CELL

What is a Cell?
 Latin for ““small room””
 A cell is the functional and structural unit of all living organisms
 What is Considered a ““Living””organism?
 Found as early as 1632 by Antony van Leeuwenhoek
 The Cell Theory ----1839 by the German botanist Matthias Jakob Schleiden and German physiologist
Theodore Schwann.

Amoeba Proteus

Plant Stem

Bacteria
Red Blood Cell

Nerve Cell

Functions of Cells

C e ll F u n c t io n

C e ll w o r k t o g e t h e r t o p e r fo r m b a s ic life p r o c e s s e s t h a t k e e p o r g a n is m s a liv e .

G e t t in g r id o f b o d y w a s t e s .

M a k in g n e w c e lls fo r g r o w t h a n d r e p a ir .

R e le a s in g e n e r g y fr o m fo o d .

Cells: Size & Shape

 Size and Shape depend upon its function.
 Red blood cells are small and disc shaped to fit through the smallest blood vessel.
 Muscle cells are long and thin. When they contract they produce movement.
 Nerve cells which carry signals to the brain are very long.
Cell Theory
 All living things are made up of cells.
 Cells are the smallest working units of all living things.
  All cells come from preexisting cells through cell division.
PROKARYOTIC CELL
Characteristics:
 Old Greek for ““Before nut (kernel)””
 Unicellular
 Lacks a membrane bound nucleus
 Lacks membrane bound organelles
 Has a cell membrane (cell wall)
 Has ribosomes (protein production)
 Circular DNA

Characteristics:
 Greek for ““small stick””
 Most Abundant Organism
 Found in all Media
 Many are Pathogens
 Move by Flagella or by Gliding
 Asexual Reproduction
 Beneficial in Everyday Needs

Bacteria cells typically are surrounded by a rigid, protective CELL WALL. The CELL MEMBRANE, also called the
plasma membrane, regulates passage of materials into and out of the cytoplasm, the semi-fluid that fills the cell.
The DNA, located in the nucleoid region, contains the genetic information for the cell. RIBOSMES carry out
protein synthesis. Many bacteria contain a PILUS (plural pili), a structure that extends out of the cell to transfer
DNA to another bacterium. The FLAGELLUM, found in numerous species, is used for locomotion. Some bacteria
contain a PLASMID, a small chromosome with extra genes. Others have a CAPSULE, a sticky substance external to
the cell wall that protects bacteria from attack by white blood cells. MESOSOMES were formerly thought to be
structures with unknown functions, but now are known to be artifacts created when cells are prepared for
viewing with electron microscope.

EUKARYOTIC CELL
Characteristics:
 Multicellular (fungi, plants, animals)
 Membrane bound Nucleus
  Contains Membrane Bound Organelles
 Linear DNA

An Animal Cell A Typical Plant Cell

Plant Cell
Plant cells contain a variety of membrane-bound structures called organelles. These include a nucleus
that carries genetic material; mitochondria that generate energy; ribosomes that manufacture proteins; smooth
endoplasmic reticulum that manufactures lipids used for making membranes and storing energy; and a thin lipid
membrane that surrounds the cell. Plant cells also contain chloroplasts that capture energy from sunlight and a
single fluid-filled vacuole that stores compounds and helps in plant growth. Plant cells are surrounded by a rigid
cell wall that protects the cell and maintains its shape.

ANIMAL CELL
An animal cell typically contains several types of membrane-bound organs, or ORGANELLES. The
NUCLEUS directs activities of the cell and carries genetic information from generation to generation. The
MITOCHONDRIA generate energy for the cell. Proteins are manufactured by RIBOSOMES, which are bound to the
ROUGH ENDPLASMIC RETICULUM or float free in the cytoplasm. The GOLGI APPARATUS modifies, packages, and
distributes proteins while LYSOSOMES store enzymes for digesting food. The entire cell is wrapped in a lipid
membrane that selectively permits materials to pass in and out of the CYTOPLASM.

NUCLEUS
The nucleus, present in eukaryotic cells, is a discrete structure containing CHROMOSOMES, which hold the
genetic information for the cell. Separated from the cytoplasm of the cell by a double-layered membrane called
the NUCLEAR ENVELOPE, the nucleus contains a cellular material called NECLEOPLASM. Nuclear pores, present
around the circumference of the nuclear membrane, allow the exchange of cellular materials between the
nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), an extensive network of tubes that manufacture, process, and transport
materials within nucleated cells. The ER consists of a continuous membrane in the form of branching tubules and
flattened sacs that extend throughout the cytoplasm (the cell’s contents outside of the nucleus) and connect to
the double membrane that surrounds the nucleus.

Two types of ER
1. Rough ER - transports proteins either to regions of the cell where they are needed or to the Golgi apparatus,
from which they may be exported from the cell.
- particularly dense in cells that manufacture proteins for export. White blood cells, for example, which
produce and secrete antibodies, contain abundant rough ER.
Ribosomes – site of protein synthesis
*During the assembly of protein, each protein has acquired a group of from 4 to 100 amino acid known as
SIGNAL.
Signal – works as molecular shipping label to direct the protein to its proper location.

2. Smooth ER lacks ribosomes and so has a smooth appearance. It is involved in the synthesis of most of the lipids
that make up the cell membrane, as well as membranes surrounding other cell structures like mitochondria. It
also manufactures carbohydrates, stores carbohydrates and lipids, and detoxifies alcohol and drugs such as
morphine and phenobarbitol. Cells that specialize in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, such as brain and
muscle cells, or those that carry out detoxification, such as liver cells , tend to have more smooth ER.

Smooth ER also is involved in the uptake and release of calcium to mediate some types of cellular activity. In
skeletal muscle cells, for example, the release of calcium from the smooth ER triggers muscle contraction.
*Within the winding channels of the sER are enzymes needed for the construction of carbohydrates and lipids.
Vesicles - tiny membrane bounded sacs encased with proteins which are fused with the Golgi Body

GOLGI BODIES
 The Golgi apparatus, a minute cellular inclusion in the cytoplasm, is a series of smooth, stacked
membranous sacs. The Golgi apparatus modifies proteins after they are produced by the RIBOSOMES.
 network of stacked sacs found within nucleated cells that store, package, and distribute the proteins and
lipids made in the endoplasmic reticulum.
 each apparatus consists of a stack of six or seven flattened, membrane-bound sacs, or cisternae, each
separated by a narrow space.
 is cup-shaped with the convex end, or cis cisterna, facing the cell nucleus and the concave end, or trans
cisterna, facing the cell surface.
 It is packed with enzymes that complete the processing of protein

LYSOSOMES - Lysosomes are small, often spherical organelles that function as the cell’s recycling center and
garbage disposal. Powerful digestive enzymes concentrated in the lysosome break down worn-out organelles
and ship their building blocks to the cytoplasm where they are used to construct new organelles. Lysosomes
also dismantle and recycle proteins, lipids, and other molecules.
Lysosomes are numerous in disease-fighting cells, such as white blood cells, that destroy harmful invaders or cell
debris.

Lysosome enzymes are manufactured in the rough endoplasmic reticulum and processed in the Golgi apparatus.
They are delivered by sacs known as transport vesicles to fuse with three types of membrane-bound
structures: endosomes, phagosomes, and autophagosomes.

a. Endosome - form when the cell membrane surrounds nutritional molecules like polysaccharides, complex
lipids, nucleic acids, or proteins. In a process called endocytosis, these molecules are broken down for
reuse.

b. Phagosomes form when the cell membrane engulfs large objects, like debris from sites of injury or
inflammation or disease-causing bacteria, in a process called phagocytosis.

c. Autophagosomes form when the endoplasmic reticulum wraps around spent cell structures, such as
mitochondria, that are destined for recycling.

 Lysosome enzyme disorders can cause disease. Infants born with Tay-Sachs disease lack an enzyme that
breaks down a complex lipid called ganglioside. When this lipid accumulates in the body, it damages the
 central nervous system, causes mental retardation, and results in death by age five. The inflammation and
pain associated with rheumatoid arthritis and gout are related to the escape of lysosome enzymes.

VACUOLES
- These membrane-bound structures are much larger than other lysosomes, measuring up to 20
micrometers in diameter. Vacuoles maintain water pressure within plant cells, called turgor, preventing wilting.
Vacuoles may also provide long-term storage of polysaccharides, lipids, proteins, pigments, and harmful materials
such as rubber or opium that may deter predators.

MITOCHONDRION
 Mitochondria, minute sausage-shaped structures found in the hyaloplasm (clear cytoplasm) of the cell,
are responsible for energy production (powerhouse of the cell). Mitochondria contain enzymes that help
convert food material into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a high energizing molecule, which can be used
directly by the cell as an energy source to fuel all cellular activities.
 Mitochondria tend to be concentrated near cellular structures that require high demands of energy such
as muscle cells.
 Mitochondria are unusual organelles in that they contain deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and ribosomes.

 Mitochondrion has a double membrane that forms a sac within a sac. The smooth outer membrane holds
numerous transport proteins, which shuttle materials in and out of the mitochondrion.
 The region between the outer and inner membranes, which is filled with liquid, is known as the outer
compartment.
 The inner membrane has numerous folds called cristae. Cristae are the sites of ATP synthesis, and their
folded structure greatly increases the surface area where ATP synthesis occurs.
 Transport proteins, molecules called electron transport chains, and enzymes that synthesize ATP are
among the molecules embedded in the cristae.
 The cristae enclose a liquid-filled region known as the inner compartment, or matrix, which contains a
large number of enzymes that are used in the process of aerobic respiration.

CYTOSKELETON
The cytoskeleton, a network of protein fibers, crisscrosses the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells, providing
shape and mechanical support. The cytoskeleton also functions as a monorail to transport substances around the
cell. A cell such as an amoeba changes shape by dismantling parts of the cytoskeleton and reassembling them in
other locations.

PLASMA MEMBRANE

The PLASMA MEMBRANE that surrounds eukaryotic cells is a dynamic structure composed of two layers
of phospholipid molecules interspersed with cholesterol and proteins. Phospholipids are composed of a
hydrophilic, or water-loving, head and two tails, which are hydrophobic, or water-hating. The two phospholipid
layers face each other in the membrane, with the heads directed outward and the tails pointing inward. The
water-attracting heads anchor the membrane to the cytoplasm, the watery fluid inside the cell, and also to the
water surrounding the cell. The water-hating tails block large water-soluble molecules from passing through the
membrane while permitting fat-soluble molecules, including medications such as tranquilizers and sleeping pills,
to freely cross the membrane. Proteins embedded in the plasma membrane carry out a variety of functions,
including transport of large water soluble molecules such as sugars and certain amino acids. GLYCOPROTEINS,
proteins bonded to carbohydrates, serve in part to identify the cell as belonging to a unique organism, enabling
the immune system to detect foreign cells, such as invading bacteria, which carry different glycoproteins.
CHOLESTEROL molecules in the plasma membrane act as stabilizers that limit the movement of the two slippery
phospholipids layers, which slide back and forth in the membrane. Tiny gaps in the membrane enable small
molecules such as oxygen (upper right) to diffuse readily into and out of the cell. Since cells constantly use up
oxygen, decreasing its concentration within the cell, the higher concentration of oxygen outside the cell causes a
net flow of oxygen into the cell. The steady stream of oxygen into the cell enables it to carry out aerobic
respiration continually, a process that provides the cell with the energy needed to carry out its functions.

MOVEMENT OF MOLECULES

2 methods to move substances from one side of the plasma membrane to another:

a. PASSIVE TRANSPORT – molecular movement down a gradient but across a cell membrane.

Concentration Gradient - The difference between the concentration of a substance in two different areas

3 Types of Passive Transport:

1. Diffusion – is the net movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration, eventually resulting in a uniform distribution of molecules. This movement is the result of random,
spontaneous molecular motion.

2. Facilitated Diffusion – a process in which substances which can not pass directly through the plasma membrane
diffuse into or out of the cell with the aid of channel proteins.(Ex. Glucose, amino acid, ions like Na + and K+.

3. Osmosis – the diffusion of water molecules across a differentially permeable membrane from an area of higher
water concentration to an area of lower water concentration.

differentially permeable membrane - allows only certain types molecules to pass through it.

Types of Solution:

a. HYPERTONIC – the concentration of solute is higher and the concentration of water is higher outside the
cell. (when cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, the cell looses water (dehydrate)causing the cell to
shrink.

b. HYPOTONIC – the concentration of solute is lower and the concentration of water is higher outside the
cell. (when the cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, the cell swells and consequently burst).

c. ISOTONIC – the concentration of solute and water in and out of the cell is the cell. (nothing happens to a
cell when placed in a hypotonic solution).

Cytolysis - the destruction or dissolution of cells.

Plasmolysis - the shrinking of the protoplasm in a plant or bacterial cell away from the cell wall, caused by
loss of water through osmosis
 Crenation - shrinkage of red blood cells

Hemolysis - the destruction of red blood cells and the release of the hemoglobin they contain.

b. ACTIVE TRANSPORT

- movement of molecules against a concentration gradient – from a side of a plasma membrane that is lower to a
side of the plasma membrane that is already higher, and energy is required in the process.

*Active transport is achieved by membrane proteins called pumps.

a. Na+ K+ Pump – the term given to the coupled channel that uses energy (ATP) to move Na + and K+ across the cell
membrane.

*Sodium ions are moved of the cell to maintain a low internal concentration relative to the concentration outside
of the cell. Conversely, Potassium ions are moved into the cell to maintain a high internal concentration relative to
the concentration outside the cell.(three sodium ions are moved out for every two potassium ions that are moved
in by the channel). This transport mechanism is very important in most cells of the human body because it is
important for the proper functioning of the muscle and nerve cells.

b. Endocytosis - the plasma membrane folds inward, forming a pouch that traps molecules. The pouch continues
to press inward until it forms a closed sac that breaks loose from the plasma membrane and sinks into the cell.

c. Exocytosis - A sac inside the cell containing proteins and other molecules moves toward the outer edge of the
cell until it touches the plasma membrane. The membrane of the sac then joins with the plasma membrane, and
the contents of the sac are released from the cell. Most of the proteins released by animal cells, such as hormones
and antibodies, exit the cells where they are made through exocytosis.

CELL WALL

 Protects the cellular contents and limits cell size. It also has important structural and physiological roles in
the life of the plant, being involved in transport, absorption, and secretion.

 Composed of several chemicals, of which cellulose (made up of molecules of the sugar glucose) is the
most important. Cellulose molecules are united into fibrils, which form the structural framework of the
wall.

Other important constituents of many cell walls are lignins, which add rigidity, and waxes, such as cutin and
suberin, which reduce water loss from cells .