International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management

Six Sigma DMAIC project to improve the performance of an aluminum die casting
operation in Portugal
Pedro Alexandre de Albuquerque Marques Robert Matthé
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Six Sigma
Six Sigma DMAIC DMAIC project
project to improve the
performance of an aluminum
die casting operation in Portugal 307

Pedro Alexandre de Albuquerque Marques Received 24 May 2015

Revised 2 September 2015
Department of Strategy and Special Projects, ISQ – Welding and Quality Institute, 5 December 2015
31 January 2016
Porto Salvo, Portugal, and Accepted 1 February 2016
Robert Matthé
STA – Sociedade Transformadora de Alumínios, Maia, Portugal
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Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to illustrate an application of the Six Sigma define, measure, analyze,
improve, control (DMAIC) problem-solving methodology in a Portuguese industrial enterprise, aimed at
reducing the rejection rate of a specific manufactured product due to defects generated in an aluminum
gravity die casting operation.
Design/methodology/approach – Along the five-stage roadmap, a set of analytical and conceptual tools
was systematically employed to better characterize the problem, define the product’s critical to quality
characteristics, estimate the process baseline, determine the relevant cause-and-effect relationships, identify
the root causes leading to the high rejection rate, implement an improvement plan, determine the effectiveness
of the improvement actions, and put in place a control plan.
Findings – The project team discovered that the high rejection rate was caused by factors inherent to the
gravity die casting operation itself and by the mixing of rejected parts made of different types of alloys from
other locations within the plant. Another key finding was that the successful execution of the project was only
possible due to the belief and support of top management and to the active involvement of the team members.
Practical implications – This case study illustrates a successful practical application of a Six Sigma
project in a small-medium enterprise in Portugal, as well as the operational and financial benefits that derived
from it; thus providing a good example for others to follow.
Originality/value – Few cases of continual improvement initiatives, including Six Sigma projects,
developed at a Portuguese company are available in the literature; this paper fills such void by describing a
very successful application that demonstrates the advantages that other companies can learn in terms of
adopting structured methodologies to improve the quality of their products and the efficiency of their
processes. Moreover, the analysis and conclusions herein presented can be of great importance for companies
using gravity die casting technology.
Keywords Six Sigma, DMAIC, Design of experiments (DOE), Low pressure die casting
Paper type Case study

1. Introduction
Six Sigma is a project-based, customer-focused, and data-driven approach (Black and Revere,
2006) that makes use of a structured and systematic methodology, which relies on the define,
measure, analyze, improve, control (DMAIC) roadmap for continuous improvement, to
enhance the capability of business processes (El-Haik and Al-Aomar, 2006). To be effectively
implemented, this problem-solving methodology requires full management belief and
commitment, a well-trained and experienced technical project leadership to act as a change-
agent, and a dedicated and competent multifunctional project team (Goldstein, 2001).
Despite its growing popularity, few practical applications of Six Sigma in Portugal have
International Journal of Quality &
been reported. This paper describes a concrete application of a Six Sigma project in a Reliability Management
Portuguese industrial enterprise, by outlining the activities that were carried out during Vol. 34 No. 2, 2017
pp. 307-330
each phase of the DMAIC approach, and by illustrating how, when, and why a set tools and © Emerald Publishing Limited
0265-671X
techniques were employed. The project was identified and selected to improve the current DOI 10.1108/IJQRM-05-2015-0086
 IJQRM manufacturing process, in order to minimize the rejection rate of a specific manufactured
34,2 item, an aluminum window handle model.
The paper is organized around five main sections. In Section 2, a brief overview of Six
Sigma is given. The current state of the implementation of Six Sigma in Portugal is analyzed
in Section 3. The case study is presented and described throughout Section 4, as well as the
discussion of its results and practical implications. Finally, the conclusions of this paper are
308 summarized in Section 5.

2. Six Sigma
Six Sigma has been labeled and defined in a variety of ways, but it is often described from
the following three viewpoints:
(1) metric;
(2) methodology; and
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(3) management system.

The name Six Sigma derives from statistics, as the sigma-level metric is a measure of
conformance quality (De Mast, 2007). Achieving a Six Sigma level quality means that processes
are producing nearly perfectly, with a probability of not producing more than 3.4 defects
per million of opportunities (DPMO). Not all processes need to perform at such level of quality.
The metric perspective of Six Sigma is well explained in Barone and Lo Franco (2012).
From a methodological viewpoint, Six Sigma is a project-by-project approach that is
carried out through a succession of predefined phases, inspired by the PDCA cycle. DMAIC
is a five-phase roadmap used in Six Sigma projects targeting the performance improvement
of an existing process, product, or service. To support factual data analysis and decision
making during the project activities, appropriate tools and techniques are employed.
Between each phase, a formal project review, called a “tollgate,” takes place. The DMAIC
approach, the set of tools and techniques used in each phase, and the tollgate process are
thoroughly described in Breyfogle (2003).
When combined with Lean management, the resulting approach is known as Lean Six
Sigma. Six Sigma focuses on reducing process variation and enhancing process control,
while Lean drives out waste and promotes work standardization and flow (Su et al., 2006).
They are different but complementary methodologies. Lean principles and tools can be
utilized in all phases of the DMAIC approach.
Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) is a methodological branch of Six Sigma that should be applied
when innovation efforts are involved in a project (Hoerl and Gardner, 2010). Several DFSS
roadmaps have been proposed in the literature, but the “identify, design, optimize, validate” and
the “define, measure, analyze, design, verify” are the most often employed (Shahin, 2008).
Regardless of the adopted methodological approach, all Six Sigma projects go through
the following five stages (Marques et al., 2014):
(1) identification of Six Sigma projects;
(2) selection of Six Sigma projects;
(3) Six Sigma project planning;
(4) Six Sigma project execution and completion; and
(5) post Six Sigma project, where lessons learned are determined, recorded, and archived.
Finally, Six Sigma can be regarded as a management system. From this perspective,
Six Sigma is an enterprise-wide initiative, aligned with its strategy and business processes’
goals, which deployment relies on a well-trained role structure, with specific levels of
responsibilities (Zu et al., 2008). The human infrastructure of a Six Sigma program as well as
 the typical roles of a Six Sigma project, are well described in Kubiak and Benbow (2009). Six Sigma
A relatively new issue on Six Sigma concerns the integration of a Six Sigma program with DMAIC project
management system standards, in particular ISO 9001 for quality management systems.
Karthi et al. (2011) and Marques et al. (2013) provide a good insight on this subject.

3. Six Sigma in Portugal

Information about the adoption of Six Sigma in Portugal is scarce. This section aims to
contribute for a better characterization of the initiative in the country. To that purpose, a
309
specific literature review was conducted, and relevant data and information were compiled
and analyzed.
Carvalho (2008) attempted to assess the extent to which Portuguese companies adopt a set of
total quality management approaches, including Six Sigma. To that purpose, the largest 1,000
non-financial companies operating in the country were surveyed. From the 124 questionnaires
received and validated, only 13 of the companies indicated to have adopted Six Sigma.
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Conceição and Major (2011) conducted a survey to determine the extent to which
Six Sigma is adopted by the largest 500 non-financial companies operating in Portugal.
Their main conclusions were the following:
• the implementation of Six Sigma still has little expression in those companies; and
• despite this, companies demonstrate a good interest in Six Sigma, just surpassed by
ISO 9001 and the balanced scorecard.
Pacheco (2012) surveyed a set of Portuguese ISO 9001 certified companies from different
activity sector about their perceived importance of a wide set of quality tools, techniques,
and methodologies; 76 percent of the respondents considered Six Sigma to be an important
methodological approach, but the study also reveals that other less complex quality
methods, such as benchmarking and many of the quality basic tools, are considered to be
more important than Six Sigma.
Recent research from Fonseca et al. (2014) reveals that Six Sigma still unknown
methodology for most of the small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in Portugal, even for the
Portuguese excellency SMEs. In the authors’ opinion, this largely explains the low levels of
adoption of the Six Sigma methodology.
Silva et al. (2010) concluded that the inability to quantify benefits could be other of the
obstacles to the widespread of more advanced approaches, such as Lean and Six Sigma;
according to the authors’ study, managers are reluctant to adopt new continual improvement
paradigms if the expected benefits are unclear. For Lopes et al. (2011) one of the reasons that
can explain why just a small number of Portuguese industrial companies adopt Six Sigma is
the fact that its implementation is more demanding when compared to other quality
improvement approaches, requiring more investment in training and resources.
Peer-reviewed literature containing case studies or practical applications of Six Sigma in
Portugal was identified and shown in Table I. According to our literature review, the first
case study was published in a Portuguese journal in 2009 by Matthé (2009). In the following
year, Delgado et al. (2010) published the first Six Sigma case study that took place in
Portugal in an international journal.
Since then, every year at least one case study has been published. There are other
indicators that demonstrate an increasing interest in Six Sigma in the country. One of them
is the positive evolution on the number of MSc and PhD theses from Portuguese universities
on the subject. Figure 1 was constructed based on the information provided by the thesis
and dissertations repositories of the Portuguese universities.
The first doctoral theses were published in 2012 and 2013. Most of the MSc and PhD
theses contain practical applications of Six Sigma projects in different types and sizes of
organizations with activity in Portugal.
 IJQRM References Project scope Company
34,2
Matthé (2009) DMAIC project to reduce the delivery time of produced goods STA (producer of systems
for doors and windows)
Delgado DMAIC project to speed-up the auto loan process GE Money Portugal
et al. (2010)
Riesenberger and DMAIC project to errors during the customer complaints Bosch Car Multimedia
310 Sousa (2010) process
Gomes (2010) DMAIC project to reduce errors in the Printing Systems area Xerox Portugal
Marques Integration of Six Sigma with ISO 9001 and execution of a Six STML- (engineering
et al. (2011) Sigma DMAIC project services provider)
Baía (2015) DMAIC project to increase the filling operation capability Company that sells
fertilizer bags
Abreu DMAIC project to the reduce the response time of the Bosch Car Multimedia
et al. (2012) complaints
Ferreira DMAIC project to improve the internal logistics processes Producer of domestic
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et al. (2013) water heating equipments

Antunes DMAIC project to improve the raw material supply process Bosch Car Multimedia
et al. (2013)
Tenera and Pinto Integration of Six Sigma with a project management system Telecommunications
Table I. (2014) based on PMI (Project Management Institute) best practices company
Publications Marques DFSS project to design a new transportation service Transportation and
describing practical et al. (2014) logistics company
applications of Six Ferreira DFSS project to redesign a metallic mould Plastic manufacturing
Sigma in Portugal et al. (2014) company

10
MSc thesis PhD thesis
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
Figure 1.
Evolution of the 1
number of MSc and
PhD thesis on Six 0
Sigma in Portugal Before 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
2008

Another indicator is the increasing number of short- and long-term training courses on Six
Sigma offered in the country. For instance, currently, four post-graduate degrees on the
subject are offered, while before 2006 no such type of course existed in the country. Since
2008, a Six Sigma conference has been taking place in Portugal almost every year. Various
companies from distinct business sectors have presented communications at these events,
showing concrete Six Sigma projects and their results.
To sum up, despite the adoption of Six Sigma by companies operating in Portugal
remains very low, there is a set of indicators that reveals an increasing interest from both
the academic and professional communities.
 4. Case study Six Sigma
This section describes a Six Sigma project developed at Sociedade Transformadora de DMAIC project
Alumínios, S.A., from now referred as STA, an organization that is specialized in the design
and production of systems for doors and windows, particularly for aluminum profiles. STA
has implemented ISO 9001, it is certified ISO 9001 by TÜV Rheinland since 2006, and uses both
Lean and Six Sigma for their continual improvement. Projects are selected using a matrix that
rates them in function of different parameters linked to STA’s strategy such as: environmental, 311
safety, time reduction, savings, and payback in case of an investment is required.

4.1 Project selection

Evidences have shown that the rejection rate of a manufactured item, a window handle
model, depicted in Figure 2, subjected to a gravity die casting process operation, was very
high. Gravity die casting is the oldest casting process. It started by pouring metal in a shell
to make jewels, therefore it is often called coquille (or coquilha in Portuguese, Kokillen in
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German). But today the quality and aesthetical expectations require significant process
improvements. In this company the process is used to produce architectural hardware in low
silicon aluminum, in order that the products can be anodized. That makes the products
corrosion resistant, and it requires low maintenance.
Moreover, many of the defects could only be detected at the end of the manufacturing
process. These two related problems used to lead to significant waste factors and costs,
including the following:
(1) Waste of time and unnecessary consumption of resources in processing already
defective items.

Figure 2.
Window handle
model Ho-2AG
 IJQRM (2) Too much rework prevents other products to be manufactured, thus creating two
34,2 additional problems:
• To satisfy the specified service levels to the customer, the levels of safety stocks
need to be higher, which increases the holding costs.
• The company has more difficulties in complying with the necessary lead time to
deliver on-time the order demanded by the customer.
312
(3) The mentioned waste factors result in additional labor, materials, and energy
consumption costs, among others.
(4) Non-quality costs resulting from the lack of capability of the process in meeting the
product specifications.
(5) Intangible costs, including image and reputation costs.
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(6) The sales of anodized aluminum architectural hardware represent 5 percent of the
company’s turnover, and it is growing.
(7) Depending of experience of the operators and other unknown factors occasionally
sometimes the production yield was higher.
The company decided to select this as a Six Sigma project using the DMAIC approach. Each
project phase of this roadmap, together with the main activities comprising the planning
stage, is described in the next subsections. In the last subsection, the results and conclusions
of the project are presented and discussed.

4.2 Project planning

Planning is a prior stage that takes place before the DMAIC roadmap is initiated. It intends to
reach a clear understanding of the problem in hands, and ends with the project planning tasks.
The analysis of preliminary data enabled the team to develop the project charter, partly exhibited
in Table II, to compile and communicate the relevant information about the Six Sigma project.
The project schedule and a “responsible for, accountable for, consulted, informed” matrix
to assign and communicate the roles and responsibilities within the team, were developed as
part of the project planning.

4.3 Define phase

The initial efforts of this phase targeted a deep understanding of the manufacturing process.
Process mapping tasks using a suppliers, inputs, process, outputs, customers (SIPOC)

Project statement This Six Sigma project aims to optimize the current manufacturing process of
window handle model Ho-2AG, in order to reduce the high rejection rate
Description of the problem or Current results shows that the rejection rate for this product is more than
opportunity 50%. This is due to the high-standards: (1) the surface of the handle needs to
be impeccable and (2) invisible region of the surface cannot have objects
which can be felt by touch. Currently, the manufacturing process shows
major objects only at the end of the process
Project scope Manufacturing process of the handle Ho-2AG
Importance of the project The current process is taking too much time, and it is too costly. This justifies
the importance of this project
Table II. Main goals of the project There are two main objectives for this project: (1) to optimize the current
Project charter manufacturing process in order to minimize the rejection rate and (2) to
characterizing and determine to which extent a new or redesigned process would be needed in
scoping the Six Sigma order to elevate its capability to the desired levels
project (partial) Main resources for the project Time of the team members, external consultant
 diagram, depicted in Figure 3, were carried out. The team then gathered and analyzed data Six Sigma
from the manufacturing process, by inspecting handles that were rejected in the previous DMAIC project
two weeks of production. At the same time, an affinity diagram was constructed to group
similar types of defects into a same class/category of defect.
Data depicted in Table III, showing the number and percentage of defects that occurred
in both weeks for each category of defects established in the affinity diagram, enabled the
project team to conclude that more than 50 percent of the defects that occurred in both 313
weeks concerned “pores” and “filling errors,” which are known to have their origin in the
gravity die casting operation. In addition, the patterns observed for the die casting defects in
weeks 1 and 2 differ; for instance, “filling errors” were much more common on week 1 than
on week 2; on the contrary, “solidification shrinkages” and “pores” occurred more often on
the second week. It was also possible to conclude that grinding errors, created at the
grinding operations, were the most relevant class of defects on week 2; however, its
incidence on week 1 is very small.
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Suppliers Inputs Process Outputs Customers

Ingots supplier Aluminum alloy ingots
Rejected casted materials
Furnace temperature
Fusion time
“Fusion” operation Volume of melted aluminum
alloy
Temperature of the melted
alloy
Temperature of the mould
Type of die coat applied
Rotation speed of machine
Die casting cycle times
“Die casting” operation Solidified and cooled casted
materials
Positioning during cut
Type of saw
“Separation of the Window handles with an
rigging” operation extractor pin
Cutting force
Positioning of the handles
“Separation of the Handles with roughness
extractor pin” operation
Type of ribbon used
Melted aluminum alloy “Die casting” operation
Fusion
Solidified casted materials “Separation of the
rigging” operation
Die casting
Rigging system separated “Separation of the
Separation of the fron the window handles extractor pin” operation
rigging system
Extractor pin separated “Manual grinding”
from the window handles operation
Separation of the
extractor pin
Surface of the handles “Automatic grinding”
Manual grinding smoothed in the feed operation
(filing) region

“Manual grinding” Handles to be smoothed Surface of the handles “Manual grinding”

operation Automatic smoothed, except the operation
Types of ribbon used
grinding (robot) region of the ellipse
Strength of the robot’s claw
at the end of the handle
“Automatic grinding” Handles smoothed, except Surface of the handles “Polishing” operation
operation in the ellipse region Manual grinding completely smoothed
Type of ribbon used
(final smooth)

“Manual grinding” Handles completely Surface of the handles “Anodizing” operation

operation smoothed completely polished
Polishing time Polishing
Type of brushes

Polished handles Packaging and

Figure 3.
“Polishing” operation Handles anodized
Composition of the bath expedition Mapping of the
manufacturing
Temperature of the bath Anodizing
process in a SIPOC
Amount of electric charge
diagram format
Voltage
 IJQRM Data also unveiled that most of the grinding defects are likely to be generated in the manual
34,2 grinding operations, which are a result of the filling process of the die. Grinding errors tend
to increase when the surface of the casted handles presents a high degree of roughness,
including solidification shrinkages (small cavities on the surface of the handle). Filing
operation usually attempts to correct such roughness and shrinkages, but the success
hardly depends on the skills and experience of the operator.
314 Data from Table III also alerted the team to another possible relevant problem,
concerning the high number of defects related to impurities during week 1. This type of
defect occurs when the molten alloy, which is poured into the mould during the casting
operation, is contaminated with other metallic or non-metallic particles.
The last activity of this DMAIC phase was the setting of critical to quality (CTQ)
characteristics and of their operational definitions, which in this case is a clear,
unambiguous, and observable standard of acceptance. For each group of defects, a
document with a similar structure to the one exhibited in Figure 4 was developed to
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characterize each CTQ and to establish its correspondent operational definition.

4.4 Measure phase

Production tests were conducted to assess the baseline performance of the gravity die
casting operation. In these tests, all key controllable input variables remained constant, at
the levels usually used during production. A total of 108 handles were produced, and 78 of
them were labeled as defective; thus, the resulting proportion of defectives was around
72 percent, which is a very high value.
The results of these tests per category of defect are depicted in the Pareto chart of
Figure 5, and revealed some curious facts. Most of the defects detected in the tests
correspond to impurities and other inclusions, followed by pores. Again, this evidence
suggested that the occurrence of impurities is a relevant problem.
Each category of defects corresponds to a certain opportunity for defect to occur. Then it
was possible to estimate the number of DPMO:

D 62 þ55 þ10 þ6 þ6 þ1
DPMO ¼  106 ¼  106 ¼ 216; 049 (1)
PO 108  6

In this formula, D is the total number of defects detected in the tests; P, the number of
handles produced in those tests; and O, the considered number of opportunities for defects.
The number of opportunities for defects comprises the six categories of defects depicted in
the Pareto chart of Figure 5. For this DPMO, the corresponding Sigma level (Z ) value is
approximately 2.2 (Z ¼ 2.2).

Week 1 Week 2
Group of defects Number of occurrences Percentage Number of occurrences Percentage

Solidification shrinkages 156 37.2 91 15.5

Pores 89 21.2 58 9.9
Filling errors 50 11.9 146 24.9
Scoria and impurities 52 12.4 12 2.0
Table III. Cutting defects 43 10.3 46 7.8
Occurrences for Grinding errors 17 4.1 169 28.8
different categories Polishing errors 2 0.5 0 0.0
of defects on Anodizing defects 0 0.0 0 0.0
weeks 1 and 2 Other types of defects 10 2.4 65 11.1
 Type of defect (CTQC) Filling errors Six Sigma
Number of opportunities for defect 5 subtypes of defect DMAIC project
Origin of the defect Die casting

1. Subtype of defect 1: rounded edge in the border of the functional and aesthetical regions
Operational definition
Description of the requirement Visual detection
The handle will conform if:
315
• The edge delimiting the functional and aesthetical regions of the
handle does not present a rounded shape.

2. Subtype of defect 2: Rounded functional edge

Operational definition
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Description of the requirement Visual detection

The handle will conform if:
• An edge in the functional region of the handle presents a clear
rounded shape.

3. Subtype of defect 3: Incomplete filling in the lateral surface of the square block
Operational definition
Description of the requirement Visual detection
The handle will conform if:
• The block presents a perfect square shape.
• All the four faces of the square block are flat, are absent of any
cavity, and do not have any lack of material.

4. Subtype of defect 4: Filling error on the top surface of the handle

Operational definition
Description of the requirement Visual detection
The handle will conform if:
• The square hole is correctly centered.
• There is no lack of material around the square hole.
• The surface is flat.

5. Subtype of defect 5: Hole in the square hole

Operational definition
Description of the requirement Visual detection Figure 4.
The handle will conform if: Description of the
• The square hole does not have any hole. CTQ “filling errors”
and its operational
definition

4.5 Analyze phase

The first activity of this phase was the development of an interrelationship digraph,
illustrated in Figure 6, to study and understand the chain of causes-and-effects
that will ultimately create the different types of defects in the aluminum gravity die
casting operation.
4.5.1 Determination of the significant factors that contribute to the most relevant types of
defects. The objective of the project team was then to learn as much as possible from the
production process by making a set of cost-effective experiments. A designed experiment is
 IJQRM Pareto Chart
Defects-Production test

34,2 70 120%

60
100%

50
80%

Cumulative Percent
Occurences

316 40

60%

30

40%
20

20%
10
Figure 5.
Pareto diagram of the – 0%
die casting defects Impurities and Solidification 0.006 Buried Other types of
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Pores Filling errors

inclusions shrinkages extractor defects
occurred in the Quantity 62 55 10 6 6 1
production tests Cum % 44% 84% 91% 95% 99% 100%
% of Total 44% 39% 7% 4% 4% 1%

Feeding
channels

Type of
Absence of
die coat Method of
ventilation
Filling Temperature Solidification application
Volume of errors of the mould shrinkages of the die
Size of the coat
melted
ventilation bags
casting alloy
poured into
the mould

Operator of Marks of the

the rotating extractor pin Roughness and
machine Temperature of the after die die coat marks in
Speed of Angle of melted casting alloy casting the casted part
rotation inclination poured into the mould

Mixes of
different alloys
Contamination of
Pores Impurities
Figure 6. Roughness the casting alloy
Cleaness of
tend to
Chain of causes-and- appear the melted
effects that lead to the casting alloy
occurrence of die Mould Cleaness of the
cleaning Method for pouring the Operator of the
casting defects melted casting alloy rotating machine
casting alloy in the
fusion furnace

a test or series of tests in which purposeful changes are made to the input variables or
factors of a process so that we may observe and identify corresponding changes in the
output response (Montgomery, 2009). A critical observation of the output variables using
the design of experiments (DOE) should thus allow the team to isolate the factors that
influence the variability of the gravity casting process. To carry out the DOE in the analyze
phase, the following sequence was adopted:
(1) selection of the response variables;
(2) choice of the controllable factors (input variables);
(3) preparation of the DOE;
 (4) conduction of the DOE; Six Sigma
(5) analysis of the results; and DMAIC project
(6) identification of possible interactions.
Selection of the response variables. A DOE strategy was developed in order to investigate
which controllable input factors of the gravity die casting operation have a significant effect on
the CTQ characteristics of the handle model under study. Three specific CTQs were considered: 317
(1) filling errors (CTQ1);
(2) solidification shrinkages (CTQ2); and
(3) pores (CTQ3).
The variables inherent to these three CTQs are not continuous, since the detection of any of
these defects in a handle is only possible by visual inspection.
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Choice of the controllable factors. Using the information from the interrelationship
diagram, the audit of the production process, several brainstorming meetings were held
with the shop floor people and their supervisors to identify which factors could have an
effect on the CTQs (output variables).
The project team agreed to screen the following four controllable input factors:
(1) volume of molten alloy poured into the mould;
(2) temperature of the molten alloy;
(3) rotation speed of the gravity die casting machine; and
(4) type of die coat.
To investigate their individual and combined influence on the CTQs, two distinct levels
were defined for each factor, as shown in Table IV.
Preparation of the DOE. To avoid running all the 16 possible combinations among the
levels of the four factors, corresponding to a 24 full factorial, a two-level fractional factorial
strategy was designed. In particular, a 24−1 experimental design was defined, thus only half
of the 16 treatments needed to be considered. In this resolution IV design, single factors are
not aliased with two-factor interactions, but some two-factor interactions are aliased with
other two-factor interactions (Schmidt and Launsby, 1994). To estimate the experimental
error, each combination was replicated two times. Furthermore, it was decided that for each
replicate, a total of 120 handles would be produced and then inspected. The experimental
design strategy is exhibited in Table V. To avoid the negative influence of noise factors on
the output during the experiments, a set of control procedures were established.
The experimental results in terms of proportion of defectives for the three CTQs are
depicted in Table VI. Proportions follow a binomial distribution, rather a normal

Controllable input factor Levels used High and low levels

Volume of alloy (A) Small die casting spoon −1

Large die casting spoon +1
Temperature of the alloy (B) 730°C −1
750°C +1
Rotation speed (C) 42.5 Hz −1 Table IV.
50.0 Hz +1 Input controllable
Type of die coat (D) KS201 −1 factors and their
KS84 +1 low and high levels
 IJQRM distribution, which violates important assumptions of the statistical tests used in DOE.
34,2 A binomial distribution can be satisfactory approximated to normal distribution when the
proportion of defectives is around 0.50 and the sample size higher than 100 (Montgomery,
2009); in the case study, the baseline indicated a proportion of defectives of more than 0.70, so
this approximation is cannot be applied. According to Hoshmand (2006), the arcsine or angular
transformation is most appropriate when a researcher encounter data in the form of binomial
318 proportions, so such transformation was used in this case. Being p the proportion of defective
units for a certain CTQ, the arcsine transformation is computed by the following formula:
pffiffiffi
p00 ¼ arcsin e p (2)

Alternatively to the mentioned approach, a general linear model, namely a logistic regression
model, could have been used to work with the original binary data.
Conduction of the designed experiments. Unfortunately, it was not possible to get equal
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sample sizes in all the experiments. For this reason, a balanced design was not achieved, so
data were analyzed using the general linear model of the analysis of variance (ANOVA).
Analysis of the results, including the identification of possible interactions. The resulting
ANOVA tables for the three CTQs, after unusual observations were removed from analysis,

Combination of the input factor levels

A B C D Sample size Number of replicates

−1 −1 −1 −1 120 2
+1 −1 −1 +1 120 2
−1 +1 −1 +1 120 2
+1 +1 −1 −1 120 2
Table V. −1 −1 +1 +1 120 2
Experimental design +1 −1 +1 −1 120 2
strategy of the −1 +1 +1 −1 120 2
screening DOE +1 +1 +1 +1 120 2

Combination of Proportions of Arcsine

the input factor defectives for each transformation of the
levels CTQ proportions
Replicate Run order A B C D Actual sample size 1 2 3 1 2 3

1 1 −1 −1 −1 −1 112 0.3571 0.0446 0.1429 0.6405 0.2128 0.3876

2 9 −1 −1 −1 −1 132 0.1364 0.1591 0.2045 0.3783 0.4103 0.4693
1 7 +1 −1 −1 +1 116 0.5345 0.0690 0.1121 0.8199 0.2657 0.3414
2 14 +1 −1 −1 +1 122 0.5303 0.3636 0.0152 0.8157 0.6473 0.1234
1 6 −1 +1 −1 +1 108 0.5833 0.1296 0.1667 0.8691 0.3683 0.4205
2 13 −1 +1 −1 +1 120 0.4180 0.2377 0.2705 0.7031 0.5093 0.5469
1 3 +1 +1 −1 −1 106 0.2547 0.0472 0.1226 0.5290 0.2189 0.3578
2 12 +1 +1 −1 −1 123 0.0407 0.0976 0.1545 0.2030 0.3177 0.4039
1 5 −1 −1 +1 +1 114 0.8070 0.3947 0.1053 1.1160 0.6793 0.3304
2 15 −1 −1 +1 +1 120 0.7571 0.2286 0.0571 1.0555 0.4985 0.2414
1 4 +1 −1 +1 −1 122 0.5984 0.0000 0.0574 0.8844 0.0000 0.2419
2 11 +1 −1 +1 −1 128 0.1953 0.0547 0.2500 0.4578 0.2360 0.5236
1 2 −1 +1 +1 −1 112 0.0804 0.0893 0.1607 0.2874 0.3034 0.4125
Table VI. 2 10 −1 +1 +1 −1 122 0.3033 0.1475 0.1967 0.5832 0.3942 0.4595
Experimental results 1 8 +1 +1 +1 +1 100 0.8600 0.4100 0.2700 1.1873 0.6949 0.5464
of the screening DOE 2 16 +1 +1 +1 +1 124 0.4758 0.1290 0.1935 0.7612 0.3674 0.4555
 are shown in Table VII. The R2 values ensure that the factors and interactions explain about Six Sigma
70 percent of the total variation observed on the output of this operation, regarding the DMAIC project
mentioned CTQs. A confidence level of 95 percent was utilized (i.e. a significance level of
5 percent). The significant factors and interactions are those whose p-value is below the
significance level of 0.05. Despite not being statistically significant, some factors and
interactions were considered important by the project team because their p-value is
relatively small. 319
Please note that because the DOE corresponds to a resolution IV design, the effects of
two-factor interactions are aliased with other two-factor interactions. For instance, the
combined effect of the alloy “volume” and “temperature” on the solidification shrinkages is
aliased with the effect of the interaction between of the “rotation speed” and the “type of die
coat”; in addition to this, the effect explained by the interaction among the “volume of alloy”
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ANOVA table
Source df Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F p

CTQ1: filling errorsa

Analysis of variance for filling errors, using adjusted SS for tests
Volume 1 0.00004 0.00004 0.00004 0.00 0.973
Temperature 1 0.06821 0.06821 0.06821 2.07 0.178
Rotation speed 1 0.11802 0.11802 0.11802 3.58 0.085
Die coat 1 0.70736 0.70736 0.70736 21.45 0.001
Error 11 0.36270 0.36270 0.03297
Total 15 0.077293
Significant factors: the “type of die coat” is significant; the “rotation speed” is important
CTQ2: solidification shrinkagesb
Analysis of variance for solidification shrinkages, using adjusted SS for tests
Volume 1 0.0091562 0.0032684 0.0032684 8.42 0.023
Temperature 1 0.0003045 0.0001875 0,0001875 0.48 0.509
Rotation speed 1 0.0000220 0.0016072 0.0016072 4.14 0.081
Die coat 1 0.0031717 0,0051566 0.0051566 13.29 0.008
Volume × Temperature 1 0.0035814 0.0035814 0.0035814 9.23 0.019
Error 7 0.0027161 0.0027161 0.0003880
Total 12 0.0189518
Significant factors: the “type of die coat” and the “volume of alloy” are significant; the interaction between the
“volume of alloy” and the “temperature of the alloy” is significant.; the “rotation speed” is important
Aliased effects: the interaction among the “volume of alloy” and the “temperature of the alloy” is aliased with
the interaction between the “type of die coat” and the “rotation speed”
CTQ3: poresc
Analysis of variance for pores, using adjusted SS for tests
Volume 1 0.0000192 0.0000002 0.0000002 0.00 0.983
Temperature 1 0.0015497 0.0014159 0.0014159 4,46 0.064
Rotation speed 1 0.0002278 0.0004888 0.0004888 1.54 0.246
Die coat 1 0.0003585 0.0007200 0.0007200 2.27 0,166
Volume × Rotation speed 1 0.0045433 0,0045433 0.0045433 14.32 0.004
Error 9 0.0028552 0.0028552 0.0003172
Total 14 0.0095537
Significant factors: the interaction of the “volume of alloy” with the “rotation speed” is significant; the
“temperature of the alloy” is important” Table VII.
Aliased effects: the interaction among the “volume of alloy” and the “rotation speed” is aliased with the ANOVA of the
interaction between the “temperature of alloy” and the “type of die coat” screening DOE and
Notes: aS ¼ 0.181584, R2 ¼ 71.13 percent, R2(adj) ¼ 60.63 percent; bS ¼ 0.196982, R2 ¼ 85.67%, R2(adj) ¼ determination of the
75.43 percent; cS ¼ 00172114, R2 ¼ 70.11 percent, R2(adj) ¼ 53.51 percent significant factors
 IJQRM and the “rotation speed” is aliased with the effect caused by the interaction between the
34,2 “temperature of alloy” and the “type of die coat.”
The project team also noticed that filling errors tended to appear in the same region of
the handle, namely, in the edge that separates the functional region from the aesthetical
region. Two possible causes for this situation were identified: it could be due to an
accumulation of air or to a rapid cooling in that specific region. Tests were performed, and
320 based on their results the team concluded that the main cause was the rapid cooling of the
alloy temperature.
Experimental data from the DOE enabled the team to compute a set of important metrics.
Table VIII summarizes the values for the rate of defective handles, the average number of
defects per handle (defects per unit (DPU)), the number of DPMO and the Sigma Level.
4.5.2 Determination of the root causes for the occurrence of structural abnormalities in
the casted handles. In addition to filling errors, solidification shrinkages, and pores, when
inspecting the handles produced in the experiments, team members realized that many of
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them had structural abnormalities, such as fissures. Structural abnormalities tend to

appear when the transition of the alloy from its liquid state to the solid state does not
occur properly, which might happen if the mechanical properties of the alloy are
jeopardized due to mixing with other types of alloys or because it is contaminated with
scoria and impurities.
To investigate the influence of alloy mixes in the quality of the manufactured handles,
some samples of defective handles containing structural abnormalities were sent to an
accredited laboratory for analysis. The laboratory found high contents of silicium in the
holes and fissures of the handles, which is a typical element in other types of alloys, not in
the AG4Z alloy that used to cast this type of handle. The laboratory report thus confirmed
that alloy mixings is a significant cause for the occurrence of structural abnormalities.
An audit to the manufacturing process was carried out to collect evidences of wrong
procedures that could explain the contamination of the alloy. Figure 7 depicts the layout of
the factory plant of STA, including the workstations inherent or adjacent to the
manufacturing process of the handle model Ho-2.AG. The areas where problematic issues
were detected in the audit process are identified by a yellow callout.
Evidences gathered from the audit enabled the team to conclude that defective items made of
different types of alloys, which had been rejected somewhere downstream in the process, are
often mixed and fused together at “point 1.” Moreover, the molten alloy can sometimes be
contaminated with other metallic materials, such as abrasive stones used in the operation
indicated by a “P” in Plate 1 that were found in the fusion furnace located at point “1.” Alloy
mixes can also occur in the automatic operations, especially in the automatic grinding and
polishing (at points “5” and “6,” respectively). In these operations, if a robot detects a shape
defect in a certain item, the robot drops it; unfortunately, rejected items are not always promptly
removed from the ground, so the chance for mixing different types of alloys is high, especially
for similar shaped products that are casted in different alloys. The audit also revealed that most

Die casting defects – results from the experiments

Structural Filling Solidification Buried Scoria and All
abnormalities errors shrinkages Pores extractor impurities others

824 735 293 288 251 207 13

Table VIII. Number of handles produced ¼ 1,777 units Rate of defectives ¼ 79.2%
Main metrics Total number of defective handles ¼ 1,408 DPU ¼ 1.47
calculated based on Number of defective handles ¼ 1,408 Sigma level (Z ) ¼ 2.3
experimental data Number of opportunities for defect ¼ 7 DPMO ¼ 209,904
 of the manufacturing personnel working on the operations downstream are not able to Six Sigma
distinguish the different types of alloys in which the products were casted. Throughout the DMAIC project
process, work-in-process boxes with items to be processed are accompanied by a colored card
labeling the type of alloy in which those items were casted; however, on workstations located
downstream in the manufacturing process, especially those corresponding to points “5,” “6,” “7,”
and “L” in Plate 1, those label cards are sometimes times absent or missed. Without these cards,
only an experienced eye can determine which type of alloy is which. 321
4.6 Improve and control phases
After having determined the root causes for the high rejection rate of the manufactured
handles in the previous phase of the DMAIC approach, the project team initiated the
development of improvement actions to be implemented.
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3 P
1
2 4

S
5
6 L
7 Figure 7.
Factory plant
layout, areas where
operations of the
Figure legend: handle Ho-2AG take
1 Fusion 5 Automatic grinding L Lacquering
place, and point
where problematic
2 Low pressure die casting 6 Polishing P Polishing by vibration
issues were identified
3 Separation of rigging system 7 Anodization S Stainless steel conformation
in the audit
4 Manual grinding Problems detected

Plate 1.
Photos from one of
the creativity sessions
 IJQRM A set of creativity sessions with the personnel from the company, including operators, was
34,2 undertaken (Plate 1). Many ideas of improvement actions were collected, combined,
analyzed, and the most promising ones considered.
The final version of the improvement plan contained a set of actions that were grouped
around the four areas indicated in Figure 8.
4.6.1 Area of action 1 – improvements in the gravity die casting operation. The main
322 effects plots for the three types of defects assessed in the DOE are depicted in Figure 9, while
the most relevant interaction plots, according to the conclusions that were described in
Table VIII, are shown in Figure 10.
The analyses of these plots enabled the team to determine the best level combination
regarding the four controllable factors, as follows:
(1) volume of molten alloy: large die casting spoon;
(2) temperature of the molten alloy: 730°C;
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(3) rotation speed: 42.5 Hz; and

(4) type of die coat: KS201.

1 Gravity die casting operation

2 On-the-job training

Figure 8. 3 Prevention of alloys mixings

The improvement
actions were grouped
around four areas 4 Five S in the workplaces

Main Effects Plot for Filling errors Main Effects Plot for Solidification shrinkages
Fitted Means Fitted Means
Volume Temperature Volume Temperature
0.9 0.45
0.8
0.40
0.7
0.6 0.35
0.5 0.30
Mean
Mean

Large Small 730 750 Large Small 730 750

Rotation speed Die coat Rotation speed Die coat
0.9 0.45
0.8
0.40
0.7
0.6 0.35
0.5 0.30
42.5 Hz 50.0 Hz KS201 KS84 42.5 Hz 50.0 Hz KS201 KS84

Main Effects Plot for Pores

Fitted Means
Volume Temperature
0.46
0.44
0.42
0.40
0.38
Mean

Large Small 730 750

Figure 9. Rotation speed Die coat
0.46
Main effect 0.44
plots for filling errors, 0.42
solidification 0.40
shrinkages, and pores 0.38
42.5 Hz 50.0 Hz KS201 KS84
 Selecting a lower temperature for the molten alloy might however increase the chance of Six Sigma
filling errors to occur in the functional region of the handle. This situation, according to the DMAIC project
theory of inventive problem solving, known as TRIZ (Altshuller, 1999), can be formulated as
a physical contradiction. A physical contradiction is a conflicting situation in which one
object or system has contradictory or opposing requirements. Figure 11 illustrates the
physical contradiction for this case, and it can be stated as follows:
The temperature in the functional region of the handle should be high during the gravity die casting 323
operation, while at the same time the temperature in the aesthetical region of the handle should be low.
According to TRIZ, physical contradictions can be solved through the use of the separation
principles. For this case, the solution adopted is depicted in Figure 12, and makes use of the
separation in space principle. It consists in providing heat to the area in the cavity of the
mould that corresponds to that specific region of the handle. To this purpose a located
heating source, namely a torch, was utilized. Following experiments demonstrated the
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effectiveness of this solution.

A control plan for the gravity die casting operation was developed and implemented to
ensure that the gravity die casting operation of the manufacturing process is always
performed under controllable conditions.
4.6.2 Area of action 2 – implementation of on-the-job training. An on-the-job training
program was implemented on the factory plant in order to increase the knowledge and the

Interaction Plot for Solidification shrinkages Interaction Plot for Pores

Fitted Means Fitted Means
Volume Volume
0.50
0.50
Figure 10.
Large Large
Small Small
0.45 0.45 Plot of the interaction
0.40
that has a significant
Mean

effect on pores (right)

Mean

0.40
0.35 and plot of the
0.30 0.35
interaction that has an
important effect on
0.25
0.30
solidification
730 750 42.5 Hz 50.0 Hz shrinkages (left)
Temperature Rotation speed

A higher temperature
benefits the functional
region of the handle

Figure 11.
Illustration of the
physical contradiction
that needed to be
solved using the
A lower temperature separation principles
benefits the aesthetical of TRIZ
region of the handle
 IJQRM technical skills of the personnel. The on-the-job training program covers several topics,
34,2 including the following ones:
• promotion and dissemination of the best practices to be adopted in the operational
procedures involved in gravity die casting and in manual grinding;
• standardization of the inspection criteria in all the control points of the process, in
order to ensure exactly the same criteria are adopted by everyone; and
324
• provision of knowledge and guidelines to increase the ability of people to visually
distinguish items or parts casted in different types of alloys, with the objective to
prevent alloy mixes.
4.6.3 Area of action 3 – prevention of alloy mixings. During the analyze phase, the project
team concluded that alloy mixings are more likely to occur at workplaces located
downstream in the manufacturing process. It happens not only due to lack of knowledge,
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but also because an effective procedure to properly sort rejected items according to their
type of alloys does not exist.
To solve this problem, a simple but effective preventive system, comprising
a set of procedures, was implemented. Figure 13 together with the following description,

Located heat

Figure 12. Temperature of the molten alloy = 730°C

Illustration of the
solution that was
adopted based on the
separation in space
principles from the
TRIZ theory

Work in process flow

C
Stainless steel

Fabrication of
components

D
A
B

Work in process flow

Figure 13.
System to prevent Key:
the mixing of alloys
Central point to deposit all rejected items coming from work stations, per type of alloy
 helps to understand the functioning of the system to prevent alloy mixes throughout Six Sigma
the factory plant. DMAIC project
There are two central points in the factory plant, such as the one shown in Plate 2, where
the rejected items can be deposited in specific boxes according to the alloy in which those
items were casted. To each alloy there is a corresponding color, so each box is labeled
according to the color of the alloy.
The central point located more downstream is used by the workstations within region 325
“A,” namely, the following: anodizing, lacquering, and liquid painting.
The central point in the middle of the plant is used by the workstations within regions “B”
and “C,” namely, the following: automatic grinding, polishing, and polishing by vibration.
The area labeled as “D” contains all the materials that are to be fused in the fusion
furnace. It includes ingots, rigging systems that were separated from the casted part, as well
as rejected items coming from the two central points. There are specific places to store these
materials, and corridors (represented by the arrows in Figure 13) to manage the flow of the
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rigging systems per type of alloy.

4.6.4 Area of action 4 – 5S program. A 5S program, a Lean approach which aims to
eliminate waste that results from poorly organized work areas, was developed in most
workplaces to promote organization and discipline, as well to prevent alloy mixings. Some
photos with the results of the 5S Program are depicted in Plate 3.

4.7 Results and discussion

To determine the effectiveness of the improvement actions, two confirmatory experiments
were undertaken at two different periods of time: in November 2014 when just a part of the
improvement actions were actually fully implemented, and in February 2015 when most of
the improvement actions were already implemented.
The following four metrics were estimated based on the data of the confirmatory
experiments carried out in both periods:
(1) Sigma level (Z );
(2) the number of DPMO;
(3) the average number of defects per handle produced (DPU); and
(4) the rate of defective handles.

Plate 2.
Central point to
deposit the rejected
items according
to the alloy that
they were casted
 IJQRM BEFORE AFTER
34,2

326
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Plate 3.
Examples of
the results of the
5S program

Figure 14 shows the evolution of these metrics from May 2014 to February 2015. From the
graphs, it is possible to conclude that the performance of the process has increased
dramatically, thus proving the effectiveness of the improvement actions. The capability of
the process, given by the Sigma Level enhanced from 2.3 to 3.1, the average number of
 defects per handle lowered from 1.47 to just 0.36, and the rate of defective handles were Six Sigma
reduced from about 79 percent to less than 25 percent. DMAIC project
The financial benefits derived from this project were also estimated. Two savings
categories were considered: one-off and recurring. One-off savings correspond to the delay
or avoidance of investments; recurring savings correspond to financial benefits that occur
every year. The results are presented in Table IX. Since the costs that were assumed in the
Six Sigma project were around 50,000 euro, it means that the cost of the project is paid in one 327
year by the recurring income. The cost avoidance equals two times the project cost.

5. Conclusions
After providing a review about the state of implementation of Six Sigma in Portugal, this
paper describes the activities that were carried out to select, plan, and execute a continuous
improvement Six Sigma project based on the DMAIC roadmap at a Portuguese company,
STA – Sociedade Transformafora de Alumínios, S.A. The define phase allowed the team to
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better understand the problem, and determine that most of the defects had origin at the die
casting operation. Further data were collected in the measure phase by means of production
tests, which led to the estimation of the performance baseline of the manufacturing process.
In the analyze phase of DMAIC approach, a set of studies, including DOE, were conducted to
identify the root causes of the die casting defects. Some of the relevant causes had origin in
the gravity die casting operation itself, but others had origin in downstream operations
where alloy mixings tended to occur, thus jeopardizing the mechanical propertied of the
AG4Z alloy. The improve phase involved the development and implementation of a set of

Sigma Level DPMO

3.5 250,000
Sigma Level DPMO
3 200,000 Figure 14.
150,000 Main metrics to assess
2.5
100,000 the performance of the
2 50,000 process and their
evolution from the
1.5 0
May 2014 November 2014 February 2015 May 2014 November 2014 February 2015 period when no
improvement actions
DPU Rate of defectives were introduced
2.00 100.0%
DPU Rate of defectives (May 2014) and
1.50 80.0% the period where
60.0% the improvement
1.00
40.0% actions were fully
0.50 20.0% implemented
0.00 0.0% (February 2015)
May 2014 November 2014 February 2015 May 2014 November 2014 February 2015

Saving Estimated
Saving description type saving (€)

Diminution of costs due to a lower rework rate for the Ho-2AG handle Recurring 37,000 €/year
Some of the lessons learnt could be extended to other products to decrease their Recurring 13,000 €/year
rejection rates
Due to the decrease in the rework, the gravity die casting machines is available One-off 36,000 €/year
to produce other products to be sold Table IX.
Due to the decrease in the rejection rate, the levels of safety stocks could One-off 300 €/year Estimation of the
be decreased financial benefits of
Investment in a low gravity casting robot could be deferred for the future One-off 65,000 € the project
 IJQRM improvement actions that were grouped around four areas of action. The introduction of the
34,2 improvement actions significantly decreased the rejection rate of the Ho-2AG handle. The
effectiveness of the improvement actions were also confirmed by the significant
enhancement on the values of other metrics.

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Further reading
Breyfogle, F.W. III (1999), Implementing Six Sigma: Smarter Solutions Using Statistical Methods, Wiley,
New York, NY.
George, M.L., Rowlands, D. and Kastle, B. (2005), Wat is Lean Six Sigma?: Sneller en Slimmer Werken
met Beter Resultaat, Uitgeverij Thema, Zaltbommel (in Dutch).
Harry, M.J. and Schroeder, R. (2000), Six Sigma: The Breakthrough Management Strategy
Revolutionizing the World’s Top Corporations, Currency Doubleday, New York, NY.
Marques, P.A. (2013), “Six Sigma: management system and innovation methodology in an
integrated and structured approach”, PhD dissertation, NOVA University of Lisbon, Caparica
(in Portuguese).
Pande, P.S., Neuman, R.P. and Cavanagh, R.R. (2000), The Six Sigma Way, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
 IJQRM About the authors
34,2 Pedro Alexandre de Albuquerque Marques received a Diploma in 2001 and a PhD in Industrial
Engineering from the NOVA University in Lisbon in 2013. He is certified Six Sigma Black Belt by the
American Society for Quality (2014), a Senior Consultant with ISQ (2006 till now), an Assistant
Professor at the Faculty of Engineering of the Lusófona University (2014 till now), an Invited Lecturer
at the Faculty of Engineering of the Catholic University of Portugal (2008-2012), an Invited Researcher
at the Unit for Research and Development in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering of the NOVA
330 University of Lisbon (2007-2013), a Researcher at the I&D Lab of ISQ (2012-2014), a Lecturer in various
post-graduate and professional training courses at ISQ (2007 till now), Portuguese Association for
Quality (2014 till now), Norma Azores (2013), Verlag Dashöfer (2008-2011), and SQS Portugal
(2008-2010). His interests are in the areas of Lean, Six Sigma, Design for Six Sigma, Management
Systems, and Product Design. Pedro Alexandre de Albuquerque Marques is the corresponding author
and can be contacted at: pamarques78@gmail.com
Robert Matthé Graduated in Applied Economics and Industrial Economy from the University of
Antwerp (1974), MBA from the KU University of Leuven (1978), MSc in Accounting from the VLECHO
Brussels – Flemish School of Economics (1982). He is certified Six Sigma Black Belt at Praxair,
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a General Manager of STA in Portugal (2005 till now), a Senior Consultant with the Ideas@work
Managing Consultant Six Sigma in Belgium (2004-2005), Executive and Management roles at Praxair
Europe (1983-2003), a General Manager at Union Carbide Industrial Gases in the UK (1983-1985),
an Invited Lecturer in Financial Analysis and Accounting at the Graduate School of Schoten in
Belgium (1974-1975), an Advisor in the Economics Diplomacy to the Belgium Embassy in Lisbon (2013
till now), a Representative Administrator in Oporto of the Belgium-Luxembourg-Portuguese Chamber
of Commerce (2010 till now). His interests are in the areas of Lean, Six Sigma, Theory of Constraints,
Business Economics, and Economics.

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