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Measurement and analysis of rock mass discontinuity spacing and frequency

in part of the Fimiston Open Pit operation in Kalgoorlie, Western Australia: A
case study

Article  in  International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences · July 2002

DOI: 10.1016/S1365-1609(02)00003-5

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 International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 39 (2002) 589–602

Measurement and analysis of rock mass discontinuity spacing and

frequency in part of the Fimiston Open Pit operation in Kalgoorlie,
Western Australia: a case study
D.R. Winesa, P.A. Lillyb,*
a
Sinclair Knight Merz Pty Ltd, Melbourne, Australia
b
Western Australian School of Mines, Curtin University of Technology, PMB 22 Kalgoorlie, WA 6430, Australia
Accepted 19 December 2001

Abstract

The Fimiston Open Pit is located in the Eastern Goldfields of Western Australia and is mining an area traditionally known as the
Golden Mile. The geological succession in part consists of a 3000–4000 m thick sequence of ultramafic to mafic volcanic rocks and
mafic sills, including the Golden Mile Dolerite and the Paringa Basalt into which 650 m high pit slopes will ultimately be excavated.
A total of 349 m of scanline were mapped (770 discontinuity measurements), 1022 m of core logged (a further 1795 discontinuity
measurements) and a detailed analysis of discontinuity spacing and frequency were undertaken.
The total discontinuity spacing values for the study area clearly follow the shape of the exponential distribution, which is
consistent with many previous workers’ results. Although not as clearly defined, the normal set spacing values also appear to follow
the exponential distribution. The total average calculation for rock quality designation (RQD*) in this study is within 5% of the
total average estimate for RQD. This confirms that the method proposed by Priest and Hudson (Int J Rock Mech Min Sci &
Geomech Abstr 13 (1976) 135) provides a valuable tool that would be particularly beneficial for geotechnical investigations where
diamond core is not readily available.
Discontinuity spacing results are complicated by the influence of quartz veining and foliation planes. The veins appear to have
influenced the scanline mapping data to a greater extent than the core logging data, while the foliation appears to have influenced the
core logging data to a greater degree. r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction 1989 with the formation of Kalgoorlie Consolidated

1.1. Background
The city of Kalgoorlie-Boulder is situated B600 km
to the east of Perth in Western Australia. The Fimiston
Open Pit (or ‘Super Pit’) is located on the eastern
boundary of the city and is mining an area traditionally
known as the Golden Mile. The area has been
continuously worked since 1893, predominantly by
underground mining methods and more recently
through open cut development. Various small-scale
open pits were developed in the early to mid-1980s
and the amalgamation of these pits was realised in May
*Corresponding author. Tel.: +61-8-9088-6150; fax: +61-8-9088-
6151.
E-mail address: lillyp@wasm.curtin.edu.au (P.A. Lilly).
Gold Mines Pty Ltd. (KCGM), a joint venture between
Normandy Mining Ltd. and Homestake Gold of
Australia Ltd.
1.2. Geology
Clout and others [1] provide a comprehensive
description of the geology in this part of Western
Australia and much of the information provided here
has been sourced from this work. The Kalgoorlie
goldfields are situated within the north–northwest
striking Archaean Norseman-Wiluna Greenstone Belt.
The succession consists of a 3000–4000 m thick sequence
of ultramafic to mafic volcanic rocks and mafic sills,
which is overlain by a 1 km thick sequence of volcano-
sedimentary rocks. The gold deposits are predominantly

1365-1609/02/$ - see front matter r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 1 3 6 5 - 1 6 0 9 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 0 3 - 5
590 D.R. Wines, P.A. Lilly / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 39 (2002) 589–602
hosted by the ultramafic and mafic rocks. The main rock
types encountered in the area are as follows:
The Golden Mile Dolerite (GMD) is a differentiated
gabbroic sill, with a thickness ranging from 600 to
940 m. The sill is divided into 10 sub units depending
upon composition. The GMD is the most important
gold host in the area.
* The Paringa Basalt (PB) consists of pillowed to
massive basalts with minor thin interflow sediments.
The unit is B850 m thick.
* The Black Flag Beds (BFB) is a sequence of
sediments and felsic volcanics, with a thickness of
up to 1000 m. The thickness is reduced in the vicinity
of the Golden Mile due to the influence of folding.
* Porphyry Dykes (PD) crosscut all formations in the
stratigraphic sequence and range from 0.5 to 10 m in
width in the study area.
There is some debate as to the structural history of the
area. However, the following deformation events have
been postulated [1]:
* D1 deformation resulted in tight northwest-striking,
upright folds and major sub-vertical northwest-
striking faults, sub parallel to the lithological
boundaries. Displacement along the faults is in the
order of several kilometres.
* The faulted and folded sequence created by the D1
deformation was later crosscut by north-striking,
steeply west-dipping faults of the D2 phase. Displace-
ment along the faults varies from several hundred
metres to 2 kilometres. The mineralisation in the
study area was emplaced into the shear zones that
were active during this deformation phase.
* D3 deformation resulted in an upright foliation being
formed.
Quartz veining is also found throughout the rock
mass in the study area and appears to post-date the
mineralisation.
1.3. Mining
The pit is being mined in a series of cutbacks and,
based on current plans, the depth of the ultimate pit will
exceed 650 m. Pre-splitting is currently used along all
final and interim batter faces in the transitional and
fresh material. Modified production blasting is used
adjacent to the design pit limits and involves the use of
angled and smaller diameter blast holes in the one or
two rows closest to the design batter face. Three
Komatsu PC8000 face shovels undertake most of the
earthmoving and an operating bench height of 10 m is
generally used. A backhoe-configured excavator
(EX1100) is used to scale the batter faces.
One of the major stages in the development of the east
wall of the pit is the Oroya cutback (Fig. 1). The wall
design involves either 20 or 30 m high batter faces, with
the former being used in areas where earlier under-
ground workings are encountered. All batters are
designed at 651 and are separated by 10 m wide catch
berms. PB, GMD and PD rock masses will be
encountered during the development of this stage and
wall development will occur in fresh material only. It is
the analysis of defect spacing and frequency within these
rock masses that is the subject of this paper.
2. Field data collection
2.1. Scanline mapping
Ten linear scanlines were undertaken, the details and
locations of which are presented in Table 1 and Fig. 1,
respectively. A total of 349 m of scanline were mapped
for a total of 770 discontinuity measurements and the
following details recorded:
* Rock type.
* The intersection distance of each discontinuity with
the scanline.
* Discontinuity orientations (dip and dip direction).
* Visible trace length and the type of termination.
* RMR parameter (‘‘Condition of Joints’’).
* Q parameters (‘‘Jn’’, ‘‘Jr’’ and ‘‘Ja’’).
* GSI parameters (‘‘Structure’’ and ‘‘Surface Condi-
tions’’).
* Joint roughness coefficient (JRC).
* Joint compressive strength (JCS).
* Infill information.
Scanline mapping provided a significant amount of
valuable geotechnical information and was particularly
well suited to the study area where significant lengths of
wall exposure are available. The orientations of the
scanlines relative to the orientations of the major joint
sets (Fig. 2) ensured that sampling bias for three of the
four sets was minimised. However, the following draw-
backs in the method are noted in the context of this
study:
* The exposures available for mapping were relatively
remote from the proposed cutback location.
* Not all exposed faces were accessible due to unsafe
berm and floor conditions.
* With a high percentage of the available wall
exposures striking north south, the ability to run
orthogonal scanlines was limited. Also, a near
horizontal joint set (Fig. 2) is found throughout the
pit. However, the near-vertical scanlines necessary to
minimise the bias for this set are impractical.
 D.R. Wines, P.A. Lilly / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 39 (2002) 589–602 591

Fig. 1. Cutback design and location of scanline mapping traverses (with ON, OY or OP prefixes) and diamond drill holes (all other prefixes) for
which geotechnical logs are available.

* Although pre-splitting is used along most walls, each
batter face exhibits some degree of blast damage.
Damage will often lead to induced cracking and care
had to be taken not to record such cracks as
discontinuities. It was generally found that the
induced cracks could be identified and therefore
ignored. They are of random orientation and are less
continuous and less weathered than the genuine
discontinuities.
* Quartz veins occur throughout the rock mass in the
Oroya cutback area and deciding which veins to
record as discontinuities proved to be difficult. It
might be possible to inspect diamond core from the
area and note the characteristics of those veins that
cause breakage of the core. These characteristics
could then be used as a decision making criterion
when face mapping. However, the core available for
this study was obtained from holes that were drilled
592 D.R. Wines, P.A. Lilly / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 39 (2002) 589–602

Table 1
Scanline mapping details for the Oroya cutback investigation

Scanline ID Rock type Plunge (1) Azimuth (1) Mapped length (m)

ON130T1 PB 0 75 13
ON130T2 PB 0 180 38
OY140T1 GMD 0 175 41
OY140T2 GMD 0 186 50
OY150T1 GMD 0 239 47
OP230T1 GMD 0 265 46
OP240T1 GMD 0 204 22
OP240T2 GMD 0 40 26
OP240T3 GMD 0 184 37
OP240T4 GMD 0 3 29

Fig. 2. Orientations of major defect sets, drill holes and mapping traverses.

near parallel to the predominant quartz vein orienta-
tions and therefore intersection with the veins is rare.
Also, core has since been split for assay sampling and
breakage would have been induced during the
splitting process.
* Foliation occurs throughout the rock mass in the
Oroya area and the decision as to which foliation
planes should be recorded as discontinuities also
proved to be difficult. Again, a better understanding
of the influence of the foliation on the rock mass may
be gained from the inspection of fresh diamond core.
2.2. Diamond core logging
The details of the diamond holes used in this study are
presented in Table 2 and Fig. 1. The orientations of the
 D.R. Wines, P.A. Lilly / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 39 (2002) 589–602 593

Table 2
Diamond drill hole details for the Oroya cutback investigation

Hole no. Date drilled Plunge (1) Azimuth (1) Core size Length (m) Information derived

HVGD002 May-97 59 095 HQ3/NQ2 180 Geotechnical log

HVGD003 Apr-95 60 090 NQ2 200 Geotechnical log
ORGD001 May-95 61 089 HQ3 150 Geotechnical log
HMGD009 May-95 70 090 NQ2 149 Geotechnical log
HMGD010 May-95 60 087 NQ2 236 Geotechnical log
HMGD011 Jun-95 60 089 HQ3/NQ2 235 Geotechnical log
PAGD010 Aug-95 59 094 HQ3 250 Geotechnical log
GTD01 Jan-91 50 049 HQ3 181 Lab samples only
GTD02 Jan-91 49 040 HQ3 181 Lab samples only
GTD04 Feb-91 55 267 HQ3 250 Lab samples only
GTD05 Feb-91 49 052 HQ3 250 Lab samples only
GTD07 Mar-91 60 057 F 293 Lab samples only
GTD08 Apr-91 51 052 HQ3 169 Lab samples only
GTD17 Nov-91 50 232 F 83 Lab samples only
GTD18 Nov-91 50 232 F 220 Lab samples only
GTD20 Dec-91 50 048 HQ3 295 Lab samples only
GTD26 Sep-92 50 090 HQ3 250 Lab samples only
GTD27 Oct-92 55 090 HQ3 179 Lab samples only
GTD36 May-93 49 091 F 152 Lab samples only
GTD37 May-93 54 089 F 230 Lab samples only
GTD47 Mar-94 50 270 F 195 Orientation data only
GTD48 Apr-94 50 270 F 152.00 Orientation data only
GTD49 Apr-94 55 270 F 155 Orientation data only
GTD54 F 47 101 HQ3 263 Lab samples only
GTD55 Oct-95 60 103 HQ3 145 Log and lab samples
GTD56 Oct-95 50 104 HQ3 199 Log and lab samples
OTGD015 Dec-96 62 136 HQ3 146 Lab samples only
OTGD016 Dec-96 62 125 HQ3 298 Lab samples only
HRD59 F 53 089 HQ3 405 Lab samples only

logged holes relative to the major joint sets (Fig. 2) are
such that structures were well sampled, with the
exception of the steeply dipping, east–west striking set.
A total of 1022 m of core were logged with 1795
discontinuity measurements taken. Similar information
to that gleaned from scanline mapping was obtained
from diamond core logging, except for the trace length
details. It is important to note that only those natural
features that caused separation of the core were
recorded as discontinuities.
Diamond drill holes often allow information to be
gained from the immediate vicinity of the proposed
slope design. Unfortunately, this was not particularly
true for the study area with all of the holes having been
planned to investigate an earlier design proposal, leaving
the logged holes a relatively large distance (up to 300 m)
from the current cutback design. However, most holes
are oriented at relatively high angles to the dominant
structures, which helped to minimise bias.
Although the effects of blast damage are eliminated,
care must be taken to identify artificial cracks that have
been introduced during and after the drilling process.
This was found to be relatively simple, with the artificial
cracks generally exhibiting greater roughness and less
weathering than the natural discontinuities.
3. Discontinuity spacing
3.1. Introduction
Discontinuity spacing is a basic measurement of the
distance between one discontinuity and another. The
scope of discontinuity spacing determination is to
ascertain the size of the blocks that make up the rock
mass [2] because wall stability is strongly influenced by
this block size. The discontinuity spacing parameter is
often used in classification schemes such as the rock
mass rating system.
Discontinuity spacing measurements can be separated
into the following three forms [3]:
* Total spacing is the distance between two adjacent
discontinuities, measured along a line of general, but
specified, location and orientation.
* Set spacing is the spacing between two adjacent
discontinuities from a particular discontinuity set,
measured along a line of general, but specified,
location and orientation.
* Normal set spacing is the set spacing measured along
a line that is normal to the mean orientation of a
particular set.
594 D.R. Wines, P.A. Lilly / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 39 (2002) 589–602
The first two parameters can be directly estimated
from a linear discontinuity survey such as a scanline.
The normal set spacing Xn can be determined from [3]
Xn ¼ Xd cos d;
where Xd is a random value of set spacing for a set
whose normal makes an acute angle d with a linear
survey.
3.2. General aspects of discontinuity spacing distribution
For a linear survey the discontinuity intersection
points may be evenly spaced, clustered, random or a
combination of these. Priest and Hudson [4] studied the
results of comprehensive scanline mapping from three
different tunnels in the UK. The rock types encountered
were chalk, limestone, sandstone and mudstone and it
was found that, unless there is a large predominance of
evenly spaced discontinuities, any combination of evenly
spaced, clustered or randomly positioned discontinuities
will produce an exponential distribution of spacing. The
exponential distribution may be expressed as
f ðxÞ ¼ lelx ;
where f ðxÞ is the frequency of a discontinuity spacing x;
and l is the average number of discontinuities per metre.
The mean and standard deviation (SD) are both equal to
1=l:
Priest and Hudson’s findings [4] have been supported
by others; for example, [5–7]. However, Sen and Kazi [8]
recommend the use of a log normal distribution for the
analysis of discontinuity spacing estimates and reported
that it provides greater flexibility because both the
average discontinuity spacing and the variance of the
discontinuity spacings are considered.
It should be noted that the aforementioned work has
concentrated on total discontinuity spacing values.
Priest [3] reported that it is yet to be shown whether
the distributions of set spacings or normal set spacings
are exponential. Hudson and Priest [9] demonstrated
that the exponential distribution of total spacing can be
obtained from the superimposition of non-exponential
distributions of set spacing.
3.3. General considerations of inaccuracy and imprecision
in mean spacing estimates
Priest [3] described two separate criteria by which the
reliability of mean discontinuity spacing estimates can
be assessed:
* Inaccuracy is caused by the tendency of the mean
estimate to be biased by some persistent factor that
causes the result to be consistently in error. Short
sampling lines may produce inaccuracy where dis-
continuity sets with average spacing values greater
than the length of the sampling line may not be
encountered by that line.
* Imprecision is caused by the tendency of small
samples to produce mean values that exhibit incon-
ð1Þ
sistent random deviations from the true population
mean. The precision of mean discontinuity spacing
estimates will improve with an increase in the number
of measured and calculated discontinuity spacings.
Priest and Hudson [10] proposed a method for
estimating the precision of mean discontinuity spacing
estimates. If scanline mapping is undertaken in the same
direction at several different locations within a given
rock mass domain then, based on the central limit
theorem, the frequency distribution of the resulting
mean spacing values will tend to follow a normal
distribution irrespective of the distribution of disconti-
nuity spacings in the population. For a normal
distribution, some proportion fðzÞ of the various
mapping lines will yield a mean value within the range:
pffiffiffi
c7z SD= n; ð3Þ
ð2Þ where C is the true population mean, SD is the standard
deviation, n is the number of discontinuity spacing
values and z is the standard normal variable associated
with a particular confidence level.
That is, for discontinuity data measured along a
scanline, the mean value has a fðzÞ probability (or
percentage probability given by 100fðzÞ) of being
situated within the range provided by Eq. (3). Selected
values of z and fðzÞ are provided in Table 3.
Where discontinuity spacings follow an exponential
distribution, the formula can be reduced to [10]
n ¼ ðz=AÞ2 ; ð4Þ
where A is the allowable proportionate error. This
equation can be used to determine the sample size
required to achieve a given error bandwidth.
Priest and Hudson [10] refer only to scanlines in the
reviewed discussions. However, diamond core logging
also provides a linear discontinuity survey and this study
assumes that the methods for estimating the precision of
mean spacing estimates are also applicable to borehole
Table 3
Values of fðzÞ for the normal distribution [10]
z fðzÞ
0.675 0.50
0.842 0.60
1.036 0.70
1.282 0.80
1.645 0.90
1.960 0.95
2.576 0.99
 D.R. Wines, P.A. Lilly / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 39 (2002) 589–602 595

data. Priest and Hudson [4] suggested that the scanline
length should be at least 50 times the mean discontinuity
spacing, while Call and others [5] stated that measure-
ment of at least 100 points per discontinuity set provides
an ideal representation of the properties of that set.
and OP240T4) is presented in Fig. 4. Each data set was
obtained from the combination of total spacing values
from mapping lines of similar orientation. Frequency
histograms for the normal set spacing values of joint sets
1, 2 and 4 are presented in Figs. 5–7, respectively.

3.4. Discontinuity spacing data in the study area
Total spacing estimates determined from scanline
mapping and core logging are presented in Tables 4 and
5, respectively. The similarity between mean and SD
values, particularly in Table 5, is consistent with the
characteristics of the exponential distribution (Eq. (2)).
The set spacing and normal set spacing values for the
four main joint sets in the study area are presented in
Table 6. The latter values were estimated using Eq. (1).
A frequency plot for the total discontinuity spacing
values estimated from core logging is presented in Fig. 3
while a similar plot for the total spacing data obtained
from the north–south striking scanlines (ON130T2,
OY140T1, OY140T2, OP240T1, OP240T2, OP240T3
3.5. Comparison between core logging and scanline
mapping data
The diamond holes were drilled across the strike of
the predominant structural orientations whereas eight
out of the 10 scanlines were mapped approximately
parallel to the predominant geological structures. It
would therefore be reasonable to expect the diamond
holes to intersect the predominant orientations more
regularly than the scanlines, resulting in a lower average
and maximum total discontinuity spacing for the core
logging data.
However, the data in Tables 4 and 5 show that
average total discontinuity spacing estimates produced
by both core logging and scanline mapping is 0.45 m,

Table 4
Total spacing values for the scanline mapping data

Scanline no. Rock type Mapped length (m) Total joint spacing (m)

Mean SD Min Max

ON130T1 PB 13.00 0.24 0.23 o0.01 1.00

ON130T2 PB 38.00 0.53 0.44 o0.01 1.60
OY140T1 GMD 41.00 0.56 0.58 o0.01 3.30
OY140T2 GMD 50.00 0.76 0.59 o0.01 3.00
OY150T1 GMD 47.00 0.36 0.34 o0.01 2.30
OP230T1 GMD 46.00 0.35 0.33 o0.01 1.70
OP240T1 GMD 22.00 0.27 0.19 o0.01 0.80
OP240T2 GMD 26.00 0.31 0.27 o0.01 1.20
OP240T3 GMD 37.00 0.42 0.35 o0.01 1.90
OP240T4 GMD 29.00 0.71 0.57 o0.01 2.50

Overall 349.00 0.45 0.39 o0.01 1.93

Table 5
Total spacing values for the core logging data

Borehole no. Rock type Mapped length (m) Total Joint Spacing (m)

Mean SD Min Max

HVGD002 GMD 169.00 0.52 0.52 o0.01 2.47

HVGD003 GMD/PB 169.00 0.40 0.41 o0.01 2.54
GTD55 GMD/PB 104.00 0.40 0.43 o0.01 2.95
ORGD001 GMD/PB 108.00 0.42 0.46 o0.01 2.58
HMGD009 GMD 76.00 0.51 0.44 o0.01 2.03
HMGD010 GMD 157.00 0.46 0.48 o0.01 3.48
HMGD011 GMD 21.00 0.39 0.37 o0.01 1.58
PAGD010 GMD/PB 228.00 0.50 0.42 o0.01 3.52
Combined data GMD and PB 1032.00 0.45 0.45 o0.01 3.52
596 D.R. Wines, P.A. Lilly / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 39 (2002) 589–602

Table 6
Set spacing and normal set spacing values for the four main discontinuity sets

Set 1 Set 2 Set 3 Set 4

Set spacing (m) Mean 0.90 1.13 F F

(From core logging) SD 1.22 1.60 F F
Min o0.01 o0.01 F F
Max 11.30 8.91 F F

Set spacing (m) Mean 1.59 3.23 2.67 1.89

(From scanline mapping) SD 1.85 3.47 2.58 2.69
Min o0.01 0.10 o0.01 o0.01
Max 12.60 16.90 10.80 14.20

Normal set spacing (m) Mean 0.72 1.00 F F

(From core logging) SD 0.95 1.42 F F
Min o0.01 o0.01 F F
Max 7.99 7.83 F F

Normal set spacing (m) Mean F F 0.89 1.64

(From scanline mapping) SD F F 0.86 2.58
Min F F o0.01 o0.01
Max F F 3.60 14.16

400 100
90
350
80
300 70
Frequency

250 60
Frequency

50
200
40
150 30

100 20
10
50
0
0.1
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.1
1.3
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
2.9
3.1
3.3
0
0.1

0.4

0.7

1.3

1.6

1.9

2.2

2.5

2.8

3.1

3.4
1

Spacing (m)
Spacing (m) Fig. 4. Frequency histogram for total discontinuity spacing from
Fig. 3. Frequency histogram for total discontinuity spacing from core scanline mapping data.
logging data.

80.00
while the average SD is B20% greater for the core
logging data. This may be explained by the recording of 70.00

the more significant quartz veins as discontinuities 60.00

during the scanline mapping process, with these being
50.00
Frequency

subsequently included in the calculations for the average

total discontinuity spacing. Because it is unlikely that all 40.00
of the measured veins would cause breakage of diamond 30.00
core, the influence of the veins will have been more
20.00
significant in decreasing the spacing values determined
from scanline mapping. 10.00
The diamond holes were drilled across the predomi- 0.00
nant orientations of the major faults and shear zones.
0.10

0.70

1.30

1.90

2.50

3.10

3.70

4.30

4.90
5.50

6.10

6.70

7.30

7.90

The scanline mapping, however, was deliberately under-

Spacing (m)
taken along clean batter faces that were not significantly
affected by faulting and shearing. Therefore, while the Fig. 5. Frequency histogram for joint set 1 normal spacing.
 D.R. Wines, P.A. Lilly / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 39 (2002) 589–602
Fig. 6. Frequency histogram for joint set 2 normal spacing.
scanline mapping was generally undertaken along
exposures of good rock mass condition, the boreholes
intersected both good and poor quality rock masses.
This is likely to have contributed to the higher SD for
the borehole spacing data.
Both frequency histograms for the total discontinuity
spacing values (Figs. 3 and 4) follow the general shape
of the exponential distribution, although Fig. 4 is more
poorly defined due to a smaller number of samples. This
is further reflected in the small difference between the
average and SD values for each data set (Table 7).
The frequency histograms for the normal set spacing
values of joint sets 1, 2 and 4 (Figs. 5–7) also appear to
follow the general shape of the exponential distribution
but not as clearly as the histograms for the total
discontinuity spacing data. This is manifested in the
larger differences between the average and SD values for
the normal set data (also shown in Table 7).
3.6. Inaccuracy and imprecision of the mean discontinuity
spacing estimates
Eq. (3) has been used to analyse the precision of the
mean spacing estimates from the core logging and the
scanline mapping data. All of the boreholes used in this
study were drilled in approximately the same orienta-
tion, allowing Eq. (3) to also be applied to the combined
core logging data set. The results are presented in
Table 8 as a percentage of the mean spacing estimates.
An example will assist to explain the information
presented in the table: for borehole HVGD002,
there is 95% confidence that the mean set spacing
estimate of 0.52 m lies within 16.57% of the true
population mean.
As expected, the percentage deviation decreases as the
sample size increases, indicating that a greater number
of spacing measurements will provide a more reliable
mean set spacing estimate. This is reflected in Fig. 8,
which presents a chart of the number of spacing
597
Fig. 7. Frequency histogram for joint set 4 normal spacing.
measurements versus the corresponding percentage
deviation for the individual boreholes and scanlines
presented in Table 8. The figure also indicates that as the
number of spacing measurements increases, the im-
proved reliability achieved by taking more measure-
ments decreases. For example, if 500 more
measurements had been taken from borehole
HVGD002, the reliability of the mean spacing estimate
for those data would have increased by 53% (assuming
the same SD). However, if 500 measurements were
added to the combined core logging data for which
significantly more spacing measurements were available,
the reliability of the mean spacing estimate for that data
would have increased by only 14%.
The percentage error recommended in practice lies in
the range 5–7% [8]. The percentage deviation for each of
the boreholes and scanlines is significantly greater than
this recommended range at the 99% confidence level.
However, the percentage deviation for the combined
core data falls within the recommended range at the
99% confidence level, indicating that the reliability of
the combined data is good and provides a quantitative
indication of the benefits of combining information
from separate data sets.
3.7. The effects of orientation bias
The influence of orientation bias is reflected in the set
spacing values for the four main joint sets (Table 6). The
effects are particularly obvious for joint sets 1 and 2,
with the borehole data producing significantly smaller
set spacing estimates for each set when compared to the
scanline mapping data. The orientations of most of the
scanlines form very acute angles with sets 1 and 2 while
most of the boreholes are at relatively high angles to
these sets. The discontinuities from each set were
therefore encountered less regularly by the scanline
mapping process.
598 D.R. Wines, P.A. Lilly / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 39 (2002) 589–602

Table 7
Difference between average and standard deviation values for the normal and set spacing

Mean SD Percent difference between mean and SD

Total spacing (core logging data) 0.45 0.46 2.22

Total spacing (NS striking scanline data) 0.48 0.46 4.17
Normal set spacing for joint set 1 0.72 0.95 31.94
Normal set spacing for joint set 2 1.00 1.42 42.00
Normal set spacing for joint set 4 1.64 2.58 57.32

Table 8
Precision of mean set spacing estimates

Borehole/ Rock type Spacing (m) Precision (as a percentage) of the mean spacing estimate for the confidence intervals indicated
scanline no.
Mean SD n 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 95% 99%

HVGD002 GMD 0.52 0.52 140 5.70 7.12 8.76 10.83 13.90 16.57 21.77
HVGD003 GMD 0.39 0.39 264 4.15 5.18 6.38 7.89 10.12 12.06 15.85
PB 0.56 0.64 16 19.29 24.06 29.60 36.63 47.00 56.00 73.60
GTD55 GMD 0.39 0.42 240 4.69 5.85 7.20 8.91 11.44 13.62 17.91
PB 0.46 0.46 40 10.67 13.31 16.38 20.27 26.01 30.99 40.73
ORGD001 GMD 0.43 0.47 219 4.99 6.22 7.65 9.47 12.15 14.48 19.03
PB 0.36 0.39 24 14.93 18.62 22.91 28.35 36.38 43.34 56.96
HMGD009 GMD 0.51 0.44 97 5.91 7.38 9.08 11.23 14.41 17.17 22.57
HMGD010 GMD 0.46 0.48 308 4.01 5.01 6.16 7.62 9.78 11.65 15.32
HMGD011 GMD 0.39 0.37 27 12.32 15.37 18.92 23.41 30.03 35.79 47.03
PAGD010 GMD 0.50 0.39 348 2.82 3.52 4.33 5.36 6.88 8.20 10.77
PB 0.56 0.67 28 15.26 19.04 23.42 28.99 37.19 44.32 58.24
ON130T1 PB 0.24 0.23 54 8.80 10.98 13.51 16.72 21.45 25.56 33.59
ON130T2 PB 0.53 0.44 72 6.60 8.24 10.14 12.54 16.09 19.18 25.20
OY140T1 GMD 0.56 0.58 73 8.18 10.21 12.56 15.54 19.94 23.76 31.23
OY140T2 GMD 0.76 0.59 66 6.45 8.05 9.90 12.25 15.72 18.73 24.62
OY150T1 GMD 0.36 0.34 129 5.61 7.00 8.61 10.66 13.68 16.30 21.42
OP230T1 GMD 0.35 0.33 72 7.50 9.36 11.51 14.25 18.28 21.78 28.62
OP240T1 GMD 0.27 0.19 82 5.25 6.54 8.05 9.96 12.78 15.23 20.02
OP240T2 GMD 0.31 0.27 83 6.45 8.05 9.90 12.26 15.73 18.74 24.63
OP240T3 GMD 0.42 0.35 88 6.00 7.48 9.20 11.39 14.61 17.41 22.88
OP240T4 GMD 0.71 0.57 41 8.46 10.56 12.99 16.07 20.62 24.57 32.30
Combined core data PB & GMD 0.45 0.45 1751 1.61 2.01 2.48 3.06 3.93 4.68 6.16

4. Discontinuity frequency and rock quality designation

4.1. Background
80.00
Discontinuity frequency is the inverse of discontinuity
% deviation from population mean

70.00 spacing and will therefore also influence the block size
60.00 within a rock mass. Frequency can be defined in terms
50% confidence of occurrence per unit volume, unit area or unit length.
50.00 60% confidence
70% confidence Linear frequency is the simplest and most commonly
40.00 80% confidence
used method [3] and is generally defined as the number
90% confidence
30.00 95% confidence of discontinuities intersecting a unit length of a sampling
99% confidence
20.00
line, such as a scanline or drill core.
Hudson and Priest [11] reported that discontinuities
10.00
are never similarly distributed in all directions and, as a
0.00 consequence, frequency values will depend on the
0 100 200 300 400 direction of the mapping line. They provide formulae
Number of measurements
that allow the estimation of discontinuity frequency
Fig. 8. Precision of mean set spacing estimates. along any orientation for a given discontinuity set of
 D.R. Wines, P.A. Lilly / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 39 (2002) 589–602
known orientation and spacing. The formulae allow
detailed analysis of frequency variation and can be used
to estimate the directions and magnitudes of the
maximum and minimum frequency values for a given
rock mass.
Rock quality designation (RQD) is defined as the
percentage of diamond core recovered in intact pieces of
100 mm or more in length and is fundamental to the
various rock mass classification schemes. Where dis-
continuity spacing follows an exponential distribution,
Priest and Hudson [4] proposed the following relation-
ship between a theoretical RQD* and the mean
discontinuity frequency per metre (l):
RQD ¼ 100 e0:1l ð0:1l þ 1Þ:
Priest and Hudson [4] also proposed that the use of
this equation in conjunction with scanline surveys on
freshly exposed faces is more appropriate than the
determination of RQD from diamond core. This is
because core logging may tend to underestimate RQD
values due to the formation of induced fractures during
the drilling process.
A plot of l versus RQD* is shown in Fig. 9 [4]. A
good linear approximation to Eq. (5) within the range
6olo16 is provided by the tangent at the inflection
point of the curve. The equation of the tangent is given
by
RQD ¼ 110:4  3:68l:
For meta-volcanic and meta-clastic rocks in Manito-
ba, Wallis and King [6] determined RQD from
individual scanlines and drill core measurements and
corresponding values of RQD* using Eq. (5). They
Fig. 9. Relation between RQD and mean discontinuity frequency [4].
599
found that RQD* can be calculated to within 6% of the
measured RQD using the proposed equation.
4.2. RQD for the Oroya cutback analysis
RQD values measured from diamond drill core are
presented in Table 9. The measurements were split into
1 m increments to allow an unbiased calculation of the
SD.
The total discontinuity spacing values from the
north–south striking scanlines appear to follow an
exponential distribution, as discussed above. Conse-
quently, Eq. (5) has been applied to the scanline
ð5Þ mapping data to produce the RQD* estimates presented
in Table 10. The number of discontinuities per metre (l)
and therefore the RQD* values were initially calculated
for 1 m increments. The linear approximation provided
by Eq. (6) was not applied to the scanline mapping data
because the average number of discontinuities per metre
does not fall within the specified range.
4.3. Discussion
The total average RQD* value is B4.5% higher than
the total average RQD value (see Tables 9 and 10). This
may be explained by the influence of the foliation. Well-
ð6Þ developed foliation planes may have broken the core but
may not have appeared as prominent discontinuities in
batter faces. These planes may therefore have been
included in the determination of RQD from core logging
but may not have been mapped as discontinuities during
scanline mapping.
600 D.R. Wines, P.A. Lilly / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 39 (2002) 589–602

Table 9
RQD estimates from the core logging data

Borehole no. Rock type Logged length (m) RQD

Mean Mode Median SD Min Max

HVGD002 GMD 169.00 95.00 97 95 4.08 60.00 100.00

HVGD003 GMD 150.00 79.00 100 95 15.53 0.00 100.00
PB 19.00 92.00 97 97 10.64 69.00 100.00
GTD55 GMD 74.00 92.00 100 97 14.24 32.00 100.00
PB 30.00 95.00 100 94 3.93 89.00 100.00
ORGD001 GMD 96.00 92.00 100 97 13.92 0.00 100.00
PB 12.00 87.00 97 94 12.93 50.00 98.00
HMGD009 GMD 76.00 96.00 100 98 5.90 83.00 100.00
HMGD010 GMD 157.00 97.00 100 100 8.03 30.00 100.00
HMGD011 GMD 21.00 95.00 100 94 6.52 72.00 100.00
PAGD010 GMD 186.00 93.00 100 97 7.21 42.00 100.00
PB 32.00 95.00 100 96 12.34 30.00 100.00

Overall 92.33 99.25 96.17 9.61 47.75 99.83

Table 10
RQD* estimates from the scanline mapping data

Scanline no. Rock type Mapped length (m) RQD*

Mean Mode Median SD Min Max

ON130T1 PB 13.00 93.00 94 94 5.41 81.00 100.00

ON130T2 PB 38.00 98.00 100 98 2.14 91.00 100.00
OY140T1 GMD 41.00 98.00 98 98 1.78 94.00 100.00
OY140T2 GMD 50.00 99.00 100 100 1.53 94.00 100.00
OY150T1 GMD 47.00 96.00 96 96 3.28 84.00 100.00
OP230T1 GMD 46.00 96.00 98 96 3.21 88.00 100.00
OP240T1 GMD 22.00 95.00 91 95 2.92 91.00 100.00
OP240T2 GMD 26.00 95.00 96 96 4.50 81.00 100.00
OP240T3 GMD 37.00 97.00 98 98 2.30 81.00 100.00
OP240T4 GMD 29.00 99.00 100 100 1.47 94.00 100.00

Overall 96.60 97.10 97.10 2.85 87.90 100.00

45 The effects of orientation bias will have caused the

40 diamond holes to intersect the predominant geological
35 orientations more regularly than the scanlines. Scanline
30
ON130T1 was mapped across the strike of the
Frequency

25
predominant structural orientations resulting in the
20
relatively low average RQD* value of 93%. The value
15
10
is close to the overall average value for the boreholes
5
and is significantly less than the average values obtained
0 from the other scanline surveys. However, scanline
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 OP230T1 was also mapped across strike, and its RQD*
RQD (%) value of 96% is not appreciably lower than those values
Fig. 10. Frequency histogram for RQD values logged from diamond obtained when mapping along strike. This may be due
hole HVGD002. to joint set 1 being relatively less developed in this area.
Prominent quartz veins were recorded as disconti-
nuities during the scanline mapping process and these
All of the diamond holes were drilled across the strike were subsequently included in the calculations of
of the predominant structural orientations, whereas RQD*. It is unlikely that all of the measured veins
eight out of the 10 scanlines were mapped approxi- would cause breakage of diamond core and therefore
mately parallel to the predominant geological structures. the influence of these features will have been greater in
 D.R. Wines, P.A. Lilly / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 39 (2002) 589–602
the calculation of RQD* than the calculation of RQD.
If this is true, a more realistic approach to the treatment
of quartz veins would lead to even higher values of
RQD* due to a reduction in the measured number of
discontinuities per metre.
The SD for the RQD values is significantly higher for
the core logging data (Tables 9 and 10). This is most
likely due to the diamond holes intersecting major faults
and shear zones while the scanline mapping was
undertaken along exposures of competent rock. This
effect is also reflected in the lower minimum RQD
values for the core logging data.
The information in Tables 9 and 10 shows that the
relative positions of the mean, mode and median values
for the RQD and RQD* are as expected for a left-
skewed distribution, typical of a relatively high quality
rock mass. This is clearly illustrated in Fig. 10, which
presents by way of example the RQD distribution for
borehole HVGD002.
5. Conclusions
The following conclusions of general interest have
been made:
* The total discontinuity spacing values for the study
area clearly follow the shape of the exponential
distribution, which is consistent with many previous
workers.
* Although not as clearly defined, the normal set
spacing values also appear to follow the exponential
distribution.
* The total average calculation for RQD* in this study
is within 5% of the total average estimate for RQD.
Consequently, the method proposed by Priest and
Hudson [4] provides a valuable tool that would be
particularly beneficial for geotechnical investigations
where diamond core is not readily available.
Conclusions specific to the study of the Oroya cutback
design are as follows:
* Complications in the discontinuity spacing results are
created by the influence of quartz veining and
foliation planes. The veins appear to have influenced
the scanline mapping data to a greater extent than the
core logging data, while the foliation appears to have
influenced the core logging data to a greater degree.
* Because of these complications, only those disconti-
nuity spacing values that were obtained from core
logging were used in the geotechnical engineering
analysis of the Oroya cutback.
* With more than 1780 discontinuity spacing measure-
ments being available from the core logging data, the
exclusion of the scanline mapping data is acceptable.
However, the scanline mapping technique is relatively
601
inexpensive when compared to diamond drilling.
Therefore attempts should be made in further work
to enhance the accuracy of the method through an
improved understanding of the influence of quartz
veins and foliation on the rock mass.
* The percentage deviation for the combined core
logging discontinuity spacing data falls within the
recommended error percentage range at the 99%
confidence level. The reliability of the combined core
logging data is therefore adequate for use in the
engineering analysis of the cutback design.
For the purposes of subsequent engineering analysis
in the cutback, only the RQD values determined from
core logging were used in the estimation of the rock
mass shear strength for the Oroya cutback design. The
RQD* values determined from scanline mapping were
not used for the following reasons:
* The standard method for determining RQD is the use
of diamond core and a total of 1022 m of core were
available for this investigation. It was therefore
considered unnecessary to complement these data
using other (indirect) techniques.
* The complications associated with the quartz veins
and the foliation planes both relate to the difficulty in
determining which features should be included as
discontinuities during scanline mapping. This diffi-
culty is eliminated when logging core by recording
only those natural features that cause breakage of the
core.
* The effect of the foliation planes in decreasing the
RQD values (as determined from core logging) may
provide a more realistic indication of the rock mass
quality since foliation will be encountered throughout
much of the cutback area.
* The intersection of the diamond holes with major
faults and shear zones also provides a realistic
indication of the rock mass conditions.
* On average, the RQD values determined from core
logging are lower than those determined from scan-
line mapping. The core logging data therefore
provides a more conservative approach.
However, the potential exists to increase the reliability
of the RQD* estimates in the study area even further
through an improved understanding of the influence of
quartz veining and foliation on the rock mass.
Acknowledgements
This paper is based on part of a research thesis [12]
submitted to the Western Australian School of Mines,
Curtin University of Technology. The authors wish to
acknowledge the support of KCGM (who employed the
602 D.R. Wines, P.A. Lilly / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 39 (2002) 589–602
first author during the period that this work was
undertaken) and for that company’s permission to
publish this paper.
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