Chapter 9

Significance of Drainage Measures

on Landslide Mitigation Measures

Minimol Korulla

9.1 Introduction

A landslide can be defined as ‘the movement of a mass of rock, earth or debris

down a slope’ [1]. The geomaterials may move by toppling, falling, sliding and
spreading. Steep gradients of slopes, sudden increase in overburden or other loads,
continuous rainfall, glacier melting, deforestation, increased pore water pressure,
improper drainage and seismic activity are the major causes of landslides [4]. In
most of the times, ineffective drainage is one major factor that results in landslide,
which implies the paramount importance for the provision of adequate drainage in
landslide problems.

9.2 Significance of Drainage Measures

In general, modification/alternation of geometry of the slope, drainage measures,

retention structures and internal slope reinforcement are the most important land-
slide mitigation measures. Among those adequate drainage is the most important
element of landslide mitigation measure for both existing and potential landslides.
Improvement of the slope stability by drainage is done in the following ways: (1)
reduction in the pore water pressures within the soil, results in increase in effective
stress and shear strength; and (2) reduction of the driving forces due to water pres-
sures in cracks. Many times, drainage measures are constructed in an erroneous way
because of lack of proper understanding about the need for drainage of both surface
and subsurface flow.

M. Korulla (B)
Maccaferri Environmental Solutions Pvt. Ltd., Gurgaon, India
e-mail: m.korulla@maccaferri.com

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 97

A. M Krishna and T. Katsumi (eds.), Geotechnics for Natural Disaster Mitigation
and Management, Developments in Geotechnical Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8828-6_9
98 M. Korulla

9.3 Types of Drainage Measures

The drainage measures can be classified as surface or subsurface measures.

9.3.1 Surface Drainage System

Surface drainage systems collect run-off from the slope and the catchment area
upslope and divert the water to nearby discharge points. It prevents the erosive effects
of run-off water and leaching through discontinuities in rock masses, directs the
surface flow away from the slide area and help to diminish groundwater levels and
pore pressures within the slide mass. In general catch, water drains or interceptor
drains, chute/cascades, roadside drains and cross-drains are used for draining of
surface water (Fig. 9.1).
Ditches more or less parallel to the road can act as catch water drains. Such drains
are provided on hillslopes to intercept water flowing from upper reaches and guide
such flows into culverts. Catch water drains are very effective in diminishing the
top-soil erosion in uphill roadside as well as reducing the quantity of water around
the road, hence restricting the damage to the road and subsequently reducing main-
tenance costs. Water from the catch water drains shall be diverted into a chute or a
natural hillside drain or diverted by sloping drains and lead into culverts at a lower
level finally to be lead through chutes into the nearest natural watercourse. The water
entrapped in the catch water drains is so brought down either by connecting them

Fig. 9.1 Cut and hill section in a hilly terrain showing catch drain, side drain and retaining wall
9 Significance of Drainage Measures on Landslide … 99

with existing natural gulleys or through chutes. The cumulative discharge with its
increasing momentum causes immense erosion. Generally, chute drains are con-
structed with concrete. To provide sufficient drainage, chutes made of double twist
wire mesh products, i.e. gabions and mattresses are found to be more appropriate
because of their stability and longer life. Further, the efficiency of counteracting the
differential settlement is more as compared to the concrete ones. Roadside drains are
provided on the roadside at the foot of the hillslope to drain out water from the por-
tion of the hillslope below the catch water drains. Cross-drainage shall be provided
at required intervals, if necessary, depending upon the nature of the terrain to prevent
the roadside drains from being overloaded and flooding the road surface. These shall
be provided at every point of natural nallah and water crossing [2, 3].

9.3.2 Subsurface Drainage

Subsurface drainage design measures at improving landslide mitigation by reducing

the pore water pressures within the slope. Subsurface drainage measures shall usu-
ally be conceived along with surface drainage measures and surface slope protection
measures. Subsurface drainage measures aim to lower the water table and evacuate
water from inside the slope. Subsurface drainage should be provided, if any ground-
water source is found to the source of instability of slope. It can improve the stability
of a potential slip surface that passes below the phreatic surface. Various types of
subsurface drainage system are drainage pipes, drainage trenches, internal drains of
retaining soil structures, etc. Horizontal drains are perforated pipes inserted into a
drilled hole of a slope to provide underground drainage (Fig. 9.2). It can be utilized
where the groundwater far that results an expensive stripping or trench placement.
Drainage pipes shall be designed specifically to lower the seepage pressures in slopes
and further to prevent failure. They can also reduce the water pressures near the base
of a suspected tension crack. Most of drains are made of 7.5–10 cm diameter perfo-
rated PVC pipes, wrapped with geosynthetic filter fabrics, which are introduced in
predrilled holes at gradients of about 10% uphill [2, 3].

9.3.3 Case Study

The paper presents a case study of Rehabilitation/Treatment of landslide at various

locations of National Highway 58 at Chamoli district in the state of Uttarakhand
by the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways through Project Director, PIU
Dehradun for the development of National Highways. The project has been divided
into two packages, i.e. package—I (Maithana, Nandprayag, Birahi, Gulabkothi with
proposed length of 350 m, 200 m, 100 m and 125 m, respectively) and Package II
(Helang, Govindghat-II and Govindghat-III with proposed length of 275 m, 150 m
and 150 m, respectively). Out of which, the paper emphasis on the drainage measures
proposed at the site at few locations.
100 M. Korulla

Fig. 9.2 Drain pipes installed at Mumbai-Pune expressway

9.3.4 Problem Description at Birahi Location

Helang is a village in the Chamoli District of Uttarakhand State, India at an altitude

of 1200 above the sea. It is situated on the riverbanks of Alaknanda and Birahi
Ganga on NH58. The landslide at Birahi has activated during Chamoli earthquake
in March 1999 (as per locals). At Birahi, there are two landslides one is at the
hillside and the other is in between the roads of hairpin bend. Slope modification for
infrastructure development and improper water channelization are the major causes
of land slide at Birahi. Steep cutting and leaving untreated cut slopes after road
construction is important anthropogenic activities that are responsible for making
this area conducive for mass movements. On the valley side, overloading or increase
in head load accompanied with intense rainfall and addition of run-off from new
roads on compacted fill has increased pore water pressure destabilizing the slope and
caused a slide. The area lies in seismic zone V and receives heavy precipitations.
Therefore, seismic forces may be a triggering factor but slope modifications and
water are the main causes of landslides in this area (Fig. 9.3).

9.3.5 Proposed Drainage Scheme at Birahi Location

The proposed rehabilitation and treatment measures are adopted to counter the desta-
bilizing forces are as follows: From the site observations and photographs, it was
noted that there is an existing culvert for drainage. However, there are no proper
channels for diverting the water to the culvert and then to the nearest water stream.
9 Significance of Drainage Measures on Landslide … 101

Fig. 9.3 Eroded portions at Birahi

Improper water channelization is one of the major problems for instability, hence, a
proper drainage channel was proposed on the hill as well as valley side including edge
drains and chute drains. Water has been channelized from the hill and safely discharg-
ing in the culvert through the roadside edge drain. After entering inside, the culvert
water is directed to the river through chute drains. Chute drain shall be extended till
the hard strata or rock is encountered on the valley side slope so that water shall be
safely discharged into the river. This proper drainage network will reduce the danger
of further accumulation of water in the in situ soil (Figs. 9.4 and 9.5).

9.3.6 Problem Description at Gulabkoti Location

Gulabkoti village is located in Joshimath Tehsil of Chamoli district in Uttarakhand,

India. It is situated 18 km away from sub-district headquarter Joshimath and 85 km
away from district headquarter Gopeshwar. The site comprises of heavily jointed
rock mass with weakness planes along the foliation (Fig. 9.6). During rains, water
percolates into the joints generating pore water pressure, which makes the slope more
susceptible to rock fall. On the top of the slope where trees are observed, the roots of
the trees were getting into the joints thereby widening the cracks. The failure of rock
102 M. Korulla

Fig. 9.4 Proposed drainage plan

mass at this location is mainly along the weak planes (foliations and joint planes).
The vertical joints have been widened due to tensile forces and pore water pressure
along the joint planes. The existing water streams have contributed to weathering of
rock mass.

9.3.7 Proposed Drainage Scheme at Gulabkoti Location

To channelize the rain water properly and to address the issue of surface and sub-
surface water, effective drainage measures like drainage pipe and drainage basin are
provided (Figs. 9.7, 9.8 and 9.9).
9 Significance of Drainage Measures on Landslide … 103

Fig. 9.5 Typical section of valley side retention system

Fig. 9.6 Site condition

104 M. Korulla

Drainage Basin

Drainage Pipe

Fig. 9.7 Proposed drainage scheme (plan)

Top Anchor

100 Horizontal
Drain pipes
Road side Drain

Bottom Anchor

Fig. 9.8 Proposed drainage scheme (cross section)

9 Significance of Drainage Measures on Landslide … 105

Fig. 9.9 Plan details of roadside drain

Fig. 9.10 River meandering at Maithana landslide

9.3.8 Problem Description at Maithana Location

Maithana is located almost halfway between Nandprayag and Chamoli (4–5 km on

either side) on Rishikesh-Badrinath Highway. It is at a height of approx. 950 m from
MSL. The landslide at Maithana is located between 30°21 19.3 N, 79°19 10.3 E
to 30°21 22.1 N, 79°19 7.06 E. Landslide at this location consists of debris (soil
mixed with boulders). Highly weathered Micaceous Schist is observed towards
flanks of landslide area that too is highly to moderately weathered and disintegrated.
Major factors that trigger the Maithana landslide are meandering of river, which
erodes the toe towards valley side and resulting in destabilizing the slope and sea-
sonal water channel in the middle of landslide location (Fig. 9.10). The water channel
start from village road passes above the sloping area towards hillside and continue
downwards up to the toe of slope towards valley side. Water from this channel erod-
ing the sloping area adjacent to it and makes it wider which cause the local failure
of hill and valley slope. Also because of this water channel, the soil mass getting
saturated, resulting in loosing of cohesion and frictional strength and sliding due to
gravitational pull.
106 M. Korulla

Gabion cascade

RCC Box Culvert Stepped chute drain

Road side drain

Fig. 9.11 Proposed drainage scheme

9.3.9 Proposed Drainage Scheme at Maithana

As described earlier, the improper water channelization is the major problem for
surface erosion and instability of the slope, hence, a systematic drainage channel has
been proposed on the hill as well as valley side. Chute drain and catch water drains
have also been provided to collect the water from the top of slope and from the surface
of slope. The water from these catch drains will be directed to the proposed culvert. To
reduce the flowing water force by surface run-off, the interceptors have been provided
each 20 m interval towards valley side slope (Fig. 9.11). In the drainage plan, a culvert
has been provided through reinforced soil wall. Water has been channelized from
the hill and safely directed in the culvert through the roadside drain. After entering
the culvert, the water has been directed to river through cascade water drains. This
drainage network reduced the danger of further accumulation of water in the in-situ
soil.

9.4 Conclusion

The case study presented in the paper demonstrates various drainage measures
proposed for the landslide mitigation measures along National Highway 58 at
Uttarakhand, India. Lack of proper drainage is one of the major factors that trigger
slope instability. Hence, adequate drainage of water is the most important element
of a slope stabilization scheme. Drainage can be either surface (chute, cascade,
9 Significance of Drainage Measures on Landslide … 107

longitudinal/cross-drains, etc.) or subsurface (drainage galleries, horizontal drains,

well points, etc.).

Acknowledgements The author would like to acknowledge the contribution of Ms. Padmaja
Gurram, Ms. Meenu P.S. and Mr. Manish Barot (Maccaferri Environmental Solutions Pvt. Ltd.) in
the preparation of this technical paper.

References

1. Cruden, D.M.: A simple definition of a landslide. Bull. Int. Assoc. Eng. Geol. 43, 27–29 (1991)
2. IRC SP 42: Guidelines of Road Drainage. Indian Road Congress, New Delhi (2014)
3. IRC SP 13: Guidelines for the Design of Small Bridges and Culverts. Indian Road Congress,
New Delhi (2013)
4. IRC SP 48: Hill road Manual. Indian Road Congress, New Delhi (1998)