SV./VOL.

22

PULA, 2013.
Kornelija A. Giunio - Knowledges About Public and... (101-116) Histria Antiqua, 21/2012

Kornelija A. GIUNIO

KNOWLEDGES ABOUT PUBLIC AND

PRIVATE GAMES FROM THE ROMAN
PERIOD FROM THE HOLDINGS OF THE
ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM IN ZADAR
Original scientific paper Kornelija A. Giunio
Received: 16.08.2013. Archaeological Museum in Zadar
Approved: 20.08.2013. Trg opatice Čike 1
UDK 904:791.7/796>:069(497.5 Zadar).02:902/904 23000 Zadar - Croatia
e-mail: kagiunio@amzd.hr

C ity contents have offered excellent terms for performing daily jobs, but also for social life, recreation and pleasure. An
important role in everyday life had the entertainment and social games (ludi). In the cities which had their theatres
and amphitheatres, performances and gladiatorial events were important sources of entertainment. Often athletic
competitions were organized. Iader almost certainly had his theatre and his amphitheatre, ruins of which were mentioned in
the 17th century, when they were destroyed.
In this article we will get down to archaeological evidences of various social games, for children and adults, from the hold-
ings of the Archaeological Museum in Zadar.
Key words: public games, private games, Iader, theatre, amphitheatre

In this article we will get down to archaeological evi-
dences of various social games, public and private, for
children and adults, from the holdings of the Archaeo-
logical Museum in Zadar.
City contents have offered excellent terms for per-
forming daily jobs, but also for social life, recreation and
pleasure. An important role in everyday life had the en-
tertainment and social games (ludi). In the cities which
had their theatres and amphitheatres, performances and
gladiatorial events were important sources of entertain-
ment and often athletic competitions were organized.
During a year period the Roman in the Imperial pe-
riod had, including religious and civic, regular and ex-
traordinary ceremonies, an almost unbelievable num-
ber of holidays, 135 days up to 180 days.1 Each month
had its solemn days at the falling of the Idae, at the mid
of the Kalendae or at the fourth of the Nonae. In addi-
tion, from ancient times remained the 45 days of the,
so-called, feriae publicae and also there were isolated
holidays.2 There were holidays imposed in the Repub-
lican period in the hardest hours of its history, holidays
connected to the reigning Emperor3 and many others.
1
Juvenal, Satires, X, 78; Fronto, Principia
Historia, 18, 24-25. D. MANCIOLI, 1987,
7-15. We have no reason to doubt in Juvenal
and Fronto’s words, we can just look at the
inscription in the calendars where are pre-
sented to us the lists of the days when public
games and shows have been hold, generally
called Ludi.
2
The feriae publicae were the Lupercalia in
February, the Parilia, Cerealia and Vinalia in
April, the Vestalia and the Matralia in June,
the Volcanalia in August and the Saturnalia
in December. An example of an isolated
holiday is the Equus october, held on October
the 15th, when horse races were staged.
3
The Emperor’s birthday, the date of climbing
to the throne, the apotheosis of his predecessor.

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Kornelija A. Giunio - Knowledges About Public and... (101-116) Histria Antiqua, 21/2012

Fig. 1 Roman mosaic of Choregos

and actors from Pompeii, a masked
theatrical troupe around an aulos
player, the House of Tragic Poet (Casa
del poeta tragico). Napoli, Museo
archeologico nazionale, inv. no. 9986
(taken from http://en.wikipedia.or/
wiki/File:Choregos_actors_MAN_
Napoli_Inv9986.jpg, 30.7.2013).

4
As religious ceremonies, ludi were organized
at first by various colleges of priests. During
the Republic, they were later presented by
consuls, but became most associated with
the responsabilities of the aediles. Although
public money was allocated for the staging of
ludi, the presiding official increasingly came
to augment the splendor of his games from
personal funds.
5
MANCIOLI 1987, 16-29.
6
Isidorus Hispalensis, Etymologiae, 18.16.3.
7
MANCIOLI 1987, 30-49; SAVARESE
2007.
Holidays represented days of entertainment, although
initially the feriae had certain religious significance.
Public games, the Ludi, were held for the benefit and
entertainment of the Roman people. Ludi were held in
conjunction with, or sometimes as the major feature
of, Roman religious festival and were also presented as
part of the State cult. Originally, all ludi seem to have
been votive offerings (ludi votivi), staged as the fulfill-
ment of a wow to a deity whose favor had been sought
and evidenced.4
The singular form ludus, “game, sport” or “play” has
several meaning in Latin. It may refer to child’s play,
erotic game-playing, an elementary school or a train-
ing camp for gladiators. The plural is used for “games” in
a sense analogous to the Greek festivals of games. The
late-antique scholar Isidore from Seville classifies the
forms of ludus as ludus gymnicus (“athletic”), ludus cir-
censis (“held in the circus”, mainly chariot races),5 ludus
gladiatorius (“gladiatorial”) and ludus scaenicus (“theatri-
cal”).6
The Roman government wanted to keep the idle
masses entertained because they knew that a large
group of poor people was a major threat to their Em-
pire. Therefore, the Romans enjoyed many different
forms of entertainment, most of which were free.
One of the main forms of entertainment in Rome
were the theatrical games.7 Roman theatrical perfor-
mances were taken from the Etruscan culture as part of
funerary rituals in order to entertain the gods and pray
to their liking. At first they did not have particularly
specific places for performing. They were organized un-
der the open sky, in the squares on provisional stages
which could be easily removed, while the audience fol-
lowed the display standing. A significant initiative came
from Greece. Although Rome had a native tradition of
performance, the Hellenization of the Roman culture

102
Kornelija A. Giunio - Knowledges About Public and... (101-116)
from the 3rd century BC had a profound and energiz-
ing effect on the Roman theatre and encouraged the
development of Latin literature of the highest quality
for the stage. Roman dramatic works were imitation or
adaptations of tragedies and comedies created by the
Greeks and given as a gift to the whole cultural world.8
The theatre was specifically designed for leisure of the
common people who were thrilled by the skills of the
actors, their personality, their voice and movements
(nothing changed !) (Fig. 1).9
From the 2nd century BC begins the development
of the architecture of theatrical buildings (Fig. 2). For
a Roman citizen in the Imperial period sitting in the
immense architectural choreography of a theatre was
a joyful experience. The entrance was free for all,10 but
to get there you had to have a ticket for admission, the
so-called tessera lussoria.11 This was usually a bone tablet
and served as a way of controlling audience numbers,
guiding them to their assigned seats and keeping out
nuisances and troublemakers. The seats were allocated
on the basis of the social order, hence the wealth of the
members of the audience (census).
However, long term, cultural entertainment has
become a victim of competition from other forms of
entertainment, cruel pastime in circuses and amphi-
theatres.12
There are some similitaries between the theatres and
amphitheatres of ancient Rome, but mainly they were
two entirely different structures, with specific layouts
that lend to the different events they held.13 Amphi-
theatres did not need superior acoustics, unlike those
provided by the structure of a Roman theatre. While
amphitheatres would feature races and gladiatorial
combats (munera gladiatorum), chariot races, venationes
(animal slayings) and executions, theatres hosted events
such as plays, pantomimes, choral events and orations.
Their design, with its semicircular form enhances the
natural acoustics.14
A more politely entertainement were offere in the
odeums, comparatively small, often semicircular roofed
theater of ancient Greece and Rome, used for musical
performances, lectures and poetry reading. One still in
use was built by Herodes Atticus at the base of the Athe-
nian Acropolis in 161 AD. Odea were constructed in
most cities of the Roman Empire for use as assembly
halls as well as for performances.
Iader almost certainly had his theatre and his am-
phitheatre. Iader (Zadar) became a Roman colony at
the end of the 1st BC. The Roman city was built on the
peninsula on which even today its centre is located. Be-
tween the peninsula and the mainland is a good har-
bour. According to the Roman town-building rules the
town was divided into symmetrical blocks surrounded
by a rectangular raster of streets. The centre of the
town, the Forum, is the most spacious of all forums ex-
plored in our country.15
Histria Antiqua, 21/2012
Fig. 2 Standard floor plan of a Ro-
man theatre (taken from htpp://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_Plan_
Romeins_theater.gif, 23.09.2013).
8
The Roman audience mostly appreciated the
genre of the comedy and mostly the work of
the Greek playwriter Menander, which were
freely translated and adapted by prominent
Roman writers from the 2nd century BC, Titus
Maccius Plautus and Publius Terentius Afer.
9
Here are some of the names of famous
actors, names known to us today : a famous
tragic actor from the 1st century BC Clodius
Aesopus, than Quintus Roscius Gallus, Lucius
Ambivius Turpio, Lucius Domitius Paris,
Paris or the renowned pantomime actor
Mnester.
10
Access was free to everyone, freedmen and
slaves, men and women, old and young.
BULIĆ 1897, 10-13.
11
12
MANCIOLI 1987, 50-71.
13
The term amphitheatre derives from the
ancient Greek αμφιθέατρον in the meaning
on «both sides» or «around» and θέατρον
meaning «place for viewing».
14
Semicircular plan with tiered seating
above a performance area. Ancient Roman
amphitheatres were oval or circular in plan,
with seatin tiers that surrounded the central
performance area.
15
It measures 95 m in lenght and 44.5 m in
width. Its origin dates from the time of the
foundation of the colony and it assumed the
final aspect after the reconstruction done in
the 3rd century AD. In the western extention
of the Forum there is a monumental domi-
nant – the Capitol, in the middle of which
was erected the temple.
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Kornelija A. Giunio - Knowledges About Public and... (101-116) Histria Antiqua, 21/2012

Fig. 3 A possible view of the urban

context of the ancient Iader (taken
from M. SUIĆ 2003, 310, Fig. 153).

Fig. 4 Fragment of a trabeation

depicting a feminine tragic mask
from Zadar (Iader). Archaeological
Museum in Zadar, inv. no. A10585
(photo by Kornelija A. Giunio).

Fig. 5 Detail of the fragment of a
trabeation depicting a feminine
tragic mask from Zadar (Iader).
Archaeological Museum in Zadar,
inv. no. A10585 (photo by Kornelija
A. Giunio).
16
Parking space lot southwest of the present
church and monastery of St. Mary and the
Archaeological Museum in Zadar.
17
SUIĆ 1981, 202-203; SUIĆ 2003, 258.
It is almost impossible to imagine that a city of this
magnitude and importance had not its own theatre, the
city that as a center attracted many residents of neigh-
boring communities from its hinterland. Theatres in a
city like few other objects reveal an atmosphere of ur-
ban demographics and cultural level of the urban popu-
lation.
M. Suić was of the opinion, with which I fully agree,
and I hope soon will be able to archaeologicaly confirm
it, that the theatre was located in the area south-east of
the Roman Forum,16 and its back façade closed the car-
do (cardo maximus, the current street B. Petranovića),
one of the two main city communications (Fig. 3).17
Trusted remains of its construction has not been re-
covered, but there are indications of its existence and is
quoted that in Zadar were discovered several architec-
tural elements belonging to the theatre (?).

104
Kornelija A. Giunio - Knowledges About Public and... (101-116)
With most probability from Iader originates a frag-
ment of a trabeation depicting a feminine tragic mask
(Figg. 4 and 5).18 The mask is carved above the garlands
hold by a naked young boy. The mask presents a rich
hair dress, typical of the onkos (wigs) falling over the
shoulder in long locks. The eyes with embossed pupils
and the mouth are wide open.
In the holdings of the Archaeological Museum in
Zadar we can find quite a number of pieces (in bronze
and clay) where as a decorative motif occurs the theat-
rical mask.19 More copies of this presentation we find
on ceramic oil lamps,20 appliqués of cast bronze that
may have graced small wooden chests (Fig. 6).21 A spe-
cial place occupies a bronze lamp in the form of gro-
tesque represented woman’s head with a handle in the
shape of a leaf, which is both a diadem (Fig. 7).22 There
is also a ceramic female tragic mask from Nin (Aenona)
(Fig. 8).23 The face is framed by a raised high haircut
of stylized curls radiating around the head, and along
the face falling vertically. The openings for the eyes and
mouth are on-dominated, while the nose is quite cor-
rectly shaped. The expression of the face is suspended,
as from an unexpected disturbance.
The Archaeological Museum in Zadar keeps but is
originated from Podgrađe near Benkovac (Asseria) a
fragment of a stone slab (baluster) with a female tragic
mask carved in (Fig. 9).24 The face is quite damaged,
eyes and mouth wide open. The forehead and the face
are framed by a series of thin curls up to the shoulders.
Histria Antiqua, 21/2012
Fig. 6 – Bronze appliqués depicting
tragic and comic masks from Nin
(Aenona). Archaeological Museum
in Zadar, inv. no. A10412, A10685,
A10687 (photo by Kornelija A.
Giunio).
Fig. 7 Bronze oil lamp in the form of
grotesque represented woman’s head.
Archaeological Museum in Zadar,
inv. no. A10326 (photo by Kornelija
A. Giunio).
18
Limestone, length 99 cm, width 47 cm,
height 41 cm. Held in the Archaeological Mu-
seum in Zadar, Inv. no. A10585. ILAKOVAC
1981, 239.
19
ILAKOVAC 1981, 239-242. The Greek
term for a mask is prosopon.This is not a
specific word but simply means “face”, though
a “second face”.
20
BERSA 1906, 1-95; BERSA 1915, 46-86;
ILAKOVAC 1981, 239-242.
21
MEDINI 1968, 163-164, no. 25-27; ILA-
KOVAC 1981, 239. Archaeological Museum
in Zadar, inv. no. A10412, A10685, A10687.
22
Bronze, length 14.6 cm, width 6.5 cm,
height 5.4 cm. Archaeological Museum in Za-
dar, inv. br. A10326. ILAKOVAC 1960, 141-
146; ILAKOVAC 1973, 392-393; VUČIĆ
– GIUNIO 2009, 46-47, cat. no. 123.
23
Clay, height 20.4 cm, width 17.2 cm, thick-
ness 0.4-0.8 cm. Archaeological Museum in
Zadar, inv. no. A14105.
24
LIEBL – WILBERG 2006, no. 2, fig. 35.
Found in 1908 on the Forum of Asseria.
Limestone, height 50 cm, width 45 cm, thick-
ness 28 cm. Archaeological Museum in Zadar,
inv. no. A7674.
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Kornelija A. Giunio - Knowledges About Public and... (101-116) Histria Antiqua, 21/2012

Fig. 8 Clay female tragic mask

from Nin (Aenona). Archaeological
Museum in Zadar, inv. no. A14105
(photo by Kornelija A. Giunio).
Fig. 9 Fragment of a stone slab
(baluster) with a female tragic mask
carved from Podgrađe near Benkovac
(Asseria). Archaeological Museum
in Zadar, inv. no. A7674 (photo by
Kornelija A. Giunio).
Fig. 10 Clay oil lamp representing
a sitting man (street performer, a
juggler), beside him a monkey, a
cat, circles and ladders from Zadar
(Iader), Archaeological Museum in
Zadar, inv. no. A11234 (photo by
Ivan Čondić Begov).
25
The existence of an amphitheater imply the
existence of a gladiator school (ludus).
26
RAUKAR – PETRICIOLI – ŠVELEC –
PERIČIĆ 1987, 278-281. Johannes Lucius
(Ivan Lučić), 1604 –1679) was a historian
from Dalmatia. His greatest and most famous They were called circulatores because people were post-
work is De regno Dalmatiae et Croatiae ed in a circle around them, doing imitations, parodies
(The Kingdom of Dalmatia and Croatia),
which includes valuable historical sources, a
of celebrities joined by praestigiatores, fortune-tellers,
bibliography and six historical maps. acrobats, jugglers and midgets (Fig. 10).
27
BIANCHI 1883, 14-17; BRUNELLI It is quite certain the existence of an amphitheatre.25
1913, 134-137; SUIĆ 1981, 202-203; SUIĆ
2003, 258. The inscription said : OLIM From the correspondence between Johannes Lucius
ROMANORVM COLONIAE AMPHI- from Trogir with the Zadar chronicler Šime Ljubavac
THEATRVM / BELICAE VIRTVTI THE-
ATRVM HABETIS CIVES JADRENSES we learn that the amphitheatre was on the site where
/ ANTONIVS BERNARDVS [providur u the Venetians in the 17th century built an external fort
Dalmaciji između 1657. i 1660. god.] / PRO-
VISOR GENERALIS DALMATIAE ET called Forte and Mezzaluna.26 On this occasion an in-
EPYRI / EX TANTAE ROMANAE MOLIS scription was put that says the fortress was built on the
CINERE PERPETVAM / SECVRITATEM
VRBI AC PROVINCIAE COLLEGIT / site of the Roman amphitheatre.27 Ljubavac sent Lu-
MIRVM MARMORA LICET SOLIDA cius a drawing in which it was drafted one oval build-
DISSOLVVNTVR / CINERES PERPETVO ing, which was long from southeast to northwest 360
AGITATAE MANENT / IMMO NON
MIRVM. LVDEBANT ROMANI feet. Otherwise, on the premises there are no data or
PVGNANT VENETI / ERGO ILLVD EX- findings, and there is no possibility that they occur by
TINCTVM HOC PERENNE / IMPERIVM
/ MOLEM. ETIAM. POSTERI. ADEVNT. field research, because the construction of the Venetian
FORTES. TANTVM. TENENT. fortress walls removed it all, using their material for its
28
B. Ilakovac expressed the possibility In addition some stage games and performances construction,28 and at the end the fort was destroyed in
that during the construction of the afore
mentioned Venetian fort were used parts could take place at the Forum and on the streets of the the 19th century by building a park, Vladimir Nazor
and massive constructions of the Roman city. Stage game at the Forum may not be mere conjec- Park (formerly Blažeković Park) (Fig. 11).29
aqueduct and amphitheatre. ILAKOVAC,
1982, 209-213. ture. The audience could watch them from the upper In the holdings of the Archaeological Museum in
29
M. PETRICIOLI 2011, 28-37. gallery of the porch (porticus) that surrounded the Fo- Zadar the only suggestions of gladiators and gladiator
30
Clay, height 17.8 cm. Archaeological
Museum in Zadar, inv. no. A13677. rum. At it could also refer the choice of the decoration fights are one of ceramic figurine showing a gladiator
31
BERSA 1906, 1-95; BERSA 1915, 46-86; of the gallery parapet which consisted of pilaster with (bestiarius ?) (Fig. 12)30 and more representations on
VUČIĆ – GIUNIO 2009, 22-27, cat. no. 15, protomes of the followers of the god Dionysus (Satyrs,
22, 36. The one represented on Fig 13 shows clay oil lamps (Fig. 13).31
the fight between two murmillones gladiators. Bacchantes) with in between slabs with the motifs of The ancient Romans dedicated most of the day to
It was a type of a gladiator popular during
the Roman Imperial Age. The murmillones
Erotes carrying garlands. Dionysus can be seen as god of otium, time allotted for intelectual life, reading, con-
were armed with a sword (gladius), a rectan- the theatre. In Athens there were four main Dionysiac templation of ‘art, but also to the care of the body
gular shield (scutum), a leather belt (balteus), festivals at different times of the year, each associated through exercise and attendance to private and public
a segmented or scaled arm guard (manica),
a large helmet with plume crest or horsehair, with theatrical events. baths (thermae), and leisure. Among the activities and
usually made of bronze with an ornate “grill” Many were the actors, mimes, musicians who earned pastimes an important place was occupied by the games
face visor (cassis crista), a shin guard (ocrea),
and thick soft paddings on legs (fasciae). their living performing in the streets or private homes. and private entertainment.

106
Kornelija A. Giunio - Knowledges About Public and... (101-116) Histria Antiqua, 21/2012

Fig. 11 Aerial view of Zadar with the

approximate indication of the posi-
tion indication of the amphitheatre
(photo taken from http://www.
croatianarchipelago.com/html/loca-
tions/zadar.html , 30.9.2013).

Lucius Manlius Acidinus was the one, according to Fig. 12 Clay figurine showing a gladia-
tor (bestiarius ?). Archaeological
Livy,32 that on his triumphant return to Rome from Museum in Zadar, inv. no. 13677
Asia in 187 BC brought to Rome music and dance in (photo by Kornelija A. Giunio).
private parties. In time it became a status symbol of
wealth to show off to guests on special occasions. But
music in ancient Rome was a part of the Roman culture
from the earliest times.33 Music was customary at fu-
nerals, and the tibia (Greek aulos), a woodwing instru-
ment, was playes at sacrifices to ward of ill influences.
The song (carmen) was an integral part of almost every
social occasion. Music accompanied spectacles and
events in arenas and theatres, and was part of all sort
of performing arts.
Of course already from an early age playing was an
important part in the life of childre. At birth or in the
days immediately following, the children were given
the name and they received gifts like rattlesnakes (crepi-
tacula),34 bells (tintinnabula), small amulets or neck-
lace pendants depicting miniature objects (crepundia).
These could be placed at the neck of the infant or worn
across the chest, but if you would shake them they pro-
duced a noise, having so a similar function to rattles and
bells. Toys could be considered in a sense also feeding
bottles, which in addition to their function, thanks to 32
Titus Livius, Ab urbe condita, 39, 6, 8-9).
their forms often funny and lively coloured, they could 33
GUIDOBALDI 1992, 7-77.
also amuse the infant. They could also produce sounds 34
The invention of crepitacula was attributed
to Archytas (Greek Άρχύτας orΤαραντίνος,
by putting a ball or a pebble inside. Numerous exam- 428-347 BC), an ancient Greek philosopher,
ples of these objects have been found, in different ma- mathematician, astronomer, statesman and
strategist, he belonged to the Pythagorean
terial, in children tombs to accompany the infants in school.

107
Kornelija A. Giunio - Knowledges About Public and... (101-116) Histria Antiqua, 21/2012

Fig. 13 Clay oil lamp representing

the fight between two murmillones
gladiators from Nin (Aenona). Ar-
chaeological Museum in Zadar, inv.
no. A11324 (photo by Ivan Čondić
Begov).
Fig. 14 Roman statue of a girl playing
astragals, 2nd century AD. Berlin
Antikenmuseum (taken from http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knucklebones,
28.9.2013)

Fig. 15 Bone astragal from Zadar

(Iader). Archaeological Museum in
Zadar, inv. no. A11650 (photo by
Timka Alihodžić).
Fig. 16 Bone astragal from Zadar
(Iader). Archaeological Museum in
Zadar, inv. no. A11651 (photo by
Timka Alihodžić).

35
INVERNIZZI 1994, 109-110.
36
BARBANERA 2005, 147-159.
37
Nux (“The Walnut Tree”) is a short poem
in 91 elegiac couplets, written as a monologue
spoken by a walnut tree asking that boys not
pelt her with stones to get her fruit. The tree
contrasts the formerly fruitfull golden age
with the present barren time, in which its
fruit is violently ripped off and its branches
broken. The tree compares itself to several
mythological characters, praises the peace the
Emperor provides, and prays to be destroyed
rather than suffer.
the afterlife like they amused them through their short
lives, along with amulets to keep them protected. Toys
intended for children were also small animals and whis-
tles of curious shapes made in clay or other materials,
horses with wheels sometimes with a knight.
The children received gift on various occasions, on
their birthday (Dies Natalis) or during the Saturnalia.
The Saturnalia was an ancient Roman festival in hon-
our of the deity Saturn held on December the 17th and
later expanded with festivities through December the
23th.35 The holiday was celebrated with a sacrifice at
the Temple of Saturn in the Roman Forum and a pub-
lic banquet, followed by private gift-giving, continual
partying, and a carnival atmosphere that overturned
Roman social norms. Gambling was permitted and
masters provided table service for their slaves. Satur-
nalia is a festival of light leading to the winter solstice,
with the abundant presence of candles symbolizing the
quest for knowledge and truth. So during this festivity
children received especially wax candles, than images
of deities, terracotta dolls and various food, particularly
nuts. These fruit was particulary appreciated by boys
and girls for they use in a game of skill. There were sev-
eral variations of the game, but essentially consisted in
hitting with a walnut a group of other nuts arranged on
the ground at a certain distance from the player.36 This
pastime was so widespread that Ovid (Publius Ovidius
Naso) dedicated a work, titled plained Nux, in which he
described different games achievable with these fruits
(ludus castellarum, tropa, etc.), Ovid describes at least
severn different ways to play with these fruits. From it
derives the expression relinquere nuces meaning “abban-
doning the childhood”.37 In fact, at the end of the wed-
ding ceremony the young groom would give his nuts to
the children present.

108
Kornelija A. Giunio - Knowledges About Public and... (101-116)
Games similar to the one with walnuts were played
with astragals (Fig. 14).38 Astragals are knucklebones
(talus) of sheep or goats (small-sized up to ca. 3 cm)
(Figg. 15 and 16)39 or cattle (specimens sized ca 6 cm).
The name derives from Greece (astragalos, astragaloi)
where it was used to denote one of the oldest games
that would rise to the commonly known dicing. Games
using astragals were known and widely popular in an-
cient Greece and Rome. The origin of knucklebones is
closely connected with that of dice, of which is probably
a primitive form. Both the Iliad and the Odyssey contain
allusions to games similar in character to knucklebones.
Usually four astragals were used and 35 different scores
were possible at a single throw, many receiving distinc-
tive names such Venus, King, Vulture etc.
Played by children and adults but seems to be par-
ticularly related to the children’s sphere, both for their
magic value and as suggestion of the mutability of
fortune. That is why probably in a fresco from Pom-
peii we recognize the children of Medea playing with
knucklebones, just as their mother ponders to kill
them (Fig. 17). To these bones were attributed a pro-
tective meaning, as evidenced by a frequent present
of a good number of knucklebones or their imitations
in bronze, terracotta, metal and even rock crystal, in
infant burials.
Among children frequent were group games, very
similar to those practiced even today and of which we
have evidence in the paintings of Pompeii, Hercula-
neum and Rome itself (hide and seek, piggyback, game
of the nail, etc.). Among favorite toys were also spins
(trochus or turbo).
To children and adults was recommended exercis-
ing, useful exercise was considered to play the ball in
different variations. It could be used a light ball of cloth
filled with feathers (pila paganica), a harder one pad-
ded with horsehair or wool (pila trigonalis), a heavy one
full of sand or even a leather on inflated with air (fol-
lis). Playmates for boys and girls were domestic animals.
Frequent were the so-called games of mimesis in which
the children improvised judges, soldiers, gladiators,
charioteeers and so on.
The most dear toy for girls of all time and most inti-
mately connected, with all its implications are certainly
dolls (pupae). Dolls could be me made of various ma-
terials, examples have been found made of rags, in ter-
racotta, wood, bone and ivory. Usually they consist of
a torso worked together with the head and the limbs
were jointed with pins and different mechanisms. Nor-
mally they could bend the knees, and in the examples of
best quality, also the elbows (Fig. 18).40
Because in antiquity girls married very young, even
at twelve, they used to play with dolls until the time of
the wedding. The day before the wedding, to emphasize
detachment from the world of childhood and access
to the status of an adult woman, married and future
mother, girls would dedicate their dolls to Diana or Ve-
nus or other goddesses they were particulary devout. In
the earliest time their dolls would be deposited on the
altars of the household Lares.
Histria Antiqua, 21/2012
Fig. 17 Medea debates murdering
her children, Roman fresco painting
from the House of the Dioscuri (Casa
dei Dioscuri) in Pompeii, 1st century
AD. Napoli, Museo archeologico
nazionale, inv. no. 8977 (taken from
htpp://www.argonauts-book-com/
medea-html, 28.9.2013).
Fig. 18 Creperia Tryphaena doll
from Rome. Roma, Museo Centrale
Montemartini (taken from htpp:///
www.turismoefinanza.it/step.jsp?-
page=92204, 6.9.2013).
38
FITTÀ 1998, 14-18, 120-122.
39
Two astragals from Zadar (Iader), grave 5
of the site Hypo Banka (Roman necropolis),
find in 2006. by Timka Alihodžić. Archaeo-
logical Museum in Zadar, inv. no. A11650,
A11651. In the holdings of the Archaeological
Museum in Zadar there are 6 astragals (?).
40
The most famous doll of the Roman age
belonged to the girl Crepereia Tryphaena,
a young girl from the second half of the 2nd
century AD. The doll was placed next to her
at the time of her burial as a companion of
so many games. Inside the sarcophagus, with
the pupa made of ivory and very refined, as
evidenced by the accurate rendering of the face
and the complex hairstyle in fashion of the
time, similar to that witnessed by portraits
of Faustina the Younger, there was also a
small box containing miniature jewellery and
everything needed for the toilette, all made of
precious materials. To play with their dolls
girls had not only jewellery and clothes, not
preserved due to the fragility of the material,
but in many cases also miniature furnishings,
which reproduced the home decor. STORONI
MAZZOLANI 1982, 6-8; MURA SOM-
MELLA 1982, 10-16; MAIOLI 2008, 57-62;
FONTANELLA 2009, 142-149.
109
Kornelija A. Giunio - Knowledges About Public and... (101-116)
Fig. 19 Fragment of a bone doll (leg)
in a drawn reconstruction from Za-
dar (Iader). Archaeological Museum
in Zadar, inv. no. A11907 (drawing by
Robert Maršić).
Fig. 20 Stele of Sulpicia Septimia from
Zadar (Iader). Archaeological Mu-
seum in Zadar, inv. no. A7681 (photo
by Kornelija A. Giunio).
Fig. 21 Stele of Sulpicia Septimia from
Zadar (Iader), detail of the girl hold-
ing her doll. Archaeological Museum
in Zadar, inv. no. A7681 (photo by
Kornelija A. Giunio).
41
Found in the archaeological excavations
in the centre of the Roman Zadar, in the
garden of the monastery of St. Mary in 1995
by Timka Alihodžić. Bone, lenght 8.9 cm.
Archaeological Museum in Zadar, inv. no.
A11907. PIZZAMIGLIO 2003, 96-98, doll
of the B type.
42
Limestone, height 65 cm, widtch 42 cm,
thickness 12.5 cm. Archaeological Museum
in Zadar, inv. no. A7681. MARŠIĆ 2002,
191-192, cat. no. 5.
43
The word alea is remembered nowadays as
part of Julius Caesar’s exclamation alea iacta
est – the dice is cast – when he crossed the
Rubicon river back into Italy with his legions.
Eventually the word aleae came to be a generic
term for all gambling games.
110
From the holdings of the Archaeological Museum
in Zadar we have a fragment of an bone doll, pre-
served is only the leg of the doll, but it is presented
here in a drawn reconstruction (Fig. 19).41
In the Archaeological Museum in Zadar is pre-
served a stele from Zadar (Iader) which in the arched
gable represents a halfigure of a decesead girl, Sulpicia
Septimia, who died at the age of six (and two months)
Histria Antiqua, 21/2012
holding her doll (Figg. 20 and 21).42 It is shown a type
of a ragged doll, very popular and common in antiquity,
very rarely preserved because of the fragility of the ma-
terial. An extraordinary case is the rag doll from Egypt,
from the Roman period (Fig. 22). The doll survived as a
result of the very dry conditions in parts of Egypt.
In all the ages and in all civilizations the State has
always sought to regulate and often prohibite hazzard
games for the negative consequences that may result
from the sames. The Romans were not an exception.
Especially in Rome, hazzard games led to countless ex-
cesses. The Roman already in the Repubblican period
had promulgated very strict laws. Particular was the
lex alearia which repressed the dice games assimilat-
ing the gains to the crime of thievery, setting a high
fine and consequentely gambling debts were not rec-
ognized as legitime, a creditor could not bring legal ac-
tions against a debtor.43
Nonetheless, playing dice was very popular among
the Romans and all around the Roman world nu-
merous were the finds of dices (tesserae),44 but they
also had a type with only four marked faces called
tali. Dice were invented independently all over the
world and often to different designs. The only differ-
ence between these Roman dices and the modern on
is that the numbers were arranged such that any two
opposite side would add up to seven. There were also
Kornelija A. Giunio - Knowledges About Public and... (101-116)
polyhedral dice made from a cubic dice which were
the eight corners were cut. The six normal faces bore
letters, numbers, signs. Two of these are preserved in
the holdings of the Archaeological Museum in Zadar
(Fig. 23).45
Dice were shaken in a cup then tossed.46 The out-
come of the result of a roll of a dice was believed to be
controlled by the Gods, the Roman goddess Fortuna
determined the outcome of a throw. Dice were even
used as a way of choosing rulers, predicting the future
and settling disputes. Roman wall paintings indicate
they played with three dice, while the images of Achil-
les on vases suggest the Greeks played with two dice.47
The dice are tossed on a table (alveus) or on a plane
surface, and then as now you added up the point ob-
tained (Fig. 24). Clearly the maximum possible score
was three times six. These high scores were called Ve-
nus, whilst the lowest, bad scores would be called canis
(dog). In modern Italian and perhaps even in English,
it is still common to refer to bad playing as “playing
like a dog”.
These games could be played at a number of loca-
tions, in taverns, at the public baths, the circus, the fo-
rum, brothels, on the streets. This game of dice could
be played with other pieces, such as knucklebones,
or Senet sticks, which would be tossed in the same
way. The Romans, in fact, played a variety of games
of chance for the purpose of gambling. Coin tossing
was known as capita aut navia, which means “head or
ships” (early Roman coins always had a ship on the tail
side). The different games were called ludus talorum,
ludus tesserarum or ludus aleae.
In addition to hazzard games the Romans also
knew those one of reflection and calculation, where it
was acquired intelligence and ability. Those were the
different board games pitting two players against each
other. Boards in different materials and with different
number of rows or different markings.48 Most popular
by the Romans was the ludus duodecim scriptorum or
duodecim scripta (“game of the twelve markings” or “of
the twelve lines”). The name refers to the three rows
of twelve markings, very similar to modern backgam-
mon (Fig. 25). Two players sat across from each other
and placed their 15 black or white pieces (presumably
stacked) on the first square on their side of the board.
They then each tossed a set of three dice fom a cup
and would move their pieces according to the value
of the throw.
Histria Antiqua, 21/2012
Fig. 22 Rag doll from Egypt, Roman
period. London, British Museum
(taken from htpp://www.british-
museum.org/explore/highlights/
highlight_objects/gr/r/rag_doll.aspx,
20.8.2013).
Fig. 23 Polyhedral dice. Archaeologi-
cal Museum in Zadar, inv. no. A5916,
A10429 (photo by Kornelija A.
Giunio).
44
In the holdings of the Archaeological
Museum in Zadar untill now we were aible
to found them 38. Dice could be produced in
different material, terracotta, lead, bronze,
bone, glass (quartz), but also gold, amber,
ivory. The ones in our Museum are all made
from bone and ivory.
45
Archaeological Museum in Zadar, inv. no.
A5916, A10429 from unknown site.
46
These cups could be of terracotta, bone
or glass.
47
On a wonderful black figure Greek pot held
at the Vatican museums, which dates back
to around 530 BC, found in Italy and was
painted by the famous vase painter Exekias,
the representation refers to the Trojan war
and shows Achilles and Ajax wearing their
armour and bent over the game bord as they
make their moves. Achilles calls a four whilst,
Ajax a three.
48
Boards could be carved in stone or also
made of wood, with deluxe versions in costly
materials such as ivory. Game pieces, pawn
or chips were made of bone, glass, polished
stone, might be colored. In the holdings of the
Archaeological Museum in Zadar are pre-
served 736 chips or tokens (calculi), mostly
black and white and made of stone and glass
(still counting !) (Fig. 27).
111
Kornelija A. Giunio - Knowledges About Public and... (101-116)
Fig. 24 Roman mosaic depictin dice
players from El Djem, Tunisia, 3rd
century AD (taken from htpp://
eglewis.blogspot.com/2012-/05/
ancient-games-dice.html, 28.9.2013).
Fig. 25 Stone game board from Aph-
rodisias, Turkey (taken from htpp://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Em-
pire, 28.9.2013).
Fig. 26 Reconstruction of the petteia
game board with tokens from the
holdings of the Archaeological Mu-
seum in Zadar (photo by Kornelija
A. Giunio).
Fig. 27 Small urn for shaking dice
and an assortment of tokens from the
holdings of the Archaeological Mu-
seum in Zadar (photo by Kornelija
A. Giunio).
112
Histria Antiqua, 21/2012
Very popular games were also the latrunculi or ludus
latrunculorum (“roman chess”), petteia (single stone
latrunculi) (Fig. 26), calculi (“roman checkers”), Felix
sex (“the game of lucky sixes”). The ludus latrunculo-
rum or simply latrones (“the game of brigands”, from
latrunculus, diminutive of latro, mercenary or high-
wayman) is a strategy bord game, it is said to resem-
ble chess or draughts, but is generally accepted to be a
game of military tactics.49 Tic-tac-toe (or Noughts and
crosses), an early variant was played in Rome around
the 1st century BC and it was called terni lapilli.50
Instead of having any number of pieces, each player
only had three, thus they had to move them around to
empty spaces to keep playing. The game’s grid mark-
ings have been found chalked all over Rome.
A quite rare findings in the holdings of the Ar-
chaeological Museum in Zadar are seven bone tesserae
from Zadar (Iader).51 Although the first interpreta-
tion was that they are theatrical tickets (tesserae lus-
soriae), and there is no doubt that Iader had its theatre
and amphitheatre. But they are almost certainly game
pawns, tesserae but on connected with the theatre. On
the front side they all have representations of Eros
(Amor, Cupid) in various positions (one sitting hold-
ing grapes in one and apples and pears in the other
hand, the second sitting holding a mask, the third with
a cloak and holding a wreath, the fourth sitting hold-
ing a syrinx, the fifth sitting and playing the lyre, the
sixth sitting with his hands bind at the back, the sev-
enth without wings, seems female, sitting on a bench
with a hourglass) (Fig. 28). On the back side we man-
age to read a roman number and a greek letter below
(Fig. 29). The use of them defines the finding in 1903
in Kerch (Crimea) next to a child’s skeleton of a small
wooden box containing 15 tesserae made from bone.52
It definitely helped explain the meaning of our tesserae
and many others found throughout the Roman Em-
pire.53 On the front of this tesserae are represented var-
ious deities (Zeus, Heracles, Hera, Aphrodite, Castor,
Pollux, Cronus, Isis, the portrait of Augustus, a wom-
an of the augustean era, an entrance to an egyptian
building, two crowns and a praetextatus. At the back
the names were written in the Greek alphabet, Roman
numbers and one letter of the Greek alphabet. The
numbers range from 1 to 15. The correct conclusion
is that these were used in a particular game, which at
present can not reliably be determined or explained.
Magic of the game, of having fun mixed with sa-
credness, these are some reflexions of a story of an
Kornelija A. Giunio - Knowledges About Public and... (101-116)
activity old as the mankind. The game is an activity
common to all living beings, since humans and ani-
mals learn by playing. It is not only children’s age the
age for having fun. Playing games is common to both
Histria Antiqua, 21/2012
children and adults. Who plays does not notice the
passage of time, the sole measure is pleasure. Finding
in antiquity roots of games dear to us give us a sense of
reassuring continuity.
Fig. 28 Bone tesserae from Zadar
(Iader), front side. Archaeological
Museum in Zadar, inv. no. A10276-
A10282 (photo by Kornelija A.
Giunio).
Fig. 29 Bone tesserae from Zadar
(Iader), back side. Archaeological Mu-
seum in Zadar (photo by Kornelija
A. Giunio).
49
The game is believed to be a variant of an
earlier Greek game known as petteia, pessoì,
psêphoi or pente grammaí, to which references
are found as early as Homer’s time. Homer,
Illiad, 633, 58-60.
50
ZASLAVSKY 1982, 5 passim.
51
They were discovered in 1928, tomb 7/42,
Casali Maggiori (Stanovi) (no other informa-
tions we have), from the same grave originates
a bone dice, 3 glass balsamaries and 2 bronze
strigils. Bone and ivory, diameter ca. 3 cm,
thickness ca. 0.3 cm. When we carefully con-
sider our pawns, we see that all of seven are
not of the same material, 3 are made of ivory,
4 of regular bones. Archaeological Museum in
Zadar, inv. no. A10276-A10282. VALENTI
1932, 41; VALENTI 1933, 162; POSEDEL
1950, 59-62.
52
ROSTOVTZEW 1905, 110-124.
53
Beautiful examples can be seen at the
Museo teatrale della Scala in Milano, Italy.
FITTÀ 2000, 37.
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BIANCHI 1883 Carlo Federico Bianchi, Antichità romane e medioevali di Zara, Zara 1883.
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FITTÀ 1998 Marco Fittà, Spiele und Spielzeug in der Antike. Unterhaltung und Vergnugen im
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FITTÀ 2000 Marco Fittà, Da Roma per gioco. Giochi e giocattoli nell’ antica Roma, Milano 2000.
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del vivere supera l’ oblio del tempo, Luxus. Il piacere della vita nella Roma imperi-
ale, Roma 2009, 142-149.
GUIDOBALDI 1992 Maria Paola Guidobaldi, Musica e danza, Roma 1992.
ILAKOVAC 1960 Boris Ilakovac, Rimska metalna svjetiljka, Diadora, 1, Zadar 1960, 141-146.
ILAKOVAC 1973 Boris Ilakovac, Brončane svjetiljke iz Arheološkog muzeja u Zadru, Radovi Insti-
tuta Jugoslavenske akademije znanosti i umjetnosti u Zadru, 20, Zadar, 1973, 385-
412.
ILAKOVAC 1981 Boris Ilakovac, Prikaz kazališnih maski na predmetima iz Arheološkog muzeja
u Zadru, Antički teatar na tlu Jugoslavije, Saopštenja sa naučnog skupa 14-17. april
1980., Novi Sad 1981, 239-242.
ILAKOVAC 1982 Boris Ilakovac, Rimski akvedukti na području sjeverne Dalmacije, Zagreb – Zadar
1982.
INVERNIZZI 1994 Anna Invernizzi, Il Calendario, Roma 1994.
KURELAC 1971 Miroslav Kurelac, Povijesni zapis nazvan “Anonimna kronika” u rukopisu
Naučne biblioteke u Zadru, Historijski zbornik, XXIII-XXIV, 1970-1971, Zagreb
1971, 363-374.
KURELAC 1994 Miroslav Kurelac, Ivan Lučić Lucius. Otac hrvatske historiografije, Zagreb 1994.
LIEBL – WILBERG 2006 Hans Liebl – Wilhelm Wilberg, Iskopavanja u Aseriji, Asseria, 4, Zadar 2006,
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MAIOLI 2008 Maria Grazia Maioli, La vita delle donne e i giochi dei bambini, le altre facce dell’
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MANCIOLI 1987 Danila Mancioli, Giochi e Spettacoli, Roma 1987.

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MARŠIĆ 2002 Dražen Maršić, Portretne stele na obalnom području rimske provincije Dalmacije,
Zadar 2002.
MEDINI 1968 Julijan Medini, Rimska brončana plastika u Arheološkom muzeju u Zadru, Dia-
dora, 4, Zadar 1968, 143-181.
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SAŽETAK
SAZNANJA O JAVNIM I PRIVATNIM IGRAMA U RIMSKO DOBA IZ FUNDUSA
ARHEOLOŠKOG MUZEJA ZADAR
Kornelija A. GIUNIO

Gradski su sadržaji nudili odlične uvjete za obavljanje svakodnevnih poslova, ali i društveni život, razbibrigu i
uživanje. Važnu ulogu u svakodnevnom životu imali su zabava i društvene igre (ludi). U gradovima koji su imali
teatar i amfiteatar odlazak na predstave i borbe gladijatora bio je važan izvor zabave. Nerijetko su se organizirala
i atletska natjecanja. Jader je gotovo sigurno imao teatar i amfiteatar. Ruševine amfiteatra spominju se u XVII. st.,
kada su uništene.
Ovim radom pozabavit ćemo se arheološkim dokazima raznih društvenih igara, privatnih i javnih, i djece i odra-
slih, iz fundusa Arheološkog muzeja Zadar.
Zadar (Iader) postao je rimskom kolonijom krajem 1. st. prije Kr. Povijesno gradsko jezgro smješteno je na pri-
rodnom poluotoku. Primjenom načela rimskog urbanizma grad je bio podijeljen na pravilne gradske blokove (in-
sulae) omeđene ortogonalnim rasterom ulica. Središte grada, forum, nalazi se na zapadnoj periferiji poluotoka i na
njega se prema sjeverozapadu nadovezuje kompleks kapitolija s hramom formirajući zajedno jedinstveni kompleks.
Grad je sasvim sigurno imao i teatar i amfiteatar. M. Suić je bio mišljenja, s čime se u potpunosti slažem, a nadam
se da ćemo to uskoro i arheološki potvrditi, da se teatar nalazio na prostoru jugoistočno od Rimskog foruma, svojim
je začeljem bio naslonjen na jednu od dviju glavnih gradskih prometnica (cardo maximus). U Zadru su otkriveni i
neki arhitektonski elementi koji su pripadali teatru, tako, sasvim vjerojatno, i ulomak trabeacije s prikazom kazališ-
ne maske. U fundusu Arheološkog muzeja Zadar nalazimo više predmeta (u bronci i glini), gdje se kao dekorativni
element pojavljuje kazališna maska (keramičke uljanice, brončane aplike, brončana uljanica, keramička tragična
maska). Iz Podgrađa kod Benkovca (Asseria) potječe ulomak kamene ploče (pluteja) sa isklesanom ženskom tragič-
nom maskom. Osim toga neke scenske igre i predstave mogle su se održavati i na samom Forumu i na ulicama gra-
da. Ruševine amfiteatara spominju se u 17. st. kad su uništene. U Zadru se čuva i manji keramički kipić gladijatora,
a više je prikaza i na keramičkim uljanicama.
Svjedočanstava dječjih igara i igračaka je malo. Iz arheoloških istraživanja u Zadru potječe ulomak koštane lutke,
ulomak profilirane lučne stele djevojčice koja ju i prikazuje s dragocjenom igračkom – lutkom, te nekoliko astragala.
Brojna su svjedočanstva raznih društvenih, stolnih igara, kao što su koštane četvrtaste kocke za igru, brončane
poliedarske kocke, brojni žetoni za igru (od kamena, stakla, kosti), a tu je i vrijedan nalaz sedam koštanih pločica
(tessera) s reljefnim prikazima.

116