This article was downloaded by: [Northwestern University]

On: 08 February 2015, At: 11:13

Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered
office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Combustion Science and Technology

Publication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gcst20

Flame Kernel Generation and

Propagation in Turbulent Partially
Premixed Hydrocarbon Jet
a bc a
M. S. Mansour , A. M. Elbaz & M. F. Zayed
a
Mechanical Power Engineering Department, Cairo University, Cairo,
Egypt
b
Mechanical Power Engineering Department, Helwan University, Ain
Helwan, Egypt
c
Clean Combustion Research Center, King Abdullah University of
Science and Technology (KAUST), Saudi Arabia
Published online: 23 Apr 2014.
Click for updates

To cite this article: M. S. Mansour, A. M. Elbaz & M. F. Zayed (2014) Flame Kernel Generation and
Propagation in Turbulent Partially Premixed Hydrocarbon Jet, Combustion Science and Technology,
186:4-5, 698-711, DOI: 10.1080/00102202.2014.883850

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00102202.2014.883850

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the
“Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,
our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to
the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions
and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,
and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content
should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources
of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,
proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or
howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising
out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any
substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,
systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &
 Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-
and-conditions
Downloaded by [Northwestern University] at 11:13 08 February 2015
 Combust. Sci. Technol., 186: 698–711, 2014
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0010-2202 print / 1563-521X online
DOI: 10.1080/00102202.2014.883850

FLAME KERNEL GENERATION AND PROPAGATION IN

TURBULENT PARTIALLY PREMIXED HYDROCARBON JET

M. S. Mansour,1 A. M. Elbaz,2,3 and M. F. Zayed1

1
Mechanical Power Engineering Department, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
2
Mechanical Power Engineering Department, Helwan University, Ain Helwan,
Egypt
3
Clean Combustion Research Center, King Abdullah University of Science and
Downloaded by [Northwestern University] at 11:13 08 February 2015

Technology (KAUST), Saudi Arabia

Flame development, propagation, stability, combustion efficiency, pollution formation, and

overall system efficiency are affected by the early stage of flame generation defined as flame
kernel. Studying the effects of turbulence and chemistry on the flame kernel propagation is
the main aim of this work for natural gas (NG) and liquid petroleum gas (LPG). In addition
the minimum ignition laser energy (MILE) has been investigated for both fuels. Moreover,
the flame stability maps for both fuels are also investigated and analyzed. The flame kernels
are generated using Nd:YAG pulsed laser and propagated in a partially premixed turbulent
jet. The flow field is measured using 2-D PIV technique. Five cases have been selected for
each fuel covering different values of Reynolds number within a range of 6100–14400, at a
mean equivalence ratio of 2 and a certain level of partial premixing. The MILE increases by
increasing the equivalence ratio. Near stoichiometric the energy density is independent on
the jet velocity while in rich conditions it increases by increasing the jet velocity. The stabil-
ity curves show four distinct regions as lifted, attached, blowout, and a fourth region either
an attached flame if ignition occurs near the nozzle or lifted if ignition occurs downstream.
LPG flames are more stable than NG flames. This is consistent with the higher values of the
laminar flame speed of LPG. The flame kernel propagation speed is affected by both turbu-
lence and chemistry. However, at low turbulence level chemistry effects are more pronounced
while at high turbulence level the turbulence becomes dominant. LPG flame kernels prop-
agate faster than those for NG flame. In addition, flame kernel extinguished faster in LPG
fuel as compared to NG fuel. The propagation speed is likely to be consistent with the local
mean equivalence ratio and its corresponding laminar flame speed.

Keywords: Flame kernel; Ignition energy; Laser ignition; Partial premixed flame; PIV measurements

INTRODUCTION
Flame kernels represent the early stage of flame initiation in internal combustion
engines due to spark ignition in spark ignition engines or local ignition in compression
ignition engines. Flame propagation follows the flame kernel initiation and is thus highly

Received 15 May 2013; revised 2 November 2013; accepted 19 November 2013.

Published as part of the Eighth Mediterranean Combustion Symposium Special Issue with Guest Editors
Nevin Selçuk, Federico Beretta, Mohy S. Mansour, and Andrea d’Anna.
Address correspondence to A. M. Elbaz, Mechanical Power Engineering Department, Helwan University,
Egypt or Clean Combustion Research Center, KAUST, Saudi Arabia. E-mail: ayman.elhagrasy@kaust.edu.sa
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/gcst.

698
 FLAME KERNEL GENERATION AND PROPAGATION 699

affected by the early development of the flame kernel (Wang et al., 2012). In addition, the
early stage of combustion in spark-ignited combustion systems affects the flame stability,
the combustion process, formation of pollutants, and the combustion system performance
and efficiency. Thus understanding flame kernel development and propagation is essen-
tial for the development of many combustion systems design (Morsy, 2012). This can be
achieved by both optical diagnostics and CFD calculations (Drake and Haworth, 2007).
In most practical combustion systems, combustion takes place within a highly tur-
bulent flow field in order to enhance the mixing process and heat release (Peters, 2000).
However, high turbulence leads to more ignition problems (Cardin et al., 2013), and thus
higher ignition energy is required. Some earlier experiments were designed to generate high
turbulence level, isotropy, and homogeneity with well controlled length scales in order to
study the flame initiation and propagation (Abdel-Gayed and Bradley, 1977; Bedat and
Cheng, 1995; Kaminski et al, 2000). Flame kernel generation in a highly turbulent environ-
ment is a complicated process. Thus, studying flame kernel development and propagation in
Downloaded by [Northwestern University] at 11:13 08 February 2015

a turbulent environment is a very attractive field of research for many experimental research
groups (Eichenberger and Roberts, 1999; Gashi et al., 2005; Marley et al., 2008) and direct
numerical simulation (DNS) research groups (Chakraborty et al., 2007; Jenkins and Cant,
2002; Jenkins et al., 2006; Reddy and Abraham, 2011, 2013). They investigate the stretch
effect on flame kernel, curvature, and wrinkling of the flame kernel and the vortex interac-
tion with flame kernel. Xiong et al. (2001) investigated the interaction of a laminar vortex
with a spark-generated premixed flame kernel in a quiescent combustion chamber. They
show that laminar vortices of various sizes and vortex strengths can increase the kernel
growth rate at least three times, which increases combustion reaction rates by involving
additional highly curved and stretched flame fronts.
The flame kernel is affected by the ignition source; spark energy, rate of energy
release, flow field, and mixing (Eisazadeh-Far et al., 2010). Srivastava et al. (2011) investi-
gated the laser-induced ignition for natural gas–air mixtures. They were able to characterize
the laser ignition of natural gas–air mixture and have developed an appropriate laser igni-
tion system for commercial use in SI engines. The major benefits of the laser ignition are
the greater control over the timing and locations of ignition, repeatability, and its non-
intrusive nature (Phuoc, 2006). It can also be used for improving the ignition performance
of lean combustion (Böker and Brüggemann, 2011). The structure and propagation of the
flame kernel generated by laser ignition in turbulent premixed methane flow were investi-
gated by Mansour et al. (2008) using advanced laser-based techniques. They obtained the
rate of flame kernel propagation and the rate of increase of flame kernel size for several
jet equivalence ratios and Reynolds numbers. These data are important for the design of
spark ignition engines with homogenous mixture of air and fuel. However, in most recent
engines, the fuel is injected prior to the inlet valve where stratified mixture is created near
the spark plug (Drake and Haworth, 2007). Startified or partially premixed environment
may be described by a mixture of lean and rich pockets. These pockets are likely exposed
to an interaction creating three zones of reaction with a common triple flame structure. This
should change the stability and combustion performance.
Recently Elbaz et al. (2012, 2013) investigated the effect of both the mixture equiv-
alence ratio and degree of partial premixing on the flame kernel and flow field interlinks
in partially premixed natural gas flames. They showed that jet equivalence ratio of one
enhances the flame kernel propagation and it gives the highest rate of kernel propagation.
However, the higher the degree of partial premixing or the higher the jet velocity leads to
more rapid flame kernel extinction.
 700 M. S. MANSOUR ET AL.

Accordingly, the current research is directed at the understanding of the flame kernel
development and propagation in turbulent partially premixed jet of different hydrocarbons.
The measurements are conducted for two fuels, namely, natural gas (NG; 95% by volume
methane) and liquid petroleum gas [LPG; 50% propane (C3 H8 ) and 50% butane (C4 H10 )
by volume]. Laser ignition is used in the present work instead of the conventional electric
spark plug in order to eliminate the effect of electrodes on the flow field and flame structure.
So, the level of minimum ignition laser energy (MILE) has been first investigated for the
current fuels. Then, the stability maps for both NG and LPG are investigated and discussed.
Finally the flame kernel initiation and propagation have been measured and discussed. The
flow field is measured using 2-D planar imaging velocimetry (PIV) technique. The flame
kernel propagation is detected at several time intervals from ignition within the range of
150–2500 µs. A partially premixed jet has been selected for the current work at a mean
equivalence ratio of 2.0 and variable Reynolds number within the range of 6100–14400.
Downloaded by [Northwestern University] at 11:13 08 February 2015

BURNER AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE

The burner is designed to provide a partially premixed turbulent jet where the degree
of partial premixing and turbulence level can be controlled. The burner, as shown in
Figure 1a, is constructed from two concentric tubes. The inner tube has an inner diame-
ter of 6 mm and an outer diameter of 8 mm, while the outer tube has an inner diameter of
10 mm and an outer diameter of 12 mm. The air passes through the inner tube while the
fuel passes through the annulus between the inner and outer tubes. The exit of the inner
tube is below the exit of the outer tube by a distance L. Mixing occurs within the volume
between the two exits of the tubes within the distance L. The level of partial premixing can
thus be controlled by varying the distance L. The ratio between this distance and the inner
diameter of the outer tube L/D is kept constant at 2 in this work.
The burner is fitted on the top of a turbulence generator similar to the turbulence
generator of Videto and Santavicca (1991). Air flows through a narrow slit at a diameter,
ds , of 45 mm of a slit thickness, b, of 0.8 mm, followed by an inverted cone with a base
diameter of 62 mm. The flow issuing from the slit provides a ring-like cylindrical flow. This
flow is broken at the inner cone wall to generate a wide range of eddies, which leads to high
turbulence level. The turbulence intensity due to this configuration concept can be as high
as 25% (Videto and Santavicca, 1991). The air stream is divided into two streams as 90%
and 10%. The first stream, 90% of the total, passes through the slit, while the second stream
passes through a seeder. This is to avoid the blockage of the slit by the seeding particles.
The seeded stream passes through a central tube, as shown in Figure 1a, and mixes with the
first stream inside the cone.
A fluidized bed seeder is used with titanium dioxide of 0.05 µm diameter seeding
particles for laser velocity measurements, as described below. The seeding particles must
be small enough to track the flow accurately, yet large enough to scatter sufficient light for
imaging using a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera. Ideally, the particles should also be
neutrally buoyant in the fluid, which means that they should have approximately the same
density as the fluid itself. The seeding powder should be dry, so the powder is first heated
to remove any moisture content and avoid agglomeration problem of the seeding particles.
Laser ignition is used in the present work in order to eliminate the effect of the elec-
trodes on the flow field and flame structure. For this purpose, a Nd:YAG laser is used with
a beam diameter of 6 mm, 10 ns pulse width, and a wavelength of 1064 nm. The beam is
focused using an anti-reflection coated spherical lens with 50 mm focal length. The flow
 FLAME KERNEL GENERATION AND PROPAGATION 701

Y
Flame Kernel r Nd: YAG laser II
for ignition
Location of ignition
Outer nozzle L
Focusing lens for ignition
Inner nozzle
Burner
Nd: YAG laser double
laser head

Turbulence
Generator Fuel Cylindrical lens

CCD Camera
ds
Downloaded by [Northwestern University] at 11:13 08 February 2015

Delay unit

Slit, b = 0.8 mm 90% of

total air Power supply

10% of total air + Titanium Dioxide particles Control unit & pc

(a) (b)

Figure 1 (a) Burner, (b) experimental technique.

field is measured using two-dimensional PIV Dantec model with CCD camera. The system
uses a double-pulse, two-head Nd:YAG laser with pulse energy of 50 mJ at the second har-
monic 532 nm. The camera is a HiSense Mkll PIV CCD camera (model C8484-5205CP)
with 1280 × 1024 CCD light sensitive array. The laser pulse duration is 6 ns, and the inter-
pulse delay between the two laser heads is controlled according to the flow velocity with
a minimum of 0.2 µs for supersonic flow. The laser sheet is created by a cylindrical lens
that produces expanding laser sheet. Timing between the ignition laser, PIV laser, and the
camera capturing was controlled by a four-channel Stanford Research DG535 pulse delay
generator unit.
The PIV images were processed using an adaptive window offset cross-correlation
algorithm implemented in a commercial analysis package (Dantec Dynamic Studio V 2.30).
The final interrogation window was 32 × 32 pixels with a 50% window overlap, resulting in
a spatial resolution of 1 mm and vector spacing of 0.5 mm. Three hundred pairs of images
were collected at several delay times from ignition, namely 150 µs, 300 µs, 500 µs, 1000
µs, 1500 µs, and 2500 µs for two types of fuel.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Minimum Ignition Laser Energy (MILE) Measurements
In practical combustion systems, ignition of the fuel/air mixture is important for the
stability of the combustion process and flame propagation. It is a basic subject of combus-
tion (Docquier and Candel, 2002; Huang and Yang, 2009) and has been investigated by
many research groups (Ballal and Lefebvre, 1977; Lewis and Von Elbe, 1987; Mastorakos,
 702 M. S. MANSOUR ET AL.

2009) and recently by Cardin et al. (2013) in lean flames, who found that the minimum
ignition energy (MIE) increases by increasing the rms of the velocity and by decreas-
ing the equivalence ratio in lean mixtures. In this work, the MILE was investigated for
premixed jets of air/NG and LPG/air. Ignition was created by Nd:YAG laser (specifica-
tions are presented above) at the nozzle exit of a free premixed jet. The jet equivalence
ratio and Reynolds number are adjusted, and the energy per laser pulse is increased gradu-
ally until the flame kernel is initiated at every laser pulse, for a total of 50 pulses, and this
value of laser energy is recorded. On the other hand, we tried to record the MILE value for
intermittent ignition, but the values depend on the percent of intermittency and are difficult
to be illustrated in the current work. So, the values presented in this work are repeatable and
do not change from shot-to-shot. With a 50 mm focal length anti-reflection coated lens, the
laser beam of 6 mm diameter is focused. The laser beam waist radius, r, at the focal point
and the depth of field, DOF, are obtained from the following relations (Merklinger, 1993):
Downloaded by [Northwestern University] at 11:13 08 February 2015

     2
2λ f 8λ f
r= , DOF =
π d π d

where f is the lens focal length, d is the beam diameter, and λ is the laser wavelength. From
the flame radius and lens focal length, the beam waist radius is calculated as r = 5.6 µm
and DOF = 0.19 mm at the laser wavelength of 1064 nm. The energy is normalized by the
focal volume and is presented in kJ/mm3 , defined as energy density.
Figures 2a and 2b illustrate the MILE data for NG and LPG, respectively. In both
fuels, the minimum ignition laser energy density, MILE, increases by increasing the equiv-
alence ratio. In addition, the MILE value is independent of the jet velocity around the
stoichiometric mixture fraction, while the MILE value increases by increasing the jet veloc-
ity in rich conditions. This indicates that chemistry is dominant, as compared to turbulence,
around the stoichiometric mixture, while in a richer jet, turbulence becomes more dominant
and this needs more energy for ignition. On the other hand, ignition energy is higher in NG
fuel as compared to that in LPG fuel. This is also attributed to the chemistry where the
laminar flame speed of LPG fuel is faster than that of NG.

20
Φj = 1.25 NG (a) (b) LPG Φj = 0.75
Φj = 1.5 Φj = 1
16
Φj = 3 Φj = 1.5
Φj = 5
MILE (kJ/mm3)

Φj = 2
12 Φj = 2.5

0
10 12.5 15 17.5 20 10 12.5 15 17.5 20
Jet velocity, Vj (m/s) Jet velocity, Vj (m/s)

Figure 2 Minimum ignition laser energy (MILE) density, in kJ/mm3 , versus the jet velocity (a) for natural gas
(NG) fuel and (b) for liquid petroleum gas (LPG) fuel.
 FLAME KERNEL GENERATION AND PROPAGATION 703

Flame Stability
The stability characteristics of the burner are investigated in order to identify the
suitable cases for the current study of flame kernel propagation. Elbaz (2013) studied
the stability characteristics of LPG partial premixed flames at a constant degree of par-
tial premixed. The stability results show that the flames with a cone are more stable than
those without a cone. This is similar to the conclusions presented by Mansour (2000) for the
early development of a conical nozzle burner. El-Mahallawy et al. (2007) conducted exper-
imental work to evaluate the effect of the partial premixing on conically stabilized partial
premixed flames. The level of partial premixing is controlled using concentric tubes, as
presented in this work. So, the level of partial premixing is controlled by varying the ratio
L/D. El-Mahallawy et al. (2007) concluded that the highest stability case occurs at L/D = 5
(where L is the separating distance and D is the inner diameter of the outer fuel tube). In the
current study, the highest stability point is shifted to L/D = 2. This could be attributed to
Downloaded by [Northwestern University] at 11:13 08 February 2015

the higher turbulence level achieved in the current burner due to the use turbulence genera-
tor. Higher turbulence level should affect the mixing process and hence the level of partial
premixing. Thus, higher stability point at L/D = 5 for a burner without turbulence genera-
tor is equivalent to another point at L/D = 2 for a burner with turbulence generator. So, it is
expected that stability and flame development are affected by turbulence, partial premixing,
and stoichiometry. In the current work, the level of partial premixing at high stability point
has been selected where L/D = 2.
The flames can either be ignited at the nozzle exit or downstream. The stability curves
are illustrated in Figure 3 for both NG and LPG. Three stability limits could be measured
with four regions. Three limits are detected as the attached limit, the lifted limit, and the
blowout limit. These limits generate four regions. The first region is below the attached
limit and represents the attached flames. The second region is between the attached limit
and the lifted limit. This represents either attached flames if ignition occurs at the nozzle
exit or lifted flames if ignition occurs downstream the nozzle. The third region represents

2.5x104

{
Blow out limit
NG Attached limit
2.0x104 Lifted limit
Jet Reynolds number, Re

{
Blow out limit
LPG Attached limit
Lifted limit
1.5x104

1.0x104

5.0x103

0.0x100
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Jet equivalence ratio, Φj

Figure 3 Stability limits for NG, as solid lines and solid symbols, and for LPG as dashed lines and open symbols.
 704 M. S. MANSOUR ET AL.

Table 1 Details of the selected cases of NG and LPG at [Fj = 2]

Jet velocity Vj Reynolds Reynolds number

(m/sec) Cases of NG number (Rej ) Cases of LPG (Rej )

10 10-N 6107 10-L 7171

12.5 12.5-N 7634 12.5-L 8964
15 15-N 9161 15-L 10756
17.5 17.5-N 10688 17.5-L 12549
20 20-N 12215 20-L 14341

the lifted between the lifted limit and the blowout limit. The fourth region is above the
blowout limit and this represents no flames conditions.
The trends presented in Figure 3 are quite similar to those presented by Mansour
Downloaded by [Northwestern University] at 11:13 08 February 2015

(2003) for partially premixed lifted jet flames of methane/air. It also shows that all limits for
LPG fuel are higher than those for NG fuel. This indicates that LPG flames are more stable
than NG flames. It is well known that LPG flame speed is higher than that for NG. Stability
of lifted flames depends on the flame speed, and thus LPG lifted flames are expected to be
more stable than NG lifted flames (Egolfopoulos et al., 1989; Metghalchi and Keck, 1980).
Based on the stability maps, five jet flow conditions are selected to study the flame
kernel propagation for each type of the fuels listed above. The main parameters of these
flames are listed in Table 1 for NG and LPG. All measurements were done at rich conditions
(j = 2). Nonreacting flow conditions are also investigated at the same jet Reynolds number
to be used as the references for the flame kernel cases. The investigation of the flow field
was conducted using the PIV technique described above. Three hundred pairs of images
were collected at several delay times from ignition, namely 150 µs, 300 µs, 500 µs, 1000
µs, 1500 µs, and 2500 µs. The mean flow field and the velocity fluctuations for reacting
and nonreacting cases are presented and compared.

Flame Kernel Propagation

The aim of the present study is to provide quantitative measurements of the flame
kernel propagation and propagation rate in a turbulent partially premixed environment. The
flow field measurements are conducted in partially premixed conditions at several levels
of turbulence intensity and for two types of fuel. The data are presented in the form of
mean velocity and axial turbulence intensity (rms of the velocity fluctuations normalized
by the local mean velocity). Two sets of measurements were conducted for the following
two fuels: liquid petroleum gas (LPG) and natural gas (NG). Nonreacting flow measure-
ments without flame kernel generation were also conducted. The nonreacting flow field
measurement is used in order to evaluate the effect of the flame kernel on the flow field and
to understand the inter-links between the kernel and the flow field.
There are several methods to detect the flame kernel position. One of these methods
is to measure radicals, e.g., OH, as markers for the reaction zone. Mansour et al. (2008)
used the OH PLIF images to capture images of the flame kernel generation and develop-
ment in a premixed mixture. Another method is to detect the presence of the flame kernel
position based on the turbulence variations. Elbaz et al. (2012) have investigated the flame
kernel propagation using PIV measurements. They compared the flow field with and with-
out ignition. The results showed that the mean flow field is not affected by the presence of
 FLAME KERNEL GENERATION AND PROPAGATION 705

the flame kernel at different partial premixing levels. However, they showed that the rms
velocity fluctuations are strongly affected by the presence of the flame kernel. They detected
a steep change of rms of the velocity fluctuations at the mean position of the flame kernels.
Their results show a good agreement with the results obtained by OH-PLIF measurements
by Mansour et al. (2008).
In the present work, the data also show that the mean flow field cannot be used to
detect the mean location of the flame kernel. The mean flow field structure within the flame
appears to be unchanged along the mean position of the flame kernel surface at different
time delays from ignition. However, the effect of the flame kernel on the rms of the velocity
fluctuations can be used to detect the mean position of the flame kernel similar to that
method used by Elbaz et al. (2012, 2013).
In the present work, 300 shots have been collected for each time interval from ignition
in order to cover the fluctuations of the mixture fraction due to the nature of the partially
premixed jet and the velocity fluctuations. The mean value should thus represents the mean
Downloaded by [Northwestern University] at 11:13 08 February 2015

equivalence ratio of the jet. Figure 4a shows iso-contours of the axial velocity fluctuations
(rms) normalized by the local mean velocity for a jet velocity of 15 m/s and jet equivalence
ratio of 2 recorded at 300 µs delay time from ignition using NG fuel. Figure 4b shows the
reference contours of the nonreacting case with the same jet velocity and equivalence ratio.
The results show that there is an increase of the velocity fluctuations within the central
jet region associated with the flame kernel. This is not the case for the nonreacting jet.
To evaluate this change, the velocity fluctuations along the jet centerline is plotted for both
reacting and nonreacting cases. Figure 4c shows the axial profiles of the normalized rms
along the centerline for both cases with the flame kernel and the nonreacting case. The
reacting case show a plateau of higher velocity fluctuations, and this plateau propagates
with increasing the delay time from the ignition. This plateau of higher rms disappears
after certain delay time, indicating the extinction of the flame kernel. It is clear in the flame

t = 300 µs Non-reacting
vj = 15 m/s
0.3

0.2
Rms/V

NG, t = 300 µs
Non-reacting

0.1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Y/d
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4 (a) Turbulence intensity at Vj = 15 m/s for NG jet 300 µs, reacting case; (b) turbulence intensity at
Vj = 15 m/s, nonreacting case. (c) Axial profile of normalized rms of the velocity fluctuations at Vj = 15 m/s.
 706 M. S. MANSOUR ET AL.

kernel case a sudden drop of the turbulence intensity after the higher velocity fluctuations
span at a certain location as compared to the linear decrease of the turbulence intensity in
the nonreacting case. This represents the effect of the flame kernel on the turbulence level
within the jet. Thus, the position of the sudden drop of the turbulence intensity can be used
as a marker for the leading front of the flame kernel. In addition, the difference between
the turbulence intensity level of the flame kernel case and the nonreacting case downstream
the flame kernel position indicates that the turbulence level is affected by the flame kernel
upstream. The flame kernel mean position and propagation can thus be measured, and the
flame kernel propagation speed can also be calculated.
Figure 5 shows the comparison of the flame kernel propagation for both the NG and
LPG flames at different jet velocities. The measurements are conducted at time delay steps
between 150 and 2500 µs as mentioned before. Each point in Figure 5 represents a cer-
tain delay time from ignition. The end of the curve indicates that no flame kernel could be
detected at the following time step, and this means that the flame kernel is extinguished
Downloaded by [Northwestern University] at 11:13 08 February 2015

between the last two time steps. Thus, the exact timing of the flame kernel blowout cannot
be determined. This requires continuous detection of the flow field. The results show that
the propagation distance for LPG flames is more than that for NG flames at the smaller
jet velocities. At higher jet velocities, 17.5 m/sec and 20 m/sec, there is no much differ-
ence of the flame kernel propagation distance between the two fuels. This demonstrates the
interaction between turbulence and chemistry. At low turbulence level, the chemistry effect
is more dominant, while at high turbulence level, the flame propagation is dominated by
the turbulence rather than chemistry. In addition, the extinction limit is almost identical for
both fuels at high turbulence level for the jet velocities of 17.5 and 20 m/s.
In all cases, the results show that the propagating distances of the flame kernel are
increased by increasing the jet velocity and starting from a delay time from ignition ≥
300 µs. This may be due to the decrease in the degree of the segregation in the jet, where
increasing the jet velocity leads to an increase of the velocity fluctuation. This enhances
the mixing between the fuel and air, leading to an increase of the propagation distance of
the flame kernel. Further downstream the degree of segregation is broken, as well as the
enhanced heat transfer from the flame kernel to the surrounding colder flow leads to early
extinction of the flame kernel at the higher jet velocity. As shown above, the flame kernel
extinction occurs early in LPG flames as compared to NG flames at relatively smaller jet
velocity. This could be clear at the low jet velocity, for instant, at jet velocity 10 m/s the
extinction in the case of LPG fueling occurs after 1000 µs, while for NG at time greater
than 1500 µs.
The flame kernel propagation in the current measurements is due to both flame prop-
agation speed and flow convection velocity. It is clear in Figure 5 that the increase in the
flow velocity leads to higher flame kernel propagation. This may be mostly due to the higher
convection velocity. The effect of the convection velocity can be separated from the flame
propagation speed by subtracting the local mean flow velocity from the measured flame
propagation rate. Thus, based on the kernel propagation data discussed in the previous sec-
tion, the rate of flame kernel propagation speed could be calculated in m/s. The results are
illustrated in Figure 6 for both fuels.
The flame propagation speed is increased in all cases to a maximum before
continuous drop along the jet axis. This is may be explained based on the change of the local
equivalence ratio along the jet centerline. The overall jet equivalence ratio, j = 2, leads to
a stratified layer close to the burner exit. This stratified mixture has a richer stream at the jet
boundary to a leaner stream at the flame centerline. The location of the stoichiometric layer
 FLAME KERNEL GENERATION AND PROPAGATION 707

(a) vj = 10 m/s

Flame Kernel Propagation

20

NG

Y (mm)
LPG
10

0
(b) vj = 12.5 m/s (c) vj = 15 m/s
Flame Kernel Propagation

20
Downloaded by [Northwestern University] at 11:13 08 February 2015

Y (mm)

10

0
vj = 17.5 m/s (e) vj = 20 m/s
(d)
Flame Kernel Propagation

20
Y (mm)

10

0
0 400 800 1200 1600 0 400 800 1200 1600
Time, (µs) Time, (µs)

Figure 5 Flame kernel propagation along the flow for LPG and NG fuels: (a) Vj = 10, (b) Vj = 12.5, (c) Vj = 15,
(d) Vj = 17.5, (e) Vj = 20 m/s.

lies between the two layers, and its location depends on the jet velocity. The reduction of
the equivalence ratio along the jet axis downstream from rich to stoichiometric should lead
to an increase of the flame propagation speed. Then, this should be followed by a decrease
of the local equivalence ratio to leaner conditions and consequently a decrease of the flame
propagation speed. In addition, the fast rise of the flame speed during the early stage of
the flame kernel propagation can be explained by the plasma effect due to laser focusing.
LPG flames also show larger values of the flame propagation speed as compared to that
of the NG flames. The maximum also occurs at the same delay time for both fuels. This
can also be attributed to the mixing process, which affects the local equivalence ratio and
consequently the flame speed.
 708 M. S. MANSOUR ET AL.

40 (a) vj = 10 m/s

Flame Kernel Propagation

30

Speed (m/s)
NG
LPG 20

10

0
40 (b) vj = 12.5 m/s (c) vj = 15 m/s
Flame Kernel Propagation
Downloaded by [Northwestern University] at 11:13 08 February 2015

30
Speed (m/s)

20

10

0
40 vj = 17.5 m/s (e) vj = 20 m/s
(d)
Flame Kernel Propagation

30
Speed (m/s)

20

10

0
0 400 800 1200 1600 0 400 800 1200 1600
Time, (µs) Time, (µs)

Figure 6 Flame kernel propagation speed along the flow at different fuel types: (a) Vj = 10, (b) Vj = 12.5,
(c) Vj = 15, (d) Vj = 17.5, (e) Vj = 20 m/s.

CONCLUSIONS
In this work, flame kernel propagation in both natural gas and liquid petroleum gas
partial premixed turbulent jets are investigated experimentally using PIV laser technique.
The effect of turbulence and chemistry on the flame kernel propagation speed are investi-
gated and analyzed. In addition, the flame stability maps for both fuels in turbulent partially
premixed jets are presented and discussed. Finally the minimum ignition laser energy for
both fuels is measured and presented as an important parameter for ignition of a fuel/air
mixture. Five cases are selected for NG, and another five cases are selected for LPG. All
 FLAME KERNEL GENERATION AND PROPAGATION 709

cases are at an equivalence ratio of 2 and different values of Reynolds number. The flow
field measurements are conducted at several time intervals from ignition. The current data
show that the turbulence intensity field can be used in tracking the kernel mean position.
This is similar to the previous measurements of Elbaz et al. (2012, 2013).
The flame stability maps of both fuels illustrate three stable flame regions and one
blow-out region. The first region represents the attached flames. The second region rep-
resents the lifted flames. The third region represents either lifted flames if ignition occurs
downstream; or attached flames if ignition occurs at the nozzle exit. LPG flames show
higher stability limits than those of NG. The flame kernel propagation speed is affected
by both chemistry and turbulence. However, at low Reynolds number, chemistry effects
are dominant,while at high Reynolds number, turbulence becomes dominant. This indi-
cates that the fuel type does not change the flame kernel speed at high Reynolds number.
The flame kernel speed follows one trend in all cases, where the speed increases and
then decreases along the jet centerline before extinction. This corresponds to the expected
Downloaded by [Northwestern University] at 11:13 08 February 2015

changes of the local equivalence ratio along the jet centerline from rich at j = 2 to stoi-
chiometric and finally lean downstream. LPG flames show faster flame propagation speed
than those for NG flames. This is consistent with the laminar flame speed data, where LPG
flame speed is higher than that for NG.

FUNDING
This work is financially supported by the joint project between Cairo University,
Egypt, and North Carolina State University, USA. The project title is “Computational and
Experimental Studies of Turbulent Premixed Flame Kernels.” The project ID is 422.

REFERENCES
Abdel-Gayed, R.G., and Bradley, D. 1977. Dependence of turbulent burning velocity on turbu-
lent Reynolds number and Ratio of laminar burning velocity to rms turbulent velocity. Proc.
Combust. Inst., 16, 1725–1735.
Ballal, D.R., and Lefebvre, A.H. 1977. Ignition and flame quenching in flowing gaseous mixtures.
Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. A, 357, 163–181.
Bedat, B., and Cheng, R. K. 1995. Experimental study of premixed flames in intense isotropic
turbulence. Combust. Flame, 100, 485–494.
Böker, D., and Brüggemann, D. 2011. Advancing lean combustion of hydrogen–air mixtures by laser-
induced spark ignition. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 36, 14759–14767.
Cardin, C., Renou, B., Cabot, G., and Boukhalfa, A. 2013. Experimental analysis of laser-induced
spark ignition of lean turbulent premixed flames. C.R. Mec., 341, 191–200.
Chakraborty, N., Klein, M., and Cant, R.S. 2007. Stretch rate effects on displacement speed in
turbulent premixed flame kernels in the thin reaction zones regime. Proc. Combust. Inst., 31,
1385–1392.
Docquier, N., and Candel, S. 2002. Combustion control and sensors: A review. Prog. Energy
Combust. Sci., 28, 107–150.
Drake, M.C., and Haworth, D.C. 2007. Advanced gasoline engine development using optical
diagnostics and numerical modeling. Proc. Combust. Inst., 31, 99–124.
Egolfopoulos, F.N., Cho, P., and Law, C.K. 1989. Laminar flame speeds of methane/air mixtures
under reduced and elevated pressures. Combust. Flame, 76, 375–391.
Eichenberger, D.A., and Roberts, W. 1999. Effect of unsteady stretch on spark ignited flame kernel
survival. Combust. Flame, 118, 469–478.
 710 M. S. MANSOUR ET AL.

Eisazadeh-Far, K., Parsinejad, F., Metghalchi, H., and Keck, J. C. 2010. On flame kernel formation
and propagation in premixed gases. Combust. Flame, 157, 2211–2221.
Elbaz, A.M. 2013. Early structure of LPG partially premixed conically stabilized flames. Exp. Therm.
Fluid Sci., 44, 583–591.
Elbaz A.M., Mansour, M.S., Khaled A.E., and Mohamed, D. 2013. An experimental study of the
effect of partial premixing level on the interaction between the flame kernel and flow field.
International Journal of Applied Science (IJAS), 4 (1), 1–13.
Elbaz, A.M., Mansour, M.S., and Mohamed, D. 2012. Experimental investigation of flame kernel in
turbulent partial premixed flames. Int. J. Appl. Sci., 3 (2), 21–34.
El-Mahallawy, F., Abdelhafez, A., and Mansour, M. 2007. Mixing and nozzle geometry effects on
flame structure and stability. Combust. Sci. Technol., 179, 249–263.
Gashi, S., Hult, J., Jenkins, K.W., Chakraborty, N., Cant, R.S., and Kaminski, C.F. 2005. Curvature
and wrinkling of premixed flame kernels comparisons of OH PLIF and DNS data. Proc.
Combust. Inst., 30, 809–817.
Huang, Y., and Yang, V. 2009. Dynamics and stability of lean-premixed swirl-stabilized combustion.
Downloaded by [Northwestern University] at 11:13 08 February 2015

Prog. Energy Combust. Sci., 35, 293–364.

Jenkins, K.W., and Cant, R.S. 2002. Curvature effects on flame kernels in a turbulent environment.
Proc. Combust. Inst., 29, 2023–2029.
Jenkins, K.W., Klein, M., Chakraborty, N., and Cant, R.S. 2006. Effects of strain rate and curvature on
the propagation of a spherical flame kernel in the thin reaction zones regime, Combust. Flame,
145, 415–434.
Kaminski, C.F., Hult, J., Alden, M., Lindenmaier, S., Dreizler, A., Mass, U., and Baum, M. 2000.
Spark ignition of turbulent methane/air mixtures revealed by time-resolved planar laser-induced
fluorescence and direct numerical simulations. Proc. Combust. Inst., 28, 399–405.
Lewis, B., and Von Elbe, G. 1987. Combustion Flames and Explosions of Gases. Academic Press,
New York.
Mansour, M. S. 2000. A concentric flow conical nozzle burner for highly stabilized partially premixed
flames. Combust. Sci. Technol., 152, 115–145.
Mansour, M.S. 2003. Stability characteristics of lifted turbulent partially premixed jet flames.
Combust. Flame, 133, 263–274.
Mansour, M.S., Peters, N., and Schrader, L.U. 2008. Experimental study of turbulent flame kernel
propagation. Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci., 32, 1396–1404.
Marley, S.K., Danbya, S.J., Roberts, W.L., Drakeb, M.C., and Fansler, T.D. 2008. Quantification of
transient stretch effects on kernel–vortex interactions in premixed methane–air flames. Combust.
Flame, 154, 296–309.
Mastorakos, E. 2009. Ignition of turbulent non-premixed flames. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci., 35,
57–97.
Merklinger, H. M. 1993. Focusing the View Camera: A Scientific Way to Focus the View Camera
and Estimate Depth of Field. v. 1.0. Bedford, Nova Scotia: Seaboard Printing Limited. ISBN:
0-9695025-2-4. Version 1.6.1 available in PDF at http://www.trenholm.org/hmmerk/.
Metghalchi, M., and Keck, J. C. 1980. Laminar burning velocity of propane-air mixtures at high
temperature and pressure. Combust. Flame, 38, 143–154.
Morsy, M. H. 2012. Review and recent developments of laser ignition for internal combustion engines
applications. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev., 16, 4849–4875.
Peters, N. 2000. Turbulent Combustion. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Phuoc, T. X. 2006. Laser-induced spark ignition fundamental and applications. Opt Lasers Eng., 44,
351–397.
Reddy, H., and Abraham, J. 2011. A numerical study of vortex interactions with flames developing
from ignition kernels in lean methane/air mixtures. Combust. Flame, 158, 401–415.
Reddy, H., and Abraham, J. 2013. Influence of turbulence–kernel interactions on flame development
in lean methane/air mixtures under natural gas-fueled engine conditions. Fuel, 103, 1090–1105.
 FLAME KERNEL GENERATION AND PROPAGATION 711

Srivastava, D. K., Dharamshi, K., and Agarwal, A. K. 2011. Flame kernel characterization of laser
ignition of natural gas–air mixture in a constant volume combustion chamber. Opt. Lasers Eng.,
49, 1201–1209.
Videto, B.D., and Santavicca, D.A. 1991. A turbulent flow system for studying turbulent combustion
processes. Combust. Sci. Technol., 76, 159–164.
Wang, G., Boileau, M., Veynante, D., and Truffin, K. 2012. Large eddy simulation of a growing
turbulent premixed flame kernel using a dynamic flame surface density model. Combust. Flame,
159, 2742–2754.
Xiong, Y., Roberts, W. L., Drake, M. C., and Fansler, T. D., 2001. Investigation of pre-mixed
flame-kernel/vortex interactions via high-speed imaging. Combust. Flame, 126, 1827–1844.
Downloaded by [Northwestern University] at 11:13 08 February 2015