
Ānanda, the attendant of the Buddha, due
to their different dispositions and views.[50]
Despite his ascetic, strict and stern
reputation, he paid an interest in
community matters and teaching,[51] and
was known for his compassion for the
poor,[52] which sometimes caused him to
be depicted as an anti-establishment
figure.[53] He had a prominent role in the
cremation of the Buddha, acting as a sort
of eldest son of the Buddha, as well as
being the leader in the subsequent First
Council.[54] He is depicted as hesitatingly
allowing Ānanda to participate in the
council,[55] and chastising him afterwards
for a number of offenses the latter was
regarded to have committed.[56]
Mahākāśyapa's life as described in the
early Buddhist texts has been considerably
studied by scholars, who have been
skeptical about his role in the
cremation,[57] his role toward Ānanda[58]
and the historical validity of the council
itself.[59] A number of scholars have
hypothesized that the accounts have later
been embellished to emphasize the values
of the Buddhist establishment
Mahākāśyapa stood for, emphasizing
monastic discipline, brahmin and ascetic
values, as opposed to the values of
Ānanda and other disciples.[60][61]
Regardless, it is clear that Mahākāśyapa
had an important role in the early days of
the Buddhist community after the Buddha's
parinirvāṇa, to help establish a stable
monastic tradition.[62] He effectively
became the leader for the first twenty
years after the Buddha,[63] as he had
become the most influential figure in the
monastic community.[64] For this reason,
he was regarded by many early Buddhist
schools as a sort of first patriarch, and
was seen to have started a lineage of
patriarchs of Buddhism.[65] This further
amplified the idea of him being the primary
heir and elder son of the Buddha, which
came to be symbolized by the robe
Mahākāśyapa had received.[66][67]
In many post-canonical texts,
Mahākāśyapa decided at the end of his
life to enter a state of meditation and
suspended animation, which was believed
to cause his physical remains to stay
intact in a cave under a mountain called
Kukkuṭapāda, until the coming of Maitreya
Buddha in a next age.[68] This story has led
to several cults and practices,[69] and
affected some Buddhist countries up until
early modern times.[70] It has been
interpreted by scholars as a narrative to
physically connect Gautama Buddha with
the next Buddha Maitreya, through the
body of Mahākāśyapa and Gautama
Buddha's robe, which covered
Mahākāśyapa's remains.[71] In Chan
Buddhism, this account was less
emphasized,[72] but Mahākāśyapa was
seen to have received a special mind-to-
mind transmission from Gautama Buddha
outside of orthodox scripture, which
became essential to the identity of
Chan.[73] Again, the robe was an important
symbol in this transmission.[72] Apart from
having a role in texts and lineage,
Mahākāśyapa has often been depicted in
Buddhist art as a symbol of reassurance
and hope for the future of Buddhism.[74]

Subhuti
Subhūti (Sanskrit; Pali: Subhadda[75])
understood the potency of emptiness. He
is the disciple foremost of those living
remote and in peace (araṇavihārīnaṃ
aggo), and of those who were worthy of
gifts (dakkhiṇeyyānaṃ). He appears in
several Sutras of Mahāyāna Buddhism
which teach Śūnyatā (Emptiness or
Voidness). He is the subject of the Subhūti
Sutta.

Purna Maitrayaniputra
Pūrṇa Maitrāyaniputra (Sk.) or Puṇṇa
Mantānīputta (Pl.). He was also called
Purna for short. He was the greatest
teacher of the Law out of all the disciples.
He was the top master of preaching.

Katyayana
Kātyāyana or Mahākātyāyana (Sk.) or
Mahākaccāna (Pl.). He understood
Shakyamuni Buddha's lecture the best.
Although he had only five master in the
rural areas, he was permitted to learn
Vinaya by the Buddha.

Aniruddha
Anuruddha (Pl.) or Aniruddha (Sk.) was a
top master of clairvoyance and the
practice of the four foundations of
mindfulness (satipatthana). Aniruddha
was a cousin of Shakyamuni Buddha. He
and Ananda became monks at the same
time.

Upāli
Upāli (Sanskrit and Pāli) was, according to
early Buddhist texts, mainly responsible
for the reciting and reviewing monastic
discipline (Pāli and Sanskrit: vinaya) on the
First Buddhist Council.[76] Upāli was born
as a low-caste barber.[77] He met the
Buddha when still child,[78] and later, when
the Sakya princes received ordination, he
did so as well. He was, in fact, ordained
before the princes, putting humility before
caste.[79] Having ordained, Upāli learnt
both Buddhist doctrine (Pali: Dhamma;
Sanskrit: Dharma) and vinaya.[80] His
preceptor was Kappitaka.[81] Upāli became
known for his mastery and strictness of
vinaya, and was consulted often about
vinaya matters.[82][83] A notable case he
decided about was that of the monk
Ajjuka, who was accused of partisanship in
a conflict about real estate.[84] During the
First Council, Upāli received the important
role of reciting the vinaya, for which he is
mostly known.[76]
Scholars have analyzed Upāli's role and
that of other disciples in the early texts,
and it has been suggested that his role in
the texts was emphasized during a period
of compiling that stressed monastic
discipline, during which Mahākassapa
(Sanskrit: Mahākāśyapa) and Upāli
became the most important
disciples.[85][60] Later, Upāli and his pupils
became known as vinayadharas (Pāli;
'custodians of the vinaya'), who preserved
the monastic discipline after the Buddha's
parinibbāna (Sanskrit: parinirvāṇa; passing
into final Nirvana). This lineage became an
important part of the identity of Ceylonese
and Burmese Buddhism.[86] In China, the
7th-century Vinaya school referred to Upāli
as their patriarch and it was believed that
one of their founders was a reincarnation
of him.[87][88] The technical conversations
about vinaya between the Buddha and
Upāli were recorded in the Pāli and
Sarvāstivāda traditions,[89] and have been
suggested as an important subject of
study for modern-day ethics in American
Buddhism.[90]

Rāhula
Rāhula (Pāli and Sanskrit) was the only
son of Siddhārtha Gautama, and his wife
and princess Yaśodharā. He is mentioned
in numerous Buddhist texts, from the early
period onward.[91] Accounts about Rāhula
indicate a mutual impact between Prince
Siddhārtha's life and those of his family
members.[92] According to the Pāli
tradition, Rāhula is born on the day of
Prince Siddhārta's renunciation, and is
therefore named Rāhula, meaning a fetter
on the path to enlightenment.[93][94]
According to the Mūlasarvāstivāda
tradition, and numerous other later
sources, however, Rāhula is only conceived
on the day of Prince Siddhārtha, and is
born six years later, when Prince
Siddhārtha becomes enlightened as the
Buddha.[95] This long gestation period is
explained by bad karma from previous
lives of both Yaśodharā and of Rāhula
himself, although more naturalistic
reasons are also given.[96] As a result of
the late birth, Yaśodharā needs to prove
that Rāhula is really Prince Siddhārtha's
son, which she eventually does
successfully by an act of truth.[97]
Historian Wolfgang Schumann has argued
that Prince Siddhārtha conceived Rāhula
and waited for his birth, to be able to leave
the palace with the king and queen's
permission,[98] but Orientalist Noël Péri
considered it more likely that Rāhula was
born after Prince Siddhārtha left his
palace.[99]
Between seven[94] and fifteen[100] years
after Rāhula is born, the Buddha returns to
Kapilavastu, where Yaśodharā has Rāhula
ask the Buddha for the throne of the Śākya
clan. The Buddha responds by having
Rāhula ordain as the first Buddhist novice
monk.[93] He teaches the young novice
about truth, self-reflection,[94] and not-
self,[101] eventually leading to Rāhula's
enlightenment.[102][103] Although early
accounts state that Rāhula dies before the
Buddha does,[93] later tradition has it that
Rāhula is one of the disciples that outlives
the Buddha, guarding the Buddha's
Dispensation until the rising of the next
Buddha.[104] Rāhula is known in Buddhist
texts for his eagerness for learning,[105]
and was honored by novice monks and
nuns throughout Buddhist history.[106] His
accounts have led to a perspective in
Buddhism of seeing children as hindrances
to the spiritual life on the one hand, and as
people with potential for enlightenment on
the other hand.[107]

Ānanda
Ānanda was the primary attendant of the
Buddha and one of his ten principal
disciples.[108] Among the Buddha's many
disciples, Ānanda stood out for having the
best memory.[109] Most of the texts of the
early Buddhist Sutta-Piṭaka (Pāli; Sanskrit:
Sūtra-Piṭaka) are attributed to his
recollection of the Buddha's teachings
during the First Buddhist Council.[110] For
that reason, he is known as the "Treasurer
of the Dhamma", with Dhamma (Sanskrit:
Dharma) referring to the Buddha's
teaching.[111] In Early Buddhist Texts,
Ānanda is the first cousin of the
Buddha.[110] Although the texts do not
agree on most things about Ānanda's early
life, they do agree that Ānanda is ordained
as a monk and that Puṇṇa Mantāniputta
(Sanskrit: Pūrṇa Maitrāyaṇīputra) becomes
his teacher.[112] Twenty years in the
Buddha's ministry, Ānanda becomes the
attendant of the Buddha, when the Buddha
selects him for this job.[113] Ānanda
performs his duties with great devotion
and care, and acts as an intermediary
between the Buddha and the laypeople, as
well as the Saṅgha (monastic
community).[114][115] He accompanies the
Buddha for the rest of his life, acting not
only as an assistant, but also a secretary
and a mouthpiece.[116]

Scholars are skeptical about the historicity

of many events in Ānanda's life, especially
the First Council, and consensus about this
has yet to be established.[117][118] A
traditional account can be drawn from
early texts, commentaries, and post-
canonical chronicles. Ānanda has an
important role in establishing the order of
bhikkhunis, when he requests the Buddha
on behalf of the latter's foster-mother
Mahāpajāpati Gotamī (Sanskrit:
Mahāprajāpatī Gautamī) to allow her to be
ordained.[119] Ānanda also accompanies
the Buddha in the last year of his life, and
therefore is witness to many tenets and
principles that the Buddha conveys and
establishes before his death, including the
well-known principle that the Buddhist
community should take his teaching and
discipline as their refuge, and that the
Buddha will not appoint a new
leader.[120][121] The final period of the
Buddha's life also shows that Ānanda is
still very much attached to the Buddha's
person, and he witnesses the Buddha's
passing with great sorrow.[122]

Shortly after the Buddha's death, the First

Council is convened, and Ānanda manages
to attain enlightenment just before the
council starts, which is a requirement.[123]
He has a historical role during the council
as the living memory of the Buddha,
reciting many of the Buddha's discourses
and checking them for accuracy.[124]
During the same council, however, he is
chastised by Mahākassapa (Sanskrit:
Mahākāśyapa) and the rest of the Saṅgha
for allowing women to be ordained and
failing to understand or respect the
Buddha at several crucial moments.[125]
Ānanda continues to teach until the end of
his life, passing on his spiritual heritage to
his pupils Sāṇavāsī (Sanskrit: Śāṇakavāsī)
and Majjhantika (Sanskrit:
Madhyāntika),[126] among others, who later
assume a leading role in the Second[127]
and Third Councils.[128] Ānanda dies in 463
BCE, and stūpas (monuments) are erected
at the river where he dies.[129]

Ānanda is one of the most loved figures in

Buddhism. Ānanda is known for his
memory, erudition and compassion, and is
often praised by the Buddha for these
matters.[130][131] He functions as a foil to
the Buddha, however, in that he still has
worldly attachments and is not yet
enlightened, as opposed to the
Buddha.[132] In the Sanskrit textual
traditions, Ānanda is widely considered the
patriarch of the Dhamma, who stands in a
spiritual lineage, receiving the teaching
from Mahākassapa and passing them on
to his own pupils.[133] Ānanda has been
honored by bhikkhunis since early medieval
times for his merits in establishing the
nun's order.[134] In recent times, the
composer Richard Wagner wrote a draft
for a libretto about Ānanda, which was
made into the opera Wagner Dream by
Jonathan Harvey in 2007.[135]

Similar lists
In the Pāli text Udāna, a similar list is
mentioned, but these are eleven not ten
disciples, and five in the list are
different.[136] Although in the early Sanskrit
and Chinese texts, there are only four
enlightened disciples, in later tradition
there are eight enlightened disciples
(found in the Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa;[137] there
still are in the Burmese tradition[138]),
sixteen (in Chinese and Tibetan texts) and
then eighteen disciples (in Chinese
texts).[139] There is also a Chinese tradition
with five hundred disciples.[138][140]

No. Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa[137] Mahāyāna discourses [2][1] Pāli discourses [136]

1. Śāriput ra Śāriput ra Śāriput ra

2. Maudgalyāyana Maudgalyāyana Maudgalyāyana

3. Mahākāśyapa/Gavāṃpat i Mahākāśyapa Mahākāśyapa

4. Subhūt i/Piṇḍolabhāradvāja Subhūt i Mahākāt yāyana

5. Rāhula/Pilindavat sa Pūrṇa Mait rāyaniput ra Mahākoṭ ṭ hit a

6. Nanda/Rāhula Aniruddha Kaphiṇa

7. Bhadrika/Mahākāśyapa Mahākāt yāyana Mahācunda

8. Kaphiṇa/Ānanda Upāli Aniruddha

9. N/A Rāhula Revat a

10. N/A Ānanda Devadat t a

11. N/A N/A Ānanda

Notes
1. Tambiah 1984, p. 22.
2. Nishijima & Cross 2008, p. 32 note
119.
 3. Keown 2004, p. 298.
4. Mather 1968, p. 72 note 34.
5. Silk 2019, p. 410.
. Hecker & Nyanaponika Thera 2003,
p. 376-377.
7. Silk 2019, p. 413.
. Silk 2019, p. 416.
9. Silk 2019, p. 416-417.
10. Buswell & Lopez 2013, p. 1904.
11. Silk 2019, p. 411.
12. Hecker & Nyanaponika Thera 2003,
p. 31-32,57.
13. Daulton 1999, p. 104.
14. Buswell & Lopez 2013, p. 1903.
15. Hecker & Nyanaponika Thera 2003,
p. 56-57.
1 . Migot 1954, p. 407,462-463.
17. Hecker & Nyanaponika Thera 2003,
p. 68-69.
1 . Migot 1954, p. 471.
19. Silk 2019, p. 414.
20. Migot 1954, p. 473-474.
21. Silk 2019, p. 414-415.
22. Brekke 2007, p. 275.
23. Daulton 1999, p. 105-106.
24. Ray 1994, p. 131-133.
25. Malalasekera 1937.
2 . Hecker & Nyanaponika Thera 2003,
p. 65.
27. Krey 2010, p. 19.
2 . Migot 1954, p. 426.
29. Buswell & Lopez 2013, p. 77.
30. Skilling 2003, p. 273.
31. Buswell & Lopez 2013, p. 499.
32. Migot 1954, pp. 433, 475.
33. Migot 1954, pp. 407, 416–417.
34. Gethin 2011, p. 222.
35. Mrozik 2004, p. 487,
Mahāmaudgalyāyana.
3 . Brown 2013, p. 371.
37. Harvey 2013, p. 262–263.
3 . Strong 1994.
39. Buswell & Lopez 2013, pp. 7, 245, 252.
40. Migot 1954, p. 416.
41. Ray 1994, p. 117.
42. Rhys Davids 1914, p. 160.
43. Karaluvinna 2002, p. 435.
44. Clarke 2014, pp. 110–112.
45. Buswell & Lopez 2013, Bhadra-
Kapilānī.
4 . Clarke 2014, p. 112.
47. Sanvido 2017, p. 343.
4 . Clarke 2014, p. 107.
49. Ray 1994, p. 106.
50. Ohnuma 2013, pp. 51, 57, 59.
51. Analayo 2010, pp. 17–19.
52. Wilson 2003, p. 57.
53. Ray 1994, p. 110.
54. Strong 1994, pp. 62, 115.
55. Buswell & Lopez 2013, Mahākāśyapa.
5 . Buswell & Lopez 2013, Council, 1st.
57. Bareau 1979, pp. 74–75.
5 . Findly 1992, p. 254.
59. Prebish 2005, p. 226.
0. Migot 1954, pp. 540–541.
1. Findly 1992, p. 253.
2. Ray 1994, pp. 114, 117–118, 396.
3. Heim 2004, p. 468.
4. Hirakawa 1993, pp. 84–85.
 5. Morrison 2010, p. 23.
. Adamek 2011, Bodhidharma's Robe.
7. Tournier 2014, pp. 17–18, note 62,
20–22, note 78.
. Strong 2007, pp. 45–46.
9. Ray 1994, pp. 114–115.
70. Deeg 1999, p. 168.
71. Silk 2003, pp. 200, 207.
72. Faure 1995, pp. 339–340.
73. Hershock, P. (2019). "Chan
Buddhism" . The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford
 University. Archived from the original
on 11 September 2019.
74. Kim 2011, p. 137.
75. Irons 2008, p. 162.
7 . Eliade 1982, pp. 210–211.
77. Gombrich 1995, p. 357.
7 . Bareau 1962, p. 262.
79. Malalasekera 1937, Upāli.
0. Malalasekera 1937, Upāli; Upāli Sutta
(3).
1. Freedman 1977, p. 58.
2. Mrozik 2004, Upāli.
3. Baroni 2002, p. 365.
4. Huxley 2010, p. 278.
 5. Przyluski 1932, pp. 22–23.
. Frasch 1996, pp. 2–4, 12, 14.
7. Hsiang-Kuang 1956, p. 207.
. Bapat 1956, pp. 126–127.
9. Norman 1983, p. 29.
90. Prebish 2000, pp. 56–57.
91. Meeks 2016, p. 139.
92. Strong 1997, pp. 122–4.
93. Buswell & Lopez 2013, Rāhula.
94. Saddhasena 2003, p. 481.
95. Strong 1997, p. 119.
9 . Meeks 2016, pp. 139–40.
97. Strong 1997, p. 120.
9 . Schumann 2004, p. 46.
 99. Péri 1918, pp. 34–5.
100. Crosby 2013, p. 110.
101. Crosby 2013, p. 115.
102. Saddhasena 2003, pp. 482–3.
103. Crosby 2013, p. 116.
104. Strong 1997, p. 121.
105. Malalasekera 1937, Rāhula .
10 . Meeks 2016, passim..
107. Nakagawa 2005, p. 41.
10 . Nishijima & Cross, p. 32 n.119.
109. Mun-keat 2000, p. 142.
110. Powers 2013, Ānanda.
111. Sarao 2004, p. 49, Ānanda.
112. Witanachchi 1965, p. 530.
113. Keown 2004, p. 12.
114. Malalasekera 1937, Ānanda .
115. Buswell & Lopez 2013, Ānanda.
11 . Findly 2003, p. 377.
117. Prebish 2005, pp. 226, 231.
11 . Mukherjee 1994, p. 457.
119. Ohnuma 2006, pp. 862, 872.
120. Buswell & Lopez 2013,
Mahāparinibbānasuttanta.
121. Obeyesekere 2017, The Death of the
Buddha: A Restorative Interpretation.
122. Strong 1977, pp. 398–399.
123. Buswell & Lopez 2013, Ānanda;
Īryāpatha.
124. Keown 2004, p. 164.
125. von Hinüber 2007, p. 235–236.
12 . Witanachchi 1965, pp. 534–5.
127. Hirakawa 1993.
12 . Bechert 2005, p. 69.
129. Lamotte 1988, pp. 93, 210.
130. Sarao 2004, Ānanda.
131.  One or more of the preceding
sentences incorporates text from a
publication now in the public
domain: Rhys Davids, Thomas William
(1911). "Ānanda". In Chisholm, Hugh
(ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th
ed.). Cambridge University Press.
p. 913.
132. Shaw 2006, p. 115.
133. Buswell & Lopez 2013, Damoduoluo
chan jing; Madhyāntika.
134. Ambros 2016, pp. 209–212, 214,
216–218, 245–246.
135. App 2011, pp. 42–43.
13 . Ray 1994, p. 162.
137. Ray 1994, pp. 205 note 2b.
13 . Strong 1997, pp. 121–122.
139. Tambiah (1984, p. 23) and Lamotte
(1988), the latter cited in Ray (1994,
pp. 205–206 note 2a–d).
140. Ray 1994, p. 179.

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