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Chapter 6
A Tour of the Cell

‫جولة في الخلية‬
PowerPoint Lectures for
Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Overview: The Importance of Cells (Cell theory)
1- All organisms are made of cells
2- The cell is the simplest collection of matter
that can live ‫الخلية هي أبسط مجموعة من المواد التي يمكن أن تعيش‬
3- Cell structure is correlated to cellular function

4- All Cells are related by their
descent from their earlier cells
‫جميع الخاليا مرتبطة بنسبها من خالياها‬
‫السابقة‬

Stem Cell: an undifferentiated cell of a multicellular
organism that is capable of giving rise to indefinitely more
cells of the same type, and from which certain other kinds of
cell arise by differentiation.
Stem cells: are cells that can differentiate into other types
of cells, and can also divide in self-renewal to produce
more of the same type of stem cells
‫خلية غير متمايزة لكائن متعدد الخاليا قادرة على خلق خاليا أكثر من نفس النوع إلى‬
.‫ والتي تنشأ منها أنواع معينة من الخاليا عن طريق التمايز‬، ‫أجل غير مسمى‬
**Adult stem cells can be isolated from the body in different
ways, depending on the tissue. Blood stem cells, for example,
can be taken from a donor's bone marrow, from blood in the
umbilical cord when a baby is born, or from a person's
circulating blood ، ‫يمكن عزل الخاليا الجذعية البالغة عن الجسم بطرق مختلفة‬
‫ من نخاع‬، ‫ على سبيل المثال‬، ‫ يمكن أن تؤخذ الخاليا الجذعية للدم‬.‫اعتما ًدا على األنسجة‬
‫المتداول‬ ‫الشخص‬
Copyright © 2005 ‫من دم‬
Pearson Education, ‫ أو‬، as‫الطفل‬
Inc. publishing Benjamin ‫والدة‬
Cummings‫ أو من الدم في الحبل السري عند‬، ‫عظم المتبرع‬
• Concept 6.1: To study cells, biologists use
microscopes and the tools of biochemistry
***Scientists use microscopes to visualize

cells too small to see with the naked eye
***Light microscopes (LMs)
– Pass visible light through
a specimen
– Magnify cellular structures
with lenses

****Different types of microscopes
Unaided eye
***Can be used to visualize different sized
cellular structures
10 m
Human height
1m
Light microscope
Length of some
nerve and
muscle cells
0.1 m
Chicken egg
1 cm
Frog egg
1 mm
Electron microscope
100 µm
Most plant
and Animal
cells
10 µ m
Nucleus
Electron microscope
Most bacteria
Mitochondrion
1µm
100 nm Smallest bacteria

Viruses
10 nm Ribosomes
Proteins
Measurements
1 nm
Lipids 1 centimeter (cm) = 102 meter (m) = 0.4 inch
Small molecules 1 millimeter (mm) = 10–3 m
1 micrometer (µm) = 10–3 mm = 10–6 m
Figure 6.2 0.1 nm Atoms
1 nanometer (nm) = 10–3 mm = 10–9 m

***Use different methods for enhancing
visualization of cellular structures
TECHNIQUE RESULT
‫مجال مشرق‬ (a) Brightfield (unstained specimen).
Passes light directly through specimen.
Unless cell is naturally pigmented or
artificially stained, image has little
contrast. [Parts (a)–(d) show a
human cheek epithelial cell.]
50 µm
(b) Brightfield (stained specimen).
Staining with various dyes enhances
contrast, but most staining procedures
require that cells be fixed (preserved).
.‫تباين مرحلي‬ (c) Phase-contrast. Enhances contrast

in unstained cells by amplifying
variations in density within specimen;
especially useful for examining living,
Un pigmented cells.
Figure 6.3

‫ مما يستخدم التعديالت البصرية للمبالغة في‬، ‫االختالفات في الكثافة‬
3 ‫يجعل الصورة تظهر تقريبا‬D
(d) Differential-interference-contrast (Nomarski).
Like phase-contrast microscopy, it uses optical
modifications to exaggerate differences in
density, making the image appear almost 3D.
(e) Fluorescence. Shows the locations of specific

molecules in the cell by tagging the molecules ‫هذه المواد الفلورية‬
with fluorescent dyes or antibodies. ‫تمتص األشعة فوق‬
These fluorescent substances absorb ultraviolet ‫البنفسجية‬
radiation and emit visible light, as shown ‫اإلشعاع وتنبعث منها‬
here in a cell from an artery. ‫ كما‬، ‫الضوء المرئي‬
50 µm ‫هو مبين‬
(f) Confocal. Uses lasers and special optics for ‫هنا في خلية من‬
“optical sectioning” of fluorescently-stained .‫الشريان‬
specimens. Only a single plane of focus is
illuminated; out-of-focus fluorescence above
and below the plane is subtracted by a computer.
A sharp image results, as seen in stained nervous
tissue (top), where nerve cells are green, support
cells are red, and regions of overlap are yellow. A
standard fluorescence micrograph (bottom) of this
relatively thick tissue is blurry ‫هو ضبابي‬
50 µm

‫نشور زجاجي‬

• Electron microscopes (EMs): Focus a beam of electrons
through a specimen (TEM) or onto its surface (SEM)
SEM)( ‫أو على سطحها‬TEM) ( ‫• ركز حزمة من اإللكترونات عبر عينة‬

• The scanning electron microscope (SEM)
**Provides for detailed study of the surface of a
specimen
TECHNIQUE RESULTS
1 µm
Scanning electron micro- Cilia
(a) scopy (SEM). Micrographs taken
with a scanning electron micro-
scope show a 3D image of the
surface of a specimen.
This SEM shows the surface of a

cell from a rabbit trachea
(windpipe) covered with motile
organelles called cilia.
Beating of the cilia helps move

inhaled debris upward toward
the throat.

• The transmission electron microscope (TEM)
Provides for detailed study of the internal
ultrastructure of cells
Longitudinal Cross section

section of of cilium 1 µm
Transmission electron micro- cilium
(b)
scopy (TEM). A transmission electron
microscope profiles a thin section of a
specimen.
Here we see a section through
a tracheal cell, revealing its ultrastructure.
In preparing the TEM, some cilia were cut
along their lengths, creating longitudinal
sections, while other cilia were cut
straight across, creating cross sections.
Figure 6.4 (b)

Isolating Organelles by Cell Fractionation
***Cell fractionation:- End of lecture
**Takes cells apart and separates the major
organelles from one another
**The centrifuge:
Is used to fractionate cells into their component parts

• The process of cell fractionation
Cell fractionation is used to isolate(fractionate)
APPLICATION cell components, based on size and density.
‫يستخدم تجزئة الخاليا لعزل‬
‫ استنادا إلى الحجم والكثافة‬، ‫(جزء) مكونات الخلية‬
TECHNIQUE
1st : cells are homogenized in a blender to break them up.
2nd: The resulting mixture (cell homogenate) is then

centrifuged at various speeds and durations to
fractionate the cellcomponents, forming a series of pellets.
Figure 6.5
Homogenization
Tissue
cells
1000 g Homogenate
(1000 times the
force of gravity)
10 min Differential centrifugation
Supernatant poured
into next tube
20,000 g
20 min
80,000 g
Pellet rich in 60 min
nuclei and
cellular debris
150,000 g
3 hr
Pellet rich in
mitochondria
(and chloro-
plasts if cells
are from a Pellet rich in
plant) “microsomes”
(pieces of
plasma mem-
branes and Pellet rich in
cells’ internal ribosomes
membranes)
Figure 6.5
RESULTS
In the original experiments, the researchers

used microscopy to identify the organelles in each pellet,
establishing a baseline for further experiments
In the next series of experiments, researchers used

biochemical methods to determine the metabolic functions
associated with each type of organelle. (cellular respiration)
‫طرق الكيمياء الحيوية لتحديد وظائف التمثيل الغذائي المرتبطة بكل نوع من العضيات‬
Researchers currently use cell fractionation to isolate particular

organelles in order to study further details of their function.
(Isolation of mitochondria, power house)
‫عزل عضيات معينة من أجل دراسة المزيد من التفاصيل من وظيفتها‬
Concept 6.2: Eukaryotic cells have internal
membranes that compartmentalize their
functions ‫الخاليا حقيقية النواة لها أغشية داخلية تقسم وظائفها‬
• Two types of cells make up every organism
1- Prokaryotic ‫بدائية النواة‬
2- Eukaryotic ‫حقيقية النواة‬

Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
**All cells have several basic features in common
1- They are bounded by a plasma membrane
2- They contain a semifluid substance called
the cytosol
3- They contain chromosomes
4- They all have ribosomes

***Prokaryotic cells
1- Do not contain a nucleus
2- Have their DNA located in a region called
the nucleoid
Pili: attachment structures on
the surface of some prokaryotes
Nucleoid: region where the
cell’s DNA is located (not
enclosed by a membrane)
Ribosomes: organelles that
synthesize proteins
Plasma membrane: membrane
enclosing the cytoplasm
Cell wall: rigid structure outside
the plasma membrane
Capsule: jelly-like outer coating
Bacterial of many prokaryotes
chromosome 0.5 µm
(a) A typical Flagella: locomotion (b) A thin section through the

rod-shaped bacterium organelles of bacterium Bacillus coagulans
some bacteria (TEM)

***Eukaryotic cells
1- Contain a true nucleus, bounded by a
membranous nuclear envelope
2- Are generally quite a bit bigger than
prokaryotic cells
**The logistics of carrying out cellular metabolism
sets limits on the size of cells
‫تحدد لوجستيات تنفيذ عملية األيض الخلوي حدو ًدا لحجم الخاليا‬

***A smaller cell
– Has a higher surface to volume ratio, which
facilitates the exchange of materials into and out of the
cell‫ مما يسهل تبادل المواد داخل و خارج‬، ‫لديه نسبة سطح إلى حجم أعلى‬
‫الخلية وخارجها‬
Figure 6.7
***Cell Membrane ‫غشاء الخلية‬:
1- Functions as a selective barrier ‫حاجز انتقائي‬
2- Allows sufficient passage of nutrients and waste
Figure 6.8 A, B
A Panoramic View of the Eukaryotic Cell
***Eukaryotic cells
– Have extensive and elaborately arranged internal
membranes, which form organelles
‫ والتي تشكل عضيات‬، ‫لديك أغشية داخلية واسعة النطاق ومرتبة‬
***Plant and animal cells: Have most of the

same organelles

• A animal cell
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
Nuclear envelope
2
NUCLEUS
Nucleolus
Rough ER Smooth ER 10
Chromatin
Flagelium
Plasma membrane
Centrosome
1
8
CYTOSKELETON
9
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Ribosomes
Microtubules
3
Microvilli
9
Golgi apparatus
4
In animal cells but not plant
Peroxisome cells:
7 Lysosome Lysosomes
Figure 6.9 Mitochondrion 5 Centrioles
6 Flagella (in some plant sperm)
• A plant cell Nuclear envelope
Rough
Nucleolus endoplasmic
NUCLEUS
Chromatin reticulum Smooth
endoplasmic
Centrosome reticulum
Ribosomes (small brwon dots)

Tonoplast: membrane
surrounding the CV Central vacuole
Tonoplast
Golgi apparatus
Microfilaments
Intermediate
CYTOSKELETON
filaments
Microtubules
Mitochondrion
Peroxisome
Plasma membrane
Chloroplast
Cell wall
In plant cells but not animal cells:
Plasmodesmata Chloroplasts
Wall of adjacent cell
Central vacuole and tonoplast
Figure 6.9 Cell wall
Plasmodesmata
Concept 6.3: The eukaryotic cell’s genetic
instructions are housed in the nucleus and
carried out by the ribosomes.
‫توجد اإلرشادات الجينية للخلية حقيقية النواة في النواة ويتم تنفيذها بواسطة الريبوسومات‬
***The Nucleus: Genetic Library of the Cell

‫ المكتبة الوراثية للخلية‬:‫النواة‬
• The nucleus
– Contains most of the genes in the
eukaryotic cell
‫يحتوي على معظم الجينات الموجودة في الخلية حقيقية النواة‬

***The nuclear envelope
– Encloses the nucleus, separating its contents
from the cytoplasm
Nucleus
Nucleus
1 µm Nucleolus
Chromatin
Nuclear envelope:
Inner membrane
Outer membrane
Nuclear pore
Pore
complex
Rough ER
Surface of nuclear
envelope. Ribosome 1 µm
0.25 µm
Close-up of
nuclear
envelope
Figure 6.10 Pore complexes (TEM). Nuclear lamina (TEM).

Figure 6.10
Ribosomes: Protein Factories in the Cell
• Ribosomes: Are particles made of ribosomal RNA and protein
– Carry out protein synthesis
Ribosomes Cytosol
Endoplasmic
ER
reticulum (ER)
Free ribosomes
Bound ribosomes
Large
subunit
Small
0.5 µm subunit
TEM showing ER and ribosomes
Diagram of a ribosome

Concept 6.4: The endomembrane system regulates
protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the
cell ‫ينظم نظام الغشاء الداخلي حركة البروتين ويؤدي وظائف التمثيل الغذائي في‬
‫الخلية‬
**The endomembrane system, Includes many

different structures
***The Endoplasmic Reticulum:
1- Biosynthetic Factory ‫مصنع التخليق الحيوي‬
2- Accounts for more than half the total
membrane in many eukaryotic cells

• The ER membrane: Is continuous with the
nuclear envelope
Smooth ER
Rough ER Nuclear
envelope
ER lumen
Cisternae
Ribosomes Transitional ER
Transport vesicle
Smooth ER Rough ER 200 µm
Figure 6.12
• There are two distinct regions of ER
A- Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes
B- Rough ER, which contains ribosomes
Functions of Smooth ER:
1- Synthesizes lipids
2- Metabolizes carbohydrates
3- Stores calcium
4- Detoxifies poison

Functions of Rough ER
1- Has bound ribosomes
3- Produces proteins and membranes, which
are distributed by transport vesicles

The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and Receiving Center
‫مركز الشحن واالستالم‬
***The Golgi apparatus

1- Receives many of the transport vesicles
produced in the rough ER
2- Consists of flattened membranous sacs
called cisternae
• Functions of the Golgi apparatus include
1- Modification of the products of the rough ER
2- Manufacture of certain macromolecules

• Functions of the Golgi apparatus
Golgi
apparatus
cis face
(“receiving” side of
Golgi apparatus)
‫تتجمع الحويصالت لتشكيل حاضرات جولجي‬

‫جديدة‬
1 Vesicles move 2 Vesicles coalesce to 0.1 0 µm
6 Vesicles also from ER to Golgi form new cis Golgi cisternae
transport certain
proteins back to ER Cisternae
3 Cisternal
maturation:
Golgi cisternae
move in a cis-
to-trans
direction
4 Vesicles form and
leave Golgi, carrying
specific proteins to
Figure 6.13 other locations or to
the plasma mem-
5 Vesicles transport specific brane for secretion
trans face
proteins backward to newer (“shipping” side of
Golgi apparatus)
TEM of Golgi apparatus
Golgi cisternae

**Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments
• A lysosome:
1- Is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes
2- Can digest all kinds of macromolecules
**Lysosomes carry out intracellular digestion by Nucleus 1 µm
A-Phagocytosis
‫تحلل الاليسوسومات عملية الهضم داخل‬ Lysosome
‫الخاليا عن طريق البلعمة‬

Lysosome contains Food vacuole Hydrolytic
active hydrolytic fuses with enzymes digest
enzymes lysosome food particles
Digestive
enzymes
Lysosome
Plasma membrane
Digestion
Food vacuole
Figure 6.14 A
(a) Phagocytosis: lysosome digesting food
• B- Autophagy ‫االلتهام الذاتي‬
End of lecture
Lysosome fuses with Lysosome containing
two damaged organelles
1µm
vesicle containing
damaged organelle
Mitochondrion
fragment
Peroxisome
fragment
Lysosome fuses with Hydrolytic enzymes

vesicle containing digest organelle
damaged organelle components
Lysosome
Digestion
Vesicle containing
damaged mitochondrion
(b) Autophagy: lysosome breaking down damaged organelle

**Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments
• A plant or fungal cell: May have one or
several vacuoles.
***Food vacuoles: Are formed by phagocytosis
***Contractile vacuoles: Pump excess water out
of protist cells

***Central vacuoles:
1- Are found in plant cells
2- Hold reserves of important organic compounds
and water
Central vacuole
Cytosol
Tonoplast
Nucleus Central
vacuole
Cell wall
Chloroplast
Figure 6.15 5 µm

***The Endomembrane System: A Review
• The endomembrane system:
**Is a complex and dynamic player in the cell’s
compartmental organization
‫هو العب معقد وديناميكي في تنظيم الخلية‬

**Relationships among organelles of the
endomembrane system
1
Nucleus
Nuclear envelope is
connected to rough ER,
which is also continuous
with smooth ER Rough ER
2
Membranes and proteins Smooth ER
cis Golgi
produced by the ER flow in
Nuclear envelop
the form of transport vesicles
to the Golgi
3
Golgi pinches off transport
Vesicles and other vesicles
Plasma
that give rise to lysosomes and membrane
trans Golgi
Vacuoles
4 5 6 Plasma membrane
Lysosome available Transport vesicle carries expands
for fusion with another proteins to plasma by fusion of vesicles;
Figure 6.16 vesicle for digestion membrane for secretion proteins
are secreted from
cell
• Concept 6.5: Mitochondria and chloroplasts
change energy from one form to another
**Mitochondria; Are the sites of cellular respiration
**Chloroplasts: Found only in plants, are the sites
of photosynthesis
Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion
• Mitochondria
***Are found in nearly all eukaryotic cells

**Mitochondria are enclosed by two membranes
1- A smooth outer membrane
2- An inner membrane folded into cristae ‫أعراف‬
Mitochondrion
Intermembrane space
Outer
membrane
Free
ribosomes
in the
mitochondrial
matrix Inner
membrane
Cristae
Matrix
Mitochondrial
DNA 100 µm
Figure 6.17
Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy
• The chloroplast:
– Is a specialized member of a family of closely related
plant organelles called plastids
– Contains chlorophyll
• Chloroplasts: Are found in leaves and other green
organs of plants and in algae
Chloroplast
the internal fluid

Ribosomes
Stroma
Chloroplast
Inner and outer
DNA
membranes
Granum
1 µm
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Thylakoid; membranous sacs
Peroxisomes: Oxidation
• Peroxisomes:
**Produce hydrogen peroxide and convert it to
water ‫بيروكسيد الهيدروجين وتحويله إلى ماء‬
Chloroplast
Peroxisome
Mitochondrion
Figure 6.19
1 µm
Concept 6.6: The cytoskeleton is a network of
fibers that organizes structures and activities
in the cell and extending through the
cytoplasm ‫الهيكل الخلوي عبارة عن شبكة من األلياف التي‬
‫تنظم الهياكل واألنشطة في الخلية‬ Microtubule
0.25 µm Microfilaments
Roles of the Cytoskeleton: Support, Motility, and Regulation
• The cytoskeleton: Gives mechanical support to the cell Is

involved in cell motility, which utilizes motor proteins
Vesicle
ATP
Receptor for
motor protein
(a) Motor proteins that

Motor protein Microtubule
attach to receptors on (ATP powered) of cytoskeleton
organelles can “walk” Microtubule Vesicles 0.25 µm

the organelles along
microtubules or, in
some cases,
microfilaments.
(b) Vesicles containing neurotransmitters migrate to the tips of nerve

cell axons via the mechanism in (a). In this SEM of a squid giant axon, two
vesicles can be seen moving along a microtubule. (A separate part of the
experiment provided the evidence that they were in fact moving.)

Components of the Cytoskeleton:
• There are three main types of fibers that make up the
cytoskeleton: microtubules, Microfillaments and
intermediate filaments
Table 6.1
Microtubules
• Microtubules functions:
1- Shape the cell
2- Guide movement of organelles
3- Help separate the chromosome copies in dividing
cells
Centrosomes and Centrioles
**The centrosome:
– Is considered to be a “microtubule-organizing
center”

– Contains a pair of centrioles
Centrosome
Microtubule
Centrioles
0.25 µm
Longitudinal section Microtubules Cross section

Figure 6.22 of one centriole of the other centriole

Cilia and Flagella
• Cilia and flagella ‫أهداب واألسواط‬
1- Contain specialized arrangements of microtubules
2- Are locomotors appendages of some cells
Flagella beating pattern ‫نمط ضرب فالجيال‬
Direction of swimming
(a) Motion of flagella. A flagellum
usually undulates, its snakelike
motion driving a cell in the same
direction as the axis of the
flagellum.
Propulsion of a human
sperm cell is an example of
flagellate locomotion
ً ‫يعد دفع خلية الحيوانات المنوية البشرية‬.
‫مثاال على تحرك سوط‬ 1 µm

• Ciliary motion
(b) Motion of cilia. Cilia have a back-

and-forth motion that moves the
cell in a direction perpendicular
to the axis of the cilium.
A dense nap of cilia, beating at a rate of

about 40 to 60 strokes a second,
covers this Colpidium, a
freshwater protozoan.
15 µm

• Cilia and flagella share a common
ultrastructure
Outer microtubule Plasma
doublet membrane
0.1 µm
Dynein arms
Central
microtubule
Outer doublets
cross-linking
proteins inside
Microtubules
Radial
Plasma spoke
membrane
Basal body
(b)
0.5 µm
0.1 µm
(a) Triplet
(c)
Figure 6.24 A-C Cross section of basal body

• The protein dynein: Is responsible for the
bending movement of cilia and flagella
Microtubule
doublets ATP
Dynein arm
(a) Powered by ATP, the dynein arms of one microtubule doublet
grip the adjacent doublet, push it up, release, and then grip again.
If the two microtubule doublets were not attached, they would slide
Figure 6.25 A relative to each other.

Outer doublets ATP
cross-linking
proteins
Anchorage
in cell
(b) In a cilium or flagellum, two adjacent doublets cannot slide far because
they are physically restrained by proteins, so they bend. (Only two of
Figure 6.25 B the nine outer doublets in Figure 6.24b are shown here.)

1 3
Localized, synchronized activation of many dynein arms

(c) probably causes a bend to begin at the base of the Cilium or
flagellum and move outward toward the tip. Many successive
bends, such as the ones shown here to the left and right,
result in a wavelike motion. In this diagram, the two central
microtubules and the cross-linking proteins are not
Figure 6.25 C
shown.

Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)
• Microfilaments: Are built from molecules of
the protein actin
– Are found in microvilli
form of locomotion created by
Microvillus
microfilaments
Plasma membrane
Microfilaments (actin
filaments)
Intermediate filaments
Figure 6.26 0.25 µm

**Microfilaments that function in cellular motility
**Contain the protein myosin in addition to actin
microfilaments
Muscle cell
Actin filament
Myosin filament
Myosin arm
Figure 6.27 A (a) Myosin motors in muscle cell contraction.

• Amoeboid movement: Involves the contraction
of actin and myosin filaments

microfilaments Cortex (outer cytoplasm):
gel with actin network
‫ سول مع وحدات فرعية أكتين‬Inner cytoplasm: sol

with actin subunits
Extending
pseudopodium
Figure 6.27 B (b) Amoeboid movement

• Cytoplasmic streaming: Is another form of
locomotion created by microfilaments

microfilaments Nonmoving
cytoplasm (gel)
Chloroplast
Streaming
cytoplasm
(sol)
Parallel actin
filaments Cell wall
(b) Cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells

Intermediate Filaments ‫الشعيرات المتوسطه‬
• Intermediate filaments
1- Support cell shape
2- Fix organelles in place

Concept 6.7: Extracellular components and
connections between cells help coordinate
cellular activities ‫المكونات خارج الخلية والصالت بين‬
‫الخاليا تساعد في تنسيق األنشطة الخلوية‬

Cell Walls of Plants
**The cell wall; Is an extracellular structure of
plant cells that distinguishes them from
animal cells
**Are made of cellulose fibers embedded in other
polysaccharides and protein
Central Plasma
vacuole membrane
***May have multiple layers of cell Secondary
cell wall
Primary
cell wall
Central
vacuole Middle
of cell lamella
1 µm
Central vacuole
Cytosol
Plasma membrane
Plant cell walls
Figure 6.28 Plasmodesmata

The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal Cells
**Animal cells:
1- Lack cell walls
2- Are covered by an elaborate matrix ‫وضع مصفوفة‬,
the ECM

• The ECM: Is made up of glycoproteins and
other macromolecules
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Polysaccharide

Collagen molecule
A proteoglycan
complex Carbo-
hydrates
Core
protein
Fibronectin
Proteoglycan
Plasma molecule
membrane Integrins
Micro- CYTOPLASM
Integrin
filaments
Figure 6.29

***Functions of the ECM include:
1- Support
2- Adhesion
3- Movement
4- Regulation

Intercellular Junctions ‫مفرق بين الخاليا‬
Plants: Plasmodesmata
– Are channels that perforate plant cell walls
Cell walls
Interior
of cell
Interior
of cell
Figure 6.30 0.5 µm Plasmodesmata Plasma membranes

Animals: Tight Junctions, Desmosomes, and Gap Junctions
***In animals, there are three types of intercellular

junctions
1- Tight junctions ‫تقاطعات ضيقة‬
2- Desmosomes ‫اجسام رابطة‬
3- Gap junctions ‫تقاطعات الفجوة‬

• Types of intercellular junctions in animals
TIGHT JUNCTIONS
Tight junctions prevent At tight junctions, the membranes of
Tight junction
neighboring cells are very tightly pressed
fluid from moving against each other, bound together by
across a layer of cells specific proteins (purple). Forming continu-
ous seals around the cells, tight junctions
prevent leakage of extracellular fluid across
A layer of epithelial cells.
0.5 µm
DESMOSOMES
Tight junctions
Desmosomes (also called anchoring
junctions) function like rivets, fastening cells ‫المسامير‬
Intermediate Together into strong sheets. Intermediate
filaments Filaments made of sturdy keratin proteins
Desmosome Anchor desmosomes in the cytoplasm.
Gap
1 µm
junctions GAP JUNCTIONS
Gap junctions (also called communicating
junctions) provide cytoplasmic channels from
one cell to an adjacent cell. Gap junctions
Extracellular consist of special membrane proteins that
Space matrix surround a pore through which ions, sugars,
between Plasma membranes Gap junction amino acids, and other small molecules may
cells pass. Gap junctions are necessary for commu-
of adjacent cells
nication between cells in many types of tissues,
Figure 6.31 0.1 µm including heart muscle and animal embryos.

The Cell: A Living Unit Greater Than the Sum of Its Parts
‫وحدة المعيشة أكبر من مجموع أجزائها‬
• Cells rely on the integration of structures

and organelles in order to function
‫تعتمد الخاليا على تكامل الهياكل والعضيات من أجل العمل‬
5 µm
Figure 6.32

Chapter 7
Membrane Structure and Function
‫االغشيه التركيب والوظيفة‬


• Overview: Life at the Edge‫الحياة على الحافة‬
• The plasma membrane
***Is the boundary that separates the living cell from its
nonliving surroundings
***The plasma membrane exhibits selective permeability ‫النفاذية‬

‫ ( االختيارية‬It allows some substances to cross it more easily
than others)

• Concept 7.1: Cellular membranes are fluid
mosaics of lipids and proteins ‫األغشية الخلوية‬
‫عبارة عن فسيفساء سائلة من الدهون والبروتينات‬
• Phospholipids:
1- Are the most abundant ‫ األكثر وفرة‬lipid in the
plasma membrane
2- Are amphipathic, containing
both hydrophobic ‫نافرة من الماء‬
and hydrophilic ‫ محبة للماء‬regions
**The fluid mosaic model of membrane structure
‫نموذج الفسيفساء السائل لهيكل الغشاء‬
(States that a membrane is a fluid structure with a “mosaic” of
various proteins embedded in it).
‫ينص على أن الغشاء هو بنية سائلة مع "فسيفساء" من مختلف البروتينات المضمنة‬
Membrane Models: Scientific Inquiry ‫بحت علمي‬

**Membranes have been chemically analyzed,
found to be composed of proteins and lipids

• Scientists studying the plasma membrane
– Reasoned that it must be a phospholipid
bilayer
WATER
Hydrophilic
head
Hydrophobic
tail
Figure 7.2 WATER

***The Davson-Danielli sandwich model of
membrane structure
1- Stated that the membrane was made up of a
phospholipid bilayer sandwiched between two
protein layers
2- Was supported by
Electron microscope
Pictures of membranes

‫فتل‬
*In 1972, Singer and Nicolson fluid mosaic model
*Proposed that membrane proteins are dispersed and
individually inserted into the phospholipid bilayer
‫اقترح أن يتم تشتيت البروتينات‬ Hydrophobic region

of protein
‫الغشائية وإدخالها بشكل فردي في‬
‫طبقة ثنائية الفوسفورية‬
Phospholipid
bilayer
Hydrophobic region of protein

• Freeze-fracture studies of the plasma membrane ‫دراسات‬
‫تجميد الكسر لغشاء البالزما‬
**Supported the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure
‫ تطبيق‬APPLICATION A cell membrane can be split into its two layers, revealing
the ultrastructure of the membrane’s interior.
A cell is frozen and fractured with a knife. The fracture plane often follows the
TECHNIQUE hydrophobic interior of a membrane, splitting the phospholipid bilayer into two
separated layers. The membrane proteins go wholly with one of the layers.
Extracellular
layer
Knife Proteins
Plasma Cytoplasmic
membrane layer
RESULTS These SEMs show membrane proteins (the “bumps”) in the two layers,
demonstrating that proteins are embedded in the phospholipid
bilayer.
Extracellular layer Cytoplasmic layer

The Fluidity of Membranes ‫سيولة األغشية‬
• Phospholipids in the plasma membrane
– Can move within the bilayer
Lateral movement ‫الحركة الجانبية‬ Flip-flop

(~107 times per second) (~ once per month (rarely occur)
(a) Movement of phospholipids

The Fluidity of Membranes ‫سيولة األغشية‬
the first type of movement is rotational. Here the phospholipid
rotates on its axis to interact with its immediate neighbours.
The second type of movement is lateral ‫جانبي‬, where the

phospholipid moves around in one leaflet. Finally, it is possible
for phospholipids to move between both leaflets of the bilayer
in transverse ‫ مستعرض‬movement, in a “flip-flop” manner.
maintain the charge

gradient across the
membrane

**Proteins in the plasma membrane
– Can drift within the bilayer ‫يمكن أن ينجرف داخل‬
‫طبقة ثنائية‬
EXPERIMENT Researchers labeled the plasma mambrane proteins of a mouse

cell and a human cell with two different markers and fused the cells.
Using a microscope, they observed the markers on the hybrid cell.
RESULTS
Membrane proteins
+
Mouse cell Mixed
Human cell proteins
Hybrid cell after
1 hour
CONCLUSION The mixing of the mouse and human membrane proteins

indicates that at least some membrane proteins move sideways within the plane
of the plasma membrane. ‫تتحرك بعض بروتينات الغشاء جانبيًا داخل مستوى غشاء البالزما‬
• The type of hydrocarbon tails in phospholipids
– Affects the fluidity ‫ ميوعة‬of the plasma
membrane
Fluid Viscous
Unsaturated hydrocarbon Saturated hydro-

tails with kinks ‫مكامن الخلل‬ Carbon tails
(b) Membrane fluidity

Figure 7.5 B

• The steroid cholesterol: has different effects
on membrane fluidity at different temperatures
***cholesterol acts as a buffer, increasing fluidity at low
temperatures and decreasing fluidity at high temperatures
Cholesterol
(c) Cholesterol within the animal cell membrane

‫مائع‬

‫مائع‬

Membrane Proteins and Their Functions
• A membrane: is a collage of different
proteins embedded in the fluid matrix of the
lipid bilayer
Fibers of
extracellular
matrix (ECM)
Glycoprotein
Carbohydrate
Glycolipid EXTRACELLULAR
SIDE OF
MEMBRANE
Microfilaments
of cytoskeleton Cholesterol Peripheral
Integral
CYTOPLASMIC SIDE
protein proteinOF MEMBRANE
Figure 7.7

****Integral proteins:
**Penetrate the hydrophobic core of the lipid
bilayer ‫تخترق طبقة ثنائية الدهون‬
1- Are often transmembrane proteins,
completely spanning ‫ تمتد تماما‬the membrane
EXTRACELLULAR
2- Are appendages loosely SIDE
N-terminus
‫ على نحو حر‬bound to the
surface of the membrane
C-terminus CYTOPLASMIC
a Helix SIDE

• An overview of six major functions of membrane proteins
(a) Transport. (left) A protein that spans ‫ يمتد‬the membrane

may provide a hydrophilic channel across the
membrane that is selective for a particular solute.
(right) Other transport proteins shuttle ‫ خدمة النقل‬a substance
from one side to the other by changing shape. Some
of these proteins hydrolyze ATP as an energy source
to actively pump substances across the membrane.
ATP
(b) Enzymatic activity. A protein built into the membrane Enzymes

may be an enzyme with its active site exposed to
substances in the adjacent solution. In some cases,
several enzymes in a membrane are organized as
a team that carries out sequential steps of a
metabolic pathway.
(c) Signal transduction. A membrane protein may have

a binding site with a specific shape that fits the shape Signal
of a chemical messenger, such as a hormone. The
external messenger (signal) may cause a
conformational change in the protein (receptor) that
relays the message to the inside of the cell.
Figure 7.9 Receptor

(d) Cell-cell recognition. Some glyco-proteins serve as
identification tags that are specifically recognized
by other cells.
Glyco-
protein
(e) Intercellular joining. Membrane proteins of adjacent cells

may hook together in various kinds of junctions, such as
gap junctions or tight junctions.
(f) Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular

matrix
(ECM). Microfilaments or other elements of the
cytoskeleton may be bonded to membrane proteins,
a function that helps maintain cell shape and stabilizes
the location of certain membrane proteins. Proteins that
adhere to the ECM can coordinate extracellular and
intracellular changes (see Figure 6.29).
Figure 7.9

The Role of Membrane Carbohydrates in Cell-Cell Recognition
‫دور الكربوهيدرات الغشائية في التعرف على الخاليا الخلوية‬
• Cell-cell recognition ‫تعرف خلية بالخلية‬:

– Is a cell’s ability to distinguish one type of neighboring cell
from another ‫ التمييز بين نوع من الخاليا المجاورة عن آخر‬.
– Membrane Carbohydrates Interact with the surface molecules of
other cells, facilitating cell-cell recognition

Synthesis and Sidedness of Membranes ‫تخليق وانحياز‬
‫األغشية‬
• Membranes have distinct inside and outside
faces ‫لها وجوه داخلية وخارجية متميزة‬
• This affects the movement of proteins
synthesized in the endomembrane system

***Membrane proteins and lipids
– Are synthesized in the ER and Golgi
apparatus ER
1
Transmembrane
glycoproteins
Secretory
protein
Glycolipid
Golgi 2
apparatus
Vesicle
3
Plasma membrane:
Cytoplasmic face
4 Extracellular face
Transmembrane
Secreted glycoprotein
protein
Membrane glycolipid
Figure 7.10

End of lecture
• Concept 7.2: Membrane structure results in

selective permeability ‫ينتج عن بنية الغشاء نفاذية‬
‫انتقائية‬
**A cell must exchange materials with its
surroundings, a process controlled by the
plasma membrane

The Permeability of the Lipid Bilayer
1- Hydrophobic molecules: are lipid soluble and can pass
through the membrane rapidly.
‫قابلة للذوبان في الدهون ويمكن أن تمر عبر الغشاء بسرعة‬
2- Polar molecules: Such as sugar
Do not cross the membrane rapidly
3- Transport proteins: Allow passage of

hydrophilic substances across the
membrane

3- Transport proteins: Allow passage of hydrophilic
substances across the membrane

• Concept 7.3: Passive transport is diffusion of a substance
across a membrane with no energy investment
• Diffusion ‫انتشار‬: is the tendency for molecules of any
substance to spread out evenly into the available
space ‫هو ميل الجزيئات من أي مادة إلى االنتشار بالتساوي في المساحة المتاحة‬
Diffusion of one solute. The membrane
has pores large enough for molecules
(a)
of dye to pass through. Molecules of dye Membrane (cross section)
Random movement of dye molecules
will cause some to pass through the
pores; this will happen more often
on the side with more molecules.
The dye diffuses

from where it is more concentrated
to where it is less concentrated
Net diffusion Net diffusion Equilibrium
(called diffusing down a concentration
gradient).
This leads to a dynamic equilibrium: The solute molecules
continue to cross the membrane, but at equal rates in both directions.

**Substances, diffuse down their concentration gradient
‫نشر أسفل فرق التركيز‬the difference in concentration of a
substance from one area to another
Diffusion of two solutes.
Solutions of two different
dyes are separated by a
membrane that is permeable
to both.
Each dye diffuses down its
own concentration
gradient.
Net diffusion Net diffusion Equilibrium

There will be a net
diffusion of the purple dye Net diffusion Net diffusion Equilibrium
toward the left, even
though the total solute
concentration was initially
greater on the left side.

**Osmosis ‫التنافذ‬: is the movement of water across a
semipermeable membrane
Is affected by the concentration gradient of dissolved
substances Lower
concentration
Higher
concentration Same concentration
of solute (sugar) of sugar
of sugar
Selectively
permeable mem- Water molecules
brane: sugar mole- cluster around
cules cannot pass sugar molecules
through pores, but
water molecules can
Fewer free water

More free water molecules (lower
molecules (higher concentration)
concentration)
Osmosis

Water moves from an area of higher
Figure 7.12
free water concentration to an area
of lower free water concentration
Water Balance of Cells Without Walls
***Tonicity ‫توترية‬
– Is the ability of a solution to cause a cell to
gain or lose water ‫قدرة المحلول على التسبب في اكتساب‬
‫أو فقدان الخلية للماء‬
– Has a great impact on cells without walls
‫له تأثير كبير على الخاليا بدون جدران‬

***Isotonic solution: the concentration of solutes is the
same as it is inside the cell, there will be no net
movement of water
*Hypertonic solution: the concentration of solutes is

greater than it is inside the cell, the cell will lose water
**Hypotonic solution: the concentration of solutes is less

than it is inside the cell, the cell will gain water.

**Water balance in cells without walls
‫تكون الخلية الحيوانية أفضل ما تكون في بيئة متساوية التوتر ما لم يكن لديها تكيفات‬
‫خاصة لتعويض امتصاص االسموزي أو فقد الماء‬
Hypotonic solution Isotonic solution Hypertonic solution
H2O H2O H2O H2O
Lysed Normal Shriveled
Animal cell. An animal cell fares best in an isotonic environment

unless it has special adaptations to offset the osmotic uptake
or loss of water
**Water balance in cells without walls
Saline solution:
is a mixture of salt and water. Normal saline
solution contains 0.9 percent sodium
chloride (salt), which is similar to the
sodium concentration in blood and tears

Water Balance of Cells with Walls
**Cell walls: Help maintain water balance
• If a plant cell is turgid ‫متورم‬

1- It is in a hypotonic environment
2- It is very firm ‫مستقر‬, a healthy state in most plants
• If a plant cell is flaccid ‫لين‬

– It is in an isotonic or hypertonic environment

• Water balance in cells with walls
(b) Plant cell. Plant cells

are turgid (firm) and
generally healthiest in H2O H2O H2O H2O
a hypotonic environ-
ment, where the
uptake of water is
eventually balanced
by the elastic wall
pushing back on the
cell.
‫متورم‬ ‫رخو‬ ‫منكمش‬
Turgid (normal) Flaccid Plasmolyzed
hypotonic environment isotonic or hypertonic environment
Figure 7.13
Facilitated Diffusion: Passive Transport Aided by Proteins
***In facilitated diffusion ‫نشر الميسر‬
A- Transport proteins: Channel protein
1- speed the movement of molecules across the plasma
membrane.
2- Provide corridors that allow a specific molecule or ion to
cross the membrane EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID
Channel protein Solute

CYTOPLASM
A channel protein (purple) has a channel through which

water molecules or a specific solute can pass.

B- Carrier proteins:
– Undergo a subtle change in shape that translocates
the solute-binding site across the membrane.
– ‫خضع لتغيير طفيف في الشكل الذي ينقل موقع الربط الذائب عبر الغشاء‬
Solute
Carrier protein
(b) A carrier protein alternates between two conformations, moving a

solute across the membrane as the shape of the protein changes.
The protein can transport the solute in either direction, with the net
Figure 7.15 movement being down the concentration gradient of the solute.

• Concept 7.4: Active transport uses energy to
move solutes against their gradients
***The Need for Energy in Active Transport
****Active transport:
1- Moves substances against their
concentration gradient
– Requires energy, usually in the form of ATP

A- The sodium-potassium pump: Is one type of
active transport system

***Review: Passive and active transport
compared
Passive transport. Substances diffuse spontaneously
down their concentration gradients, crossing a Active transport. Some transport proteins
membrane with no expenditure of energy by the cell. act as pumps, moving substances across
The rate of diffusion can be greatly increased by transport a membrane against their concentration
proteins in the membrane. gradients. Energy for this work is usually
supplied by ATP.
ATP
Facilitated diffusion. Many
Diffusion. Hydrophobic
hydrophilic substances diffuse
molecules and (at a slow
through membranes with the
rate) very small uncharged
assistance of transport proteins,
polar molecules can diffuse
either channel or carrier
through the lipid bilayer.
proteins.
Figure 7.17

Maintenance of Membrane Potential by Ion Pumps
**Membrane potential ‫جهد االغشيه‬
– Is the voltage difference across a membrane ‫هو فرق‬
‫الجهد عبر الغشاء‬
**An electrochemical gradient ‫التدرج الكهروكيميائي‬

– Is caused by the concentration electrical gradient of
ions across a membrane
‫تركيز التدرج الكهربائي لأليونات عبر الغشاء‬

An electrochemical gradient is
a gradient of electrochemical potential, usually for an ion that
can move across a membrane.
The gradient consists of two parts,
1- the chemical gradient, or difference in solute concentration
across a membrane, and
2-the electrical gradient, or difference in charge across a
membrane.
**An electrogenic pump Is a transport protein that
generates the voltage across a membrane
‫مضخة إلكتروجينية‬
Figure 7.18
Cotransport: Coupled Transport by a Membrane Protein
‫المذاب‬

• Concept 7.5: Bulk transport ‫ نقل ضخم‬across
the plasma membrane occurs by exocytosis
and endocytosis
**Large proteins
**Cross the membrane by different mechanisms
A- Exocytosis
– Transport vesicles migrate to the plasma
membrane, fuse with it, and release their
contents ‫تهاجر حويصالت النقل إلى غشاء البالزما وتندمج بها‬
‫وتطلق محتوياتها‬

B- Endocytosis
– The cell takes in macromolecules by forming new
vesicles from the plasma membrane
‫تأخذ الخلية جزيئات كبيرة من خالل تكوين حويصالت جديدة من غشاء البالزما‬
In phagocytosis, a cell engulfs a particle by Wrapping
pseudopodia around it and packaging it within a membrane-
enclosed sac large enough to be classified as a vacuole.
The particle is digested after the vacuole fuses with a
lysosome containing hydrolytic enzymes.

In pinocytosis, the cell “gulps” droplets of extracellular
fluid into tiny vesicles. It is not the fluid itself that is needed by
the cell, but the molecules dissolved in the droplet.
Because any and all included solutes are taken
into the cell, pinocytosisis nonspecific in the substances it
transports

Receptor-mediated endocytosis enables the ell to acquire
bulk quantities of specific substances, even though those
substances may not be very concentrated in the
extracellular fluid. Embedded in the membrane are proteins
with specific receptor sites exposed to the extracellular
fluid.

End of chapter

Chapter 44
Osmoregulation and
Excretion
‫التنظيم االسموزي واإلفراز‬

• Overview: A balancing act ‫عمل‬
• ***The physiological systems ‫األنظمة الفسيولوجية‬
of animals
– Operate ‫ ادار‬in a fluid environment
• The relative concentrations ‫ تركيزات النسبية‬of

water and solutes in this environment
– Must be maintained within fairly narrow
limits ‫حدود ضيقة‬

• Freshwater animals
– Show adaptations that reduce water uptake and
conserve solutes
• ***Desert and marine animals face desiccating

environments
– With the potential to quickly deplete the body water
Figure 44.1
• Osmoregulation
– Regulates solute concentrations and
balances the gain and loss of water
• ***Excretion
– Gets rid of metabolic wastes

• Concept 44.1: Osmoregulation balances the
uptake and loss of water and solutes
• Osmoregulation is based largely on controlled
movement of solutes
– Between internal fluids and the external
environment

Osmosis ‫تناضح‬
• ****Cells require a balance
– Between osmotic gain and loss of water
• ***Water uptake and loss

– Are balanced by various mechanisms of
osmoregulation in different environments

Osmotic Challenges ‫التحديات‬
• ***Osmoconformers, which are only marine
animals
– Are isoosmotic with their surroundings and do
not regulate their osmolality (the concentration of a
solution expressed as the total number of solute particles per
liter).
• ***Osmoregulators expend energy to

control water uptake and loss
– In a hyperosmotic or hypoosmotic
environment

• Most animals are said to be stenohaline (of an aquatic
organism) able to tolerate only a narrow range of salinity)
– And cannot tolerate substantial changes in external
osmolarity
• Euryhaline animals
– Can survive large fluctuations in external osmolarity
stenohaline Euryhaline
Goldfish Red Drum Fish

Marine Animals
• ***Most marine invertebrates are
osmoconformers (Osmoconformers are
marine organisms that maintain an internal
environment that is osmotic to their external
environment.[1] This means that the osmotic
pressure, or osmolarity, of the organism’s cells
is equal to the osmotic pressure of their
surrounding environment).
• ***Most marine vertebrates and some
invertebrates are osmoregulators

• ***Marine bony fishes are hypoosmotic to sea water
– And lose water by osmosis and gain salt by both
diffusion and from food they eat
• ***These fishes balance water loss
– By drinking seawater
Gain of water and

Osmotic water loss
salt ions from food
through gills and other parts
and by drinking
of body surface
seawater
Excretion of Excretion of salt ions

salt ions and small amounts
from gills of water in scanty
urine from kidneys
Figure 44.3a (a) Osmoregulation in a saltwater fish

Freshwater Animals
• Freshwater animals
• 1- Constantly take in water from their
hypoosmotic environment
2- Lose salts by diffusion

***Freshwater animals maintain water balance
– By excreting large amounts of dilute urine
• ***Salts lost by diffusion

– Are replaced by foods and uptake across the
gills Osmotic water gain
through gills and other parts
of body surface
Uptake of
water and some
ions in food
Uptake of Excretion of
salt ions large amounts of
by gills water in dilute
urine from kidneys
Figure 44.3b (b) Osmoregulation in a freshwater fish

Animals That Live in Temporary Waters
• ***Some aquatic invertebrates living in
temporary ponds
– Can lose almost all their body water and survive
in a dormant state
• This adaptation is called100anhydrobiosis

µm
100 µm
Figure 44.4a, b (a) Hydrated tardigrade (b) Dehydrated tardigrade

Land Animals End of lecture
• Land animals manage their water budgets
– By drinking and eating moist foods and by
using metabolic water Water
balance in a
Water
balance in
kangaroo rat a human
(2 mL/day (2,500 mL/day
= 100%) = 100%)
Ingested Ingested
in food (0.2) in food (750)
Ingested
Water in liquid
gain (1,500)
Derived from Derived from

metabolism (1.8) metabolism (250)
Feces (0.9) Feces (100)

Urine Urine
(0.45) (1,500)
Water
loss
Evaporation (1.46) Evaporation (900)

Figure 44.5
• Desert animals
– Get major water savings from simple anatomical
features
EXPERIMENT Knut and Bodil Schmidt-Nielsen and their colleagues from Duke University observed that the
fur of camels exposed to full sun in the Sahara Desert could reach temperatures of over 70°C, while the
animals’ skin remained more than 30°C cooler. The Schmidt-Nielsens reasoned that insulation of the skin
by fur may substantially reduce the need for evaporative cooling by sweating. To test this hypothesis, they
compared the water loss rates of unclipped and clipped ‫مقصوص‬camels.
RESULTS Removing the fur of a camel increased the rate

of water loss through sweating by up to 50%.
4
(L/100 kg body mass)

Water lost per day
3
0
CONCLUSION The fur of camels plays a critical role in
Control group Experimental group
their conserving water in the hot desert (Unclipped fur) (Clipped fur)
environments where they live.
Figure 44.6
Transport Epithelia
• Transport epithelia
1- Are specialized cells that regulate solute
movement
2- Are essential components of osmotic
regulation and metabolic waste disposal
3- Are arranged into complex tubular networks
‫الشبكات‬

• ***An example of transport epithelia is found in
the salt glands of marine birds
– Which remove excess sodium chloride from the
Nasal salt gland
blood
(a) An albatross’s salt glands Nostril
empty via a duct into the with salt
nostrils, and the salty solution secretions
either drips off the tip of the
beak or is exhaled in a fine mist.
Lumen of
secretory tubule
Vein
Capillary
(c) The secretory cells actively
Secretory
transport salt from the
tubule Artery
blood into the tubules.
NaCl
Transport Blood flows counter to the
epithelium flow of salt secretion. By
(b) One of several thousand
maintaining a concentration
secretory tubules in a salt-
Direction gradient of salt in the tubule
excreting gland. Each tubule
of salt (aqua), this countercurrent
is lined by a transport
movement Blood Secretory cell system enhances salt
epithelium surrounded by
flow transfer from the blood to
capillaries, and drains into of transport
the lumen of the tubule.
a central duct. epithelium
Central
Figure 44.7a, b duct

• Concept 44.2: An animal’s nitrogenous
wastes reflect its phylogeny and habitat
• **The type and quantity of an animal’s waste
products
– May have a large impact on its water
balance

• ***Among the most important wastes
– Are the nitrogenous breakdown products of
proteins and nucleic acids
Proteins Nucleic acids
Amino acids Nitrogenous bases
–NH2
Amino groups
Many reptiles
Most aquatic Mammals, most (including
animals, including amphibians, sharks,
birds), insects,
most bony fishes some bony fishes
land snails
O
H
C
HN C N
NH2 C O
O C C C N
NH3 O N
NH2 H H
Ammonia Urea Uric acid
Figure 44.8
Forms of Nitrogenous Wastes
• ***Different animals
– Excrete nitrogenous wastes in different
forms
Ammonia:
• Animals that excrete nitrogenous wastes as
ammonia
1- Need access ‫ منفذ‬to lots of water
2- Release it across the whole body surface or
through the gills

Urea
• ***The liver of mammals and most adult
amphibians
– Converts ammonia to less toxic urea
• **Urea is carried to the kidneys, concentrated

– And excreted with a minimal loss of water

Uric Acid
• ***Insects, land snails, and many reptiles,
including birds
– Excrete uric acid as their major nitrogenous
waste
• ***Uric acid is largely insoluble in water

– And can be secreted as a paste ‫ عجينة‬with
little water loss

The Influence of Evolution and Environment on
Nitrogenous Wastes
• ***The kinds of nitrogenous wastes excreted

– Depend on an animal’s evolutionary history
and habitat
• ***The amount of nitrogenous waste produced

– Is coupled ‫ مقرون‬to the animal’s energy budget
‫ميزانية الطاقة‬

Excretory Processes
• ***Most excretory systems
– Produce urine by refining ‫ تنقية‬a filtrate ‫ رشح‬derived from
body fluids
Capillary
1 Filtration. The excretory tubule collects a filtrate from the blood.
Water and solutes are forced by blood pressure across the
Excretory
selectively permeable membranes of a cluster of capillaries and
Filtrate
tubule
into the excretory tubule.
2 Reabsorption. The transport epithelium reclaims valuable substances

from the filtrate and returns them to the body fluids.
3 Secretion. Other substances, such as toxins and excess ions, are

extracted from body fluids and added to the contents of the excretory
tubule.
Urine
4 Excretion. The filtrate leaves the system and the body.
Figure 44.9
***Key functions of most excretory systems are
1- Filtration, pressure-filtering of body fluids
producing a filtrate
2- Reabsorption, reclaiming ‫ استصالح‬valuable
solutes from the filtrate
3- Secretion ‫إفراز‬, addition of toxins and other
solutes from the body fluids to the filtrate
4- Excretion ‫إفراز‬, the filtrate leaves the system

Survey ‫ استعراض‬of Excretory Systems
• ***The systems that perform basic excretory
functions
1- Vary widely among animal groups
2- Are generally built ‫ بنيت‬on a complex network of
tubules

Protonephridia: Flame-Bulb Systems
• ***A protonephridium
– Is a network of dead-end tubules lacking
internal openings Nucleus
of cap cell
Cilia
Interstitial fluid
• **The tubules branch throughout the filters through
membrane where
body cap cell and tubule

cell interdigitate
(interlock)
Tubule cell
– And the smallest branches are
capped ‫ زود‬by a cellular unit
called a flame bulb
Flame
• **These tubules excrete a dilute fluid

bulb
Protonephridia
(tubules) Tubule
– And function in osmoregulation
Nephridiopore
Figure 44.10 in body wall

Metanephridia
• ***Each segment of an earthworm
– Has a pair of open-ended metanephridia
Coelom
Capillary
network
Bladder
Collecting
tubule
Nephridio-
pore
Figure 44.11 Nephrostome Metanephridia
• ***Metanephridia consist of tubules
– That collect coelomic fluid and produce
dilute urine for excretion

Malpighian Tubules
• ***In insects and other terrestrial
arthropods, malpighian tubules
– Remove nitrogenous wastes from
hemolymph and function in osmoregulation
Digestive tract
• ***Insects produce a Rectum
relatively dry waste matter Intestine

Hindgut
Midgut Malpighian
(stomach) tubules
– An important adaptation to Salt, water, and

nitrogenous
Feces and urine
Anus
wastes
terrestrial life Malpighian
tubule
Rectum
Reabsorption of H2O,
ions, and valuable
organic molecules
Figure 44.12 HEMOLYMPH
Vertebrate Kidneys
• ***Kidneys, the excretory organs of
vertebrates
– Function in both excretion and
osmoregulation

• Concept 44.4: Nephrons and associated
blood vessels are the functional unit of the
mammalian kidney
• ***The mammalian ‫ الثدييات‬excretory system
centers on paired kidneys
– Which are also the principal site of water
balance and salt regulation

• ***Each kidney
– Is supplied with blood by a renal artery
‫ الشريان الكلوي‬and drained ‫ استنزفت‬by a renal vein
‫الوريد الكلوي‬
Posterior vena cava
Renal artery and vein
Aorta Kidney
Ureter
Urinary bladder
Urethra
(a) Excretory organs and major

associated blood vessels
Figure 44.13a
• ***Urine exits ‫ خروج‬each kidney
– Through a duct ‫ قناة‬called the ureter ‫الحالب قناة باإلنسان‬
• ***Both ureters
– Drain ‫ ارتشاح‬into a common urinary bladder ‫المثانة‬
‫البولية‬

Structure and Function of the Nephron and Associated
Structures
• ***The mammalian kidney has two distinct regions

– An outer renal cortex ‫ قشرة الكلى‬and an inner renal
medulla ‫النخاع الكلوي‬
Renal
medulla
Renal
cortex
Renal
pelvis
Ureter
Section of kidney from a rat
Figure 44.13b (b) Kidney structure

• ***The nephron, the functional unit of the
vertebrate kidney
– Consists of a single long tubule and a ball of
capillaries called the glomerulus ‫الكبيبة‬
Juxta- Cortical
medullary nephron
nephron Afferent
arteriole
from renal Glomerulus
artery
Bowman’s capsule
Renal
Cortex ‫قشرة الكلى‬ Proximal tubule
Peritubular
capillaries
Collecting
SEM
duct 20 µm
Renal Efferent Distal
Medulla ‫النخاع الكلوي‬ arteriole from tubule
To glomerulus
renal
pelvis Branch of Collecting
renal vein duct
Descending
Loop limb
of
Ascending
Henle
limb
Figure 44.13c, d Vasa

(d) Filtrate and recta
(c) Nephron
blood flow
Filtration of the Blood
• ***Filtration occurs as blood pressure
– Forces fluid from the blood in the
glomerulus into the lumen ‫ التجويف‬of
Bowman’s capsule
• ***Filtration of small molecules is nonselective

– And the filtrate in Bowman’s capsule is a
mixture that mirrors the concentration of
various solutes in the blood plasma

Pathway of the Filtrate
• ***From Bowman’s capsule, the filtrate
passes through three regions of the
nephron
1- The proximal tubule,
2- the loop of Henle,
3- and the distal tubule
• ***Fluid from several nephrons

4- Flows into a collecting duct

Blood Vessels Associated with the Nephrons
• ***Each nephron is supplied with blood by an afferent
arteriole ‫الشريان الكلوي‬
– A branch of the renal artery that subdivides into the
capillaries
• The capillaries converge as they leave the glomerulus

– Forming an efferent arteriole
• The vessels subdivide again

– Forming the peritubular capillaries ‫الشعيرات الدموية‬, which
surround the proximal and distal tubules ‫الدانية والقاصية‬
‫األنابيب‬

From Blood Filtrate to Urine: A Closer Look
• **Filtrate becomes urine
– As it flows through the mammalian nephron
and collecting duct
1 Proximal tubule 4 Distal tubule
NaCl Nutrients H2O
HCO3 H2O K+ NaCl HCO3
H+ NH3 K+ H+
CORTEX
2 Descending limb 3 Thick segment
Filtrate of loop of of ascending
H2O Henle limb
Salts (NaCl and others)
NaCl
HCO3–
H2O
H+
Urea OUTER NaCl
Glucose; amino acids MEDULLA
Some drugs 3 Thin segment 5 Collecting
of ascending duct
limb
Key Urea
Active transport NaCl H2O

Passive transport INNER
MEDULLA
Figure 44.14
• ***Secretion and reabsorption in the proximal
tubule
– Substantially ‫ فعليا‬alter ‫ تغير‬the volume and
composition of filtrate
• ***Reabsorption of water continues

– As the filtrate moves into the descending limb
‫ تنازلي أطرافهم‬of the loop of Henle

• As filtrate travels through the ascending ‫تصاعدي‬
limb of the loop of Henle
– Salt diffuses out of the permeable tubule into the
interstitial fluid
• **The distal tubule
– ***Plays a key role in regulating the K+ and NaCl
concentration of body fluids
• ****The collecting duct
– Carries the filtrate through the medulla ‫ نخاع العظم‬to
the renal pelvis ‫ الحوض الكلوي‬and reabsorbs NaCl

• Concept 44.5: The mammalian kidney’s
ability to conserve water is a key terrestrial
adaptation
• The mammalian kidney
– Can produce urine much more
concentrated than body fluids, thus
conserving water

Solute Gradients and Water Conservation
• ***In a mammalian kidney, the cooperative
action and precise ‫ دقيق‬arrangement of the
loops of Henle and the collecting ducts
– Are largely responsible for the osmotic
gradient that concentrates the urine

• ***Two solutes ‫المواد المذابة‬, NaCl and urea,
contribute to the osmolarity ‫ األسمولية‬of the interstitial
fluid
– Which causes the reabsorption of water in the
kidney and concentrates
Osmolarity of
interstitial
fluid
the urine 300
300
300 100
(mosm/L)
100
300 300
CORTEX H2O NaCl H2O
Active
transport 400 200 400 400
H2O NaCl H2O
Passive
transport
H2O NaCl H2O
OUTER H2O NaCl H2O

MEDULLA 600 400 600 600
H2O NaCl H2O
Urea
H2O NaCl H2O 900
900 700
Urea
INNER H2O NaCl H2O
MEDULLA Urea 1200
1200
1200
Figure 44.15
• ***The countercurrent multiplier system
involving the loop of Henle
– Maintains a high salt concentration in the
interior of the kidney, which enables the
kidney to form concentrated urine
• ***The collecting duct, Osmolarity of
interstitial
fluid
300
• permeable to water but not salt 300 (mosm/L)

300 100
100
300 300
CORTEX H2O NaCl H2O
Active
– Conducts the filtrate through transport 400 200 400 400

H2O NaCl H2O
Passive
transport H2O NaCl H2O
OUTER H2O NaCl H2O

the kidney’s osmolarity gradient, MEDULLA
H2O
600
NaCl
400
H2O
600 600
Urea
H2O NaCl H2O 900
900 700 Urea
and more water exits the filtrate INNER

MEDULLA
H2O NaCl H2O
Urea
1200
1200
1200
by osmosis
• ***Urea diffuses out of the collecting duct
– As it traverses ‫ يخترق‬the inner medulla ‫النخاع‬
‫الداخلي‬
• ***Urea and NaCl

– Form the osmotic gradient that enables the
kidney to produce urine that is hyperosmotic
to the blood

Regulation of Kidney Function
• ***The osmolarity of the urine
– Is regulated by nervous and hormonal
control of water and salt reabsorption in
the kidneys

• ***Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) ‫الهرمون المضاد إلدرار البول‬
– Increases water reabsorption in the distal tubules
and collecting ducts of the kidney
Osmoreceptors
in hypothalamus Thirst
Hypothalamus
Drinking reduces
blood osmolarity
to set point
ADH
Increased
permeability
Pituitary
gland
Distal
tubule
H2O reab-
sorption helps
prevent further
STIMULUS:
osmolarity
The release of ADH is
increase
triggered when osmo-
receptor cells in the Collecting duct
hypothalamus detect an
increase in the osmolarity
of the blood
Homeostasis:
Blood osmolarity
(a) Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) enhances fluid retention by making

Figure 44.16a the kidneys reclaim more water.

• **The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS)
• ‫ألدوستيرون‬-‫نظام رينين أنجيوتنسين‬
– Is part of a complex feedback circuit ‫دائرة ردود الفعل‬that
functions in homeostasis ‫التوازن‬
Homeostasis:
Blood pressure,
• Another hormone, Increased Na+

and H2O reab-
sorption in
distal tubules
volume
STIMULUS:
atrial natriuretic factor Aldosterone

The juxtaglomerular
apparatus (JGA) responds
to low blood volume or
blood pressure (such as due
(ANF)
to dehydration or loss of
blood)
Arteriole
constriction
Adrenal gland
– Opposes ‫ تعارض‬the Angiotensin II

Distal
tubule
Angiotensinogen
RAAS JGA
Renin
production
Renin
(b) The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) leads to an increase

Figure 44.16b in blood volume and pressure.

• ***The South American vampire bat ‫خفاش‬,
which feeds on blood
– Has a unique excretory system in which its
kidneys offload ‫ افراغ‬much of the water absorbed
from a meal by excreting large amounts of
dilute urine
Figure 44.17
• Concept 44.6: Diverse ‫ متنوع‬adaptations of
the vertebrate kidney have evolved in
different environments
• **The form and function of nephrons in
various vertebrate classes
– Are related primarily to the requirements for
osmoregulation in the animal’s habitat

• Exploring environmental adaptations of the
vertebrate kidney
MAMMALS BIRDS AND OTHER REPTILES
Bannertail Kangaroo rat

(Dipodomys spectabilis) Roadrunner
(Geococcyx californianus)
Desert iguana
Beaver (Castor canadensis)
(Dipsosaurus dorsalis)
FRESHWATER FISHES AND AMPHIBIANS
MARINE BONY FISHES
Rainbow trout
(Oncorrhynchus mykiss) Northern bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus)
Figure 44.18 Frog (Rana temporaria)

Chapter 45
Hormones and the

Endocrine System
PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations for
Biology
Eighth Edition
Lectures by Chris Romero, updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Overview: The Body’s Long-Distance Regulators
**Animal hormones are chemical signals that

are secreted into the circulatory system and
communicate regulatory messages within the
body
***Hormones reach all parts of the body, but only
target cells are equipped to respond
***Insect metamorphosis is regulated by
hormones

• Two systems coordinate communication
throughout the body: the endocrine system
and the nervous system
!- The endocrine system secretes hormones
that coordinate slower but longer-acting
responses including reproduction,
development, energy metabolism, growth,
and behavior
2- The nervous system conveys high-speed
electrical signals along specialized cells called
neurons; these signals regulate other cells
Fig. 45-1
hormones play role in transforming a caterpillar into

a butterfly
Concept 45.1: Hormones and other signaling
molecules bind to target receptors, triggering
specific response pathways
• Chemical signals bind to receptor proteins on

target cells
**Only target cells respond to the signal

Types of Secreted Signaling Molecules
***Secreted chemical signals include

1- Hormones
2- Local regulators
3- Neurotransmitters
4- Neurohormones
5- Pheromones

1- Hormones
• Endocrine signals (hormones) are secreted

into extracellular fluids and travel via the
bloodstream
**Endocrine glands are ductless and secrete
hormones directly into surrounding fluid
‫بال قنوات وإفراز الهرمونات مباشرة في السائل المحيط‬
• Hormones mediate responses ‫الهرمونات توسط‬
‫ الردود‬to environmental stimuli and regulate
growth, development, and reproduction
• Exocrine glands have ducts and secrete
substances onto body surfaces or into body
cavities (for example, tear ducts)
‫الغدد الصماء لها قنوات وتفرز المواد على أسطح الجسم أو في‬
)‫ القنوات المسيلة للدموع‬، ‫تجاويف الجسم (على سبيل المثال‬

2- Local Regulators
• Local regulators are chemical signals that

travel over short distances by diffusion
• Local regulators help regulate blood pressure,
nervous system function, and reproduction
***Local regulators are divided into two types
A- Paracrine signals act on cells near the
secreting cell
2- Autocrine signals act on the secreting cell
itself
Fig. 45-2a
Blood
vessel Response
(a) Endocrine signaling
Response
(b) Paracrine signaling
Response
(c) Autocrine signaling

3- Neurotransmitters and Neurohormones
• Neurons (nerve cells) contact target cells at

synapses ‫نقاط االشتباك العصبي‬
• At synapses, neurons often secrete chemical
signals called neurotransmitters that diffuse a
short distance to bind to receptors on the target
cell
***Neurotransmitters play a role in sensation,
memory, cognition ‫معرفة‬, and movement

Fig. 45-2b
Synapse
Neuron
Response
(d) Synaptic signaling
Neurosecretory
cell
Blood
Response
vessel
(e) Neuroendocrine signaling

• Neurohormones: are a class of hormones that
originate from neurons in the brain and
diffuse through the bloodstream

4- Pheromones
***Pheromones are chemical signals that are

released from the body and used to
communicate with other individuals in the
species
**Pheromones mark trails to food sources
‫عالمة مسارات لمصادر الغذاء‬, warn of predators ‫تحذير‬
‫من الحيوانات المفترسة‬, and attract potential mates
‫وجذب االصحاب المحتملين‬

Chemical Classes of Hormones
• Three major classes of molecules function

as hormones in vertebrates:
1- Polypeptides (proteins and peptides)
2- Amines derived from amino acids
3- Steroid hormones

1- Lipid-soluble hormones (steroid hormones)
pass easily through cell membranes, while water-
soluble hormones (polypeptides and amines) do
not
***The solubility of a hormone correlates with the
location of receptors inside or on the surface
of target cells

Fig. 45-3
Water-soluble Lipid-soluble
0.8 nm
Polypeptide: Steroid:
Insulin Cortisol
Amine: Amine:
Epinephrine Thyroxine
Hormone Receptor Location
***receptors for lipid-soluble hormones such as

steroids are located inside cells
***water-soluble receptors were on the cell
surface

Cellular Response Pathways
**Water-soluble hormones are secreted by

exocytosis, travel freely in the bloodstream,
and bind to cell-surface receptors
**Lipid-soluble hormones diffuse across cell
membranes, travel in the bloodstream bound
to transport proteins, and diffuse through the
membrane of target cells

***Signaling by any of these hormones
involves three key events:
1- Reception ‫استقبال‬
2- Signal transduction ‫نقل اإلشارة‬
3- Response ‫استجابة‬

Receptor location varies with hormone type
Water- Fat-soluble
soluble hormone
hormone
Transport
Signal receptor protein
TARGET OR
CELL Signal
receptor
Cytoplasmic
response Gene
regulation Cytoplasmic
response Gene
regulation
(a) NUCLEUS (b)

Pathway for Water-Soluble Hormones
• Binding of a hormone to its receptor

initiates a signal transduction pathway
leading to responses in the cytoplasm,
enzyme activation,
or a change in gene expression

Example
****The hormone epinephrine ‫ادرينالين‬:
has multiple effects in mediating the body’s
response to short-term stress
• Epinephrine binds to receptors on the plasma
membrane of liver cells
• This triggers the release of messenger
molecules that activate enzymes and result in
the release of glucose into the bloodstream

Cell-surface hormone receptors trigger signal transduction
Epinephrine
Adenylyl
G protein cyclase
G protein-coupled GTP
receptor
ATP
cAMP Second
messenger
Inhibition of Protein
glycogen synthesis kinase A
Promotion of
glycogen breakdown
Pathway for Lipid-Soluble Hormones
***The response to a lipid-soluble hormone is usually

a change in gene expression ‫تغيير في التعبير الجيني‬
***Steroids ‫منشطات‬, thyroid hormones ‫هرمونات الغدة‬
‫الدرقية‬, and the hormonal form of vitamin D enter
target cells and bind to protein receptors in the
cytoplasm or nucleus
• Protein-receptor complexes then act as
transcription factors in the nucleus ‫عوامل النسخ في‬
‫النواة‬, regulating transcription of specific genes

Steroid hormone receptors directly regulate gene expression
Hormone
(estradiol)
Estradiol
(estrogen)
receptor Plasma
membrane
Hormone-receptor
complex
DNA
egg-yolk protein
Vitellogenin
mRNA
for vitellogenin
Multiple Effects of Hormones
***The same hormone may have different effects on

target cells that have:
1- Different receptors for the hormone
2- Different signal transduction pathways
3- Different proteins for carrying out the response
**A hormone can also have different effects in

different species

One hormone, different effects
Same receptors but different
intracellular proteins (not shown)
Different receptors
Epinephrine Epinephrine Epinephrine
 receptor  receptor  receptor
Glycogen
deposits
Vessel Vessel
Glycogen dilates.
breaks down constricts.
and glucose
is released.
(a) Liver cell (b) Skeletal muscle (c) Intestinal blood

blood vessel vessel
Signaling by Local Regulators
**In paracrine signaling, nonhormonal chemical

signals called local regulators elicit responses
‫ تثير ردود‬in nearby target cells ‫الخاليا المستهدفة القريبة‬
• Types of local regulators:
– Cytokines and growth factors
– Nitric oxide (NO)
– Prostaglandins promotion of uterine contractions

Concept 45.2: Negative feedback and antagonistic
hormone pairs are common features of the
endocrine system
‫تعد التغذية الراجعة السلبية وأزواج الهرمون المعادية من السمات‬
‫الشائعة لنظام الغدد الصماء‬
***Hormones are assembled into regulatory
pathways ‫يتم تجميع الهرمونات في المسارات التنظيمية‬

Fig. 45-10
Major endocrine glands:
Hypothalamus
‫ صنوبري‬Pineal gland
‫نخامي‬ Pituitary gland
Organs containing
‫الغدة الدرقية‬Thyroid gland endocrine cells:
‫ جار درقية‬Parathyroid glands Thymus
‫عضو اللمفاوية‬
Heart
Liver
Adrenal
‫الغدد الكظرية‬ glands Stomach
Testes Pancreas Kidney

Kidney Small
intestine
Ovaries
Simple Hormone Pathways
**Hormones are released from an endocrine cell,

travel through the bloodstream, and interact with
the receptor or a target cell to cause a
physiological response

Fig. 45-11
Pathway Example
–
Stimulus Low pH in
duodenum ‫معي االثنا عشر‬
S cells of duodenum
secrete secretin ( )
Endocrine
cell
Blood
vessel
Target Pancreas
cells
Response Bicarbonate release

• A negative feedback loop inhibits a
response by reducing the initial stimulus
• Negative feedback regulates many hormonal
pathways involved in homeostasis ‫التوازن‬

Insulin and Glucagon: Control of Blood Glucose
• Insulin and glucagon are antagonistic

hormones ‫ هرمونات متعادية‬that help maintain
glucose homeostasis ‫الحفاظ على توازن الجلوكوز‬
**The pancreas has clusters of endocrine cells
called islets of Langerhans with:
alpha cells that produce glucagon
and beta cells that produce insulin

Maintenance of glucose homeostasis by insulin and glucagon
Body cells
take up more Insulin
glucose.
Beta cells of
pancreas
release insulin
into the blood.
Liver takes
up glucose
and stores it
as glycogen.
STIMULUS:
Blood glucose level
Blood glucose rises.
level declines.
Homeostasis:
Blood glucose level
(about 90 mg/100 mL)
Blood glucose STIMULUS:

level rises. Blood glucose level
falls.
Alpha cells of pancreas

release glucagon.
Liver breaks
down glycogen
and releases
glucose. Glucagon
Target Tissues for Insulin and Glucagon
***Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by:

1- Promoting the cellular uptake of glucose
2- lowing glycogen breakdown in the liver
3- Promoting fat storage
***Glucagon increases blood glucose levels by

1- Stimulating conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver
2- Stimulating breakdown of fat and protein into glucose

Diabetes Mellitus ‫مرض السكري‬
**Diabetes mellitus is perhaps the best-known

endocrine disorder
**It is caused by a deficiency of insulin or a
decreased response to insulin in target
tissues
***It is marked by elevated blood glucose
levels

• Type I diabetes mellitus juvenile diabetes
(insulin-dependent) is an autoimmune
disorder in which the immune system
destroys pancreatic beta cells
Pancreas produce insulin
Insulin move glucose to cell

• Type II diabetes mellitus (adult-
onset diabetes) (non-insulin-dependent)
involves insulin deficiency or reduced
response of target cells due to change in
insulin receptors

Concept 45.3: The endocrine and nervous systems act
individually and together in regulating animal
physiology
• Signals from the nervous system initiate
and regulate endocrine signals
End of lecture

Coordination of Endocrine and Nervous Systems
in Invertebrates
***In insects, molting and development are
controlled by a combination of hormones ‫مزيج من‬
‫الهرمونات‬:
1- A brain hormone stimulates release of ecdysone
from the prothoracic glands ‫الغدد الحارقة‬
2- Juvenile hormone promotes retention of larval
characteristics ‫يعزز االحتفاظ بخصائص اليرقات‬
3- Ecdysone promotes molting (in the presence of
juvenile hormone) and development (in the absence
of juvenile hormone) of adult characteristics
Fig. 45-13-3
Brain
Neurosecretory cells
Corpus cardiacum
PTTH
Corpus allatum
Low
Prothoracic JH
gland
Ecdysone Juvenile
hormone
(JH)
EARLY LATER
LARVA LARVA PUPA ADULT
Coordination of Endocrine and Nervous Systems
in Vertebrates
• The hypothalamus receives information from
the nervous system and initiates responses
through the endocrine system
• Attached to the hypothalamus ‫الجزوء االمامي من‬
‫الدماغ‬is the pituitary gland ‫الغدة النخامية‬
composed of the posterior pituitary and
anterior pituitary

• The posterior pituitary stores and secretes
‫ يفرز‬hormones that are made in the
hypothalamus
• The anterior pituitary makes and releases
hormones under regulation of the
hypothalamus

Fig. 45-14
Cerebrum ‫مخ‬
‫صنوبري الشكل‬
Pineal Thalamus ‫المهاد‬
gland
Hypothalamus
Cerebellum Pituitary
gland
Spinal cord
Hypothalamus
stores and secretes Posterior

‫ يفرز‬hormones that pituitary
are made in the Anterior
hypothalamus makes and releases
pituitary
hormones under
regulation of the
hypothalamus
Table 45-1
Table 45-1a
Table 45-1b
Table 45-1c
Table 45-1d
Posterior Pituitary Hormones
• The two hormones released from the

posterior pituitary act directly on
nonendocrine tissues ‫األنسجة غير الغدد الصماء‬

Fig. 45-15
Hypothalamus
Neurosecretory
cells of the Axon
hypothalamus
Posterior
pituitary
Anterior
pituitary
HORMONE ADH Oxytocin

Antidiuretic hormone
TARGET Kidney tubules Mammary glands,

uterine muscles
• Oxytocin: induces uterine contractions and the
release of milk
**Suckling sends a message to the
hypothalamus via the nervous system to
release oxytocin, which further stimulates the
milk glands
• This is an example of positive feedback,
where the stimulus leads to an even greater
response
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): enhances
water reabsorption in the kidneys
Fig. 45-16
Pathway Example
Stimulus Suckling
+
Sensory
neuron
Hypothalamus/
posterior pituitary
Positive feedback
Neurosecretory
cell
Posterior pituitary
Blood secretes oxytocin ( )
vessel
Target Smooth muscle in

cells breasts
Response Milk release

Anterior Pituitary Hormones
• Hormone production in the anterior

pituitary is controlled by releasing and
inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus
• For example, the production of thyrotropin
releasing hormone (TRH) in the hypothalamus
stimulates secretion of the thyroid stimulating
hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary

Fig. 45-17
Tropic effects only: regulates the function of endocrine cells or glands

FSH Neurosecretory cells
LH of the hypothalamus
TSH
ACTH
Nontropic effects only: target none ndocrine tissues

Prolactin
MSH
Nontropic and tropic effects:

GH Hypothalamic Portal vessels
releasing and
inhibiting
hormones
Endocrine cells of
Posterior pituitary the anterior pituitary
Pituitary hormones
HORMONE FSH and LH TSH ACTH Prolactin MSH GH
TARGET Testes or Thyroid Adrenal Mammary Melanocytes Liver, bones,

ovaries cortex glands other tissues
Tropic effects Nontropic effects Nontropic

and tropic
Hormone Cascade Pathways
***A hormone can stimulate the release of a

series of other hormones, the last of which
activates a nonendocrine target cell; this is called
a hormone cascade pathway ‫هرمون مسار الشالل‬
• The release of thyroid hormone results from a
hormone cascade pathway involving the
hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and thyroid
gland
**Hormone cascade pathways are usually
regulated by negative feedback
A hormone cascade
pathway
TRH
TSH
T3 and T2
Tropic Hormones ‫الهرمونات المدارية‬
***A tropic hormone: regulates the function of

endocrine cells or glands
• The four strictly tropic hormones are
– Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
– Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
– Luteinizing hormone (LH)
– Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Nontropic Hormones
***Nontropic hormones: target nonendocrine

tissues
***Nontropic hormones produced by the anterior
pituitary are
1- Prolactin (PRL): stimulates milk production
after childbirth.
2- Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
‫هرمون تنشيط الخاليا الصباغية‬

**Prolactin stimulates lactation ‫ الرضاعة‬in
mammals but has diverse effects in different
vertebrates
• MSH (Melanocyte-stimulating hormone)

influences skin pigmentation ‫ تصبغ الجلد‬in
some vertebrates and fat metabolism ‫التمثيل‬
‫ الغذائي للدهون‬in mammals

Growth Hormone
• Growth hormone (GH) is secreted by the

anterior pituitary gland and has tropic and
nontropic actions
***It promotes growth directly and has diverse
metabolic effects
***It stimulates production of growth factors
***An excess of GH can cause gigantism ‫العملقة‬,
while a lack of GH can cause dwarfism ‫التقزم‬

Concept 45.4: Endocrine glands respond to diverse
stimuli in regulating metabolism, homeostasis,
development, and behavior
**Endocrine signaling regulates metabolism,

homeostasis ‫التوازن‬, development, and behavior
Thyroid Hormone: Control of Metabolism and
Development
• The thyroid gland consists of two lobes on the
ventral surface of the trachea
• It produces two iodine-containing hormones:
triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4)

• Thyroid hormones stimulate metabolism and
influence development and maturation
• Hyperthyroidism, excessive secretion of thyroid
hormones, causes high body temperature, weight
loss, irritability, and high blood pressure
• Graves’‫ المرض القبور‬disease is a form of
hyperthyroidism in humans (a swelling of the
neck and protrusion of the eyes)
• Hypothyroidism, low secretion of thyroid
hormones, causes weight gain, lethargy ‫سبات‬,
and intolerance to cold ‫التعصب إلى البرد‬
***Proper thyroid function requires dietary
iodine for hormone production
‫وظيفة الغدة الدرقية المناسبة تتطلب اليود الغذائي إلنتاج هرمون‬

Parathyroid Hormone and Vitamin D: Control of
Blood Calcium
***Two antagonistic hormones regulate the
homeostasis of calcium (Ca2+) in the blood of
mammals
1- Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is released by
the parathyroid glands
2- Calcitonin is released by the thyroid gland

The roles of parathyroid hormone (PTH) in regulating blood calcium levels in mammals
Active
vitamin D Stimulates Ca2+
Increases
Ca2+ uptake uptake in kidneys
in intestines
PTH
Stimulates
Parathyroid gland
Ca2+ release
(behind thyroid)
from bones
STIMULUS:
Blood Ca2+ Falling blood
level rises. Ca2+ level
Homeostasis:
Blood Ca2+ level
(about 10 mg/100 mL)
***PTH increases the level of blood Ca2+
– It releases Ca2+ from bone and stimulates
reabsorption of Ca2+ in the kidneys
– It also has an indirect effect, stimulating the
kidneys to activate vitamin D, which promotes
intestinal uptake of Ca2+ from food
***Calcitonin decreases the level of blood Ca2+

– It stimulates Ca2+ deposition in bones and
secretion by kidneys
Adrenal Hormones: Response to Stress
***The adrenal glands are adjacent to the

kidneys
• Each adrenal gland actually consists of two
glands: the adrenal medulla ‫( النخاع الكظرية‬inner
portion) and adrenal cortex ‫قشرة الغدة الكظرية‬
(outer portion)

Catecholamines from the Adrenal Medulla
• The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine

(adrenaline) and norepinephrine
(noradrenaline)
• These hormones are members of a class of
compounds called catecholamines
***They are secreted in response to stress-
activated impulses from the nervous system
**They mediate various fight-or-flight responses
‫يتوسطون في استجابات القتال أو الهروب المختلفة‬
***Epinephrine and norepinephrine
– Trigger the release of glucose and fatty acids
into the blood
– Increase oxygen delivery to body cells
– Direct blood toward heart, brain, and skeletal
muscles, and away from skin, digestive
system, and kidneys
***The release of epinephrine and
norepinephrine occurs in response to nerve
signals from the hypothalamus
Fig. 45-21
Stress
Nerve
signals Hypothalamus
Spinal cord Releasing
hormone
Nerve
cell
Anterior pituitary
Blood vessel
ACTH
Adrenal medulla
Adrenal cortex
Adrenal
gland
Kidney
(a) Short-term stress response (b) Long-term stress response
Effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine: Effects of Effects of

mineralocorticoids: glucocorticoids:
1. Glycogen broken down to glucose; increased blood glucose
2. Increased blood pressure 1. Retention of sodium 1. Proteins and fats broken down
3. Increased breathing rate ions and water by and converted to glucose, leading
kidneys to increased blood glucose
4. Increased metabolic rate
5. Change in blood flow patterns, leading to increased 2. Increased blood 2. Possible suppression of
alertness and decreased digestive, excretory, and volume and blood immune system
reproductive system activity pressure
Steroid Hormones from the Adrenal Cortex
***The adrenal cortex releases a family of steroids

called corticosteroids in response to stress
• These hormones are triggered by a hormone
cascade pathway via the hypothalamus and
anterior pituitary
***Humans produce two types of
corticosteroids: glucocorticoids and
mineralocorticoids

Fig. 45-21c
Adrenal cortex
Adrenal
gland
Kidney
(b) Long-term stress response
Effects of Effects of
mineralocorticoids: glucocorticoids:
1. Retention of sodium 1. Proteins and fats broken down

ions and water by and converted to glucose, leading
kidneys to increased blood glucose
2. Increased blood 2. Possible suppression of

volume and blood immune system
pressure
• Glucocorticoids, such as cortisol, influence
glucose metabolism and the immune
system
• Mineralocorticoids, such as aldosterone,
affect salt and water balance
• The adrenal cortex also produces small
amounts of steroid hormones that function
as sex hormones

Gonadal Sex Hormones
**The gonads, testes and ovaries, produce

most of the sex hormones: androgens,
estrogens, and progestins
***All three sex hormones are found in both
males and females, but in different amounts

***The testes primarily synthesize androgens,
mainly testosterone, which stimulate
development and maintenance of the male
reproductive system
***Testosterone causes an increase in muscle
and bone mass and is often taken as a
supplement to cause muscle growth, which
carries health risks ‫الذي يحمل مخاطر صحية‬

Fig. 45-22
RESULTS
Appearance of Genitals
‫إزالة الغدد التناسلية‬

Chromosome Set No surgery Embryonic
gonad removed
XY (male) Male Female
XX (female) Female Female

***Estrogens, most importantly estradiol, are
responsible for maintenance of the female
reproductive system and the development of
female secondary sex characteristics
***In mammals, progestins, which include
progesterone, are primarily involved in
preparing and maintaining the uterus
**Synthesis of the sex hormones is controlled
by FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary

Melatonin and Biorhythms
***The pineal gland, located in the brain,

secretes melatonin
***Light/dark cycles control release of melatonin
‫ الظالم تتحكم في إطالق الميالتونين‬/ ‫دورات الضوء‬
**Primary functions of melatonin appear to
relate to biological rhythms associated with
reproduction ‫اإليقاعات البيولوجية المرتبطة التكاثر‬

End of chapter and the course

Chapter 46
Animal Reproduction
‫التكاثر الحيواني‬

• Overview: Doubling Up for Sexual Reproduction
• ***The two earthworms in this picture are mating ‫تزاوج‬
• Each worm produces both sperm and eggs, which will
fertilize
– And in a few weeks, new worms will hatch
• ***A population transcends finite life spans ‫يتجاوز عدد السكان‬

‫فترات الحياة المحدودة‬
– Only by reproduction

• Concept 46.1: Both asexual and sexual
reproduction occur in the animal kingdom
• ***1- Asexual reproduction is the creation of new
individuals
– Whose genes all come from one parent
• ***2- Sexual reproduction is the creation of offspring

– By the fusion of male and female gametes to form a
zygote ‫البيضة الملقحة‬
• ***The female gamete is the egg ‫البويضه‬
• ***The male gamete is the sperm ‫الحيوان المنوي‬
Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction
• A- ****Many invertebrates reproduce
asexually by fission ‫انقسام‬
– The separation of a parent into two or more
individuals of approximately the same size

• B- **Also common in invertebrates is budding
‫التبرعم‬
– In which two new individuals arise from
outgrowths ‫ االمتداد‬of existing ones
• C- ***Another type of asexual reproduction is

fragmentation ‫تجزئة‬, which
1- Is the breaking of the body into several pieces,
some or all of which develop into complete adults
2- Must be accompanied by regeneration ‫اعاده تكوين‬,
the regrowth of lost body parts
Reproductive Cycles and Patterns
• ***Most animals exhibit cycles in reproductive activity
– Often related to changing seasons
• ***Reproductive cycles ‫الدوره االنجابيه‬
– Are controlled by hormones and environmental cues
‫منبهات البيئية‬
• ***Animals may reproduce exclusively asexually or sexually
– Or they may alternate between the two
• ***Some animals reproduce by parthenogenesis ‫التكاثر‬
‫العذري‬
– A process in which an egg develops without being
fertilized (Rotifers)
• ***Among vertebrates, several genera of fishes,
amphibians, and lizards, including whiptail lizards
– Reproduce exclusively by a complex form of
parthenogenesis (a) Both lizards in this photograph are C.
uniparens females. The one on top is
playing the role of a male. Every two or
three weeks during the breeding
season, individuals switch sex roles.
(b) The sexual behavior of C. uniparens

is correlated with the cycle of
ovulation mediated by sex
Ovary
hormones.
size
As blood levels of estrogen rise,

Ovulation Ovulation
Progesterone the ovaries grow, and the lizard
Estrogen
Hormones
behaves like a female. After ovulation,

the estrogen level drops abruptly,
Time
and the progesterone level rises;
Behavior
these hormone levels correlate with

Female-
like
Male-
like
Female- Male- male behavior.
like like

• ***Sexual reproduction presents a special problem for
certain organisms
‫يمثل التكاثر الجنسي مشكلة خاصة لبعض الكائنات الحية‬
– That seldom encounter a mate

‫نادرا ما تصادف رفيقة‬
• ***One solution to this problem is hermaphroditism

– In which each individual has both male and female
reproductive systems
‫أحد الحلول لهذه المشكلة هو الخنوثة حيث يكون لكل فرد جهاز تناسلي ذكوري‬
‫وأنثى‬

• ***Another remarkable reproductive pattern
is sequential hermaphroditism
– In which an individual reverses its sex during
its lifetime
‫نمط تناسلي ملحوظ آخر هو الخنوثة‬

‫المتسلسلة حيث يعكس الفرد جنسه خالل‬
‫حياته‬

• Concept 46.2: Fertilization ‫ االخصاب‬depends
on mechanisms ‫ االليه‬that help sperm meet
eggs of the same species
‫يعتمد اإلخصاب على اآلليات التي تساعد الحيوانات المنوية على‬
‫االلتقاء ببويضات من نفس النوع‬
• ***The mechanisms of fertilization, the union
of egg and sperm
– Play an important part in sexual reproduction

• ***A- Some species have external fertilization ‫ اخصاب خارجي‬, in
which
– Eggs by the female are fertilized by sperm in the external
environment
‫يتم تخصيب بيض األنثى بالحيوانات المنوية في البيئة الخارجية‬
• ***B- Other species have internal
fertilization‫اخصاب داخلي‬, in which
– Sperm are deposited in or near the
female reproductive tract ‫القناه التناسليه‬
, and fertilization occurs within the
tract
‫تترسب الحيوانات المنوية في الجهاز التناسلي األنثوي أو‬
‫ ويحدث اإلخصاب داخل القناة‬، ‫بالقرب منه‬ Eggs

• ***In either situation, fertilization requires critical timing
– Often mediated ‫ غالبا بوساطة‬by environmental cues ‫منبهات‬
‫البيئية‬, pheromones ‫الفيرومونات‬, and/or courtship behavior
‫المغازلة‬
• ***Internal fertilization
– Requires important behavioral interactions ‫سلوك تفاعلي‬
between male and female animals
– Requires compatible ‫ توافق‬copulatory organs ‫اعضاء‬
‫تناسليه‬

Ensuring the Survival of Offspring
• **All species produce more offspring than the environment
can handle ‫تنتج جميع األنواع ذرية أكثر مما تستطيع البيئة التعامل معه‬
– But the proportion ‫ نسبه‬that survives is quite small
• ***The embryos ‫ االجنه‬of many terrestrial animals

1- Develop in eggs that can withstand ‫ تقاوم‬harsh
environments ‫ظروف بيئيه قاسيه‬
• ***Instead ‫ بدال من‬of secreting a shell around the embryo
2- Many animals retain ‫ يحتفظ‬the embryo, which develops
inside the female

• ***Many different types of animals
– Exhibit parental care ‫ تعتني بصغارها‬to ensure
survival of offspring

Gamete Production ‫ انتاج الجاميتات‬and Delivery ‫الوالده‬
• ***To reproduce sexually
– Animals must have systems that produce
gametes

• ***The least complex systems ‫أقل األنظمة تعقيدًا‬
– Do not even contain distinct gonads ‫ال يحوي على اعضاء‬
‫منقصله‬, the organs that produce gametes in most animals
‫ال تحتوي حتى على مناسل مميزة وهي األعضاء التي تنتج األمشاج في معظم‬ –
‫الحيوانات‬
• ***The most complex reproductive systems

– Contain many sets of accessory tubes and glands
that carry ‫نقل‬, nourish ‫يغذى‬, and protect the gametes
and the developing embryos
‫أكثر األنظمة التناسلية تعقيدًا‬
‫تحتوي على العديد من مجموعات األنابيب والغدد الملحقة التي تحمل وتغذي‬
‫وتحمي األمشاج واألجنة النامية‬
• ***Many animals with relatively simple body plans
– Possess ‫ على تحوي‬highly complex reproductive
systems
Genital
pore (Digestive tract)
Female organs:
Male organs:
3 Uterus
4 Seminal
vesicle
Yolk gland
Yolk duct
3 Sperm duct 2 Oviduct
(vas deferens)
1 Ovary
2 Vas efferens
Seminal
1 Testis receptacle
(Excretory pore)

• ***Most insects
– Have separate sexes with complex
reproductive systems
1 Ovary
Accessory
gland
4 Ejaculatory
duct
1 Testis
Oviduct
Spermatheca
2 Vas deferens 5 Penis
3 Vagina
3 Seminal Accessory
vesicle gland
(a) Male honeybee. Sperm form in the testes, (b) Female honeybee. Eggs develop in
pass through the sperm duct (vas deferens), the ovaries and then pass through the
and are stored in the seminal vesicle. oviducts and into the vagina. A pair of
The male ejaculates sperm along with fluid accessory glands (only one is shown)
from the accessory glands. (Males of some add protective secretions to the eggs
species of insects and other arthropods have in the vagina. After mating, sperm are
appendages called claspers that grasp the stored in the spermatheca, a sac
Figure 46.8a, b female during copulation.) connected to the vagina by a short duct.
• ***********Concept 46.3: Reproductive organs produce
and transport gametes: focus on humans
‫ التركيز على البشر‬:‫تنتج األعضاء التناسلية األمشاج وتنقلها‬
Female Reproductive Anatomy
• ***The female external ‫ الخارجي‬reproductive structures
include
1- The clitoris ‫البذر‬ 2- Two sets of labia ‫الشفرات‬
• ****The internal ‫ الداخليه‬organs are a pair of gonads ‫الغدد‬

‫التناسلية‬
– And a system of ducts ‫ نظام من القنوات‬and chambers
‫ حجيرات‬that carry gametes and house the embryo and
fetus ‫جنين‬
• Reproductive anatomy of the human female
Uterus
‫قناة البيض‬ (Urinary bladder)
Oviduct (Pubic bone)
Ovary
(Rectum)
‫شرج‬
Cervix
‫عنق الرحم‬
Vagina Urethra ‫مجرى البول‬
‫المهبل‬
Shaft ‫رمح‬
‫حشفة القضيب‬
Glans Clitoris
Bartholin’s gland
Prepuce ‫قلفة‬
Labia minora
Vaginal opening
Figure 46.9 ‫افتتاح المهبل‬ Labia majora
‫المبايض‬ Oviduct ‫قناة البيض‬
Ovaries
Follicles
Uterus
Uterine wall
Endometrium
‫بصيالت‬
‫الرحم‬ ‫بطانة الرحم‬ Corpus luteum
‫الجسم األصفر‬
Cervix
‫عنق الرحم‬
Vagina
‫المهبل‬

Ovaries ‫المبايض‬
• ***The female gonads, the ovaries
– Lie ‫ تقع‬in the abdominal cavity ‫التجويف البطني‬
• ***Each ovary
– Is enclosed in a tough protective capsule and contains
many follicles
‫محاط بكبسولة واقية قوية وتحتوي على العديد من البصيالت‬
• ***A follicle ‫جريب كيس أو تجويف‬
– Consists of one egg cell surrounded by one or more
layers of follicle cells
‫تتكون من خلية بويضة واحدة محاطة بطبقة واحدة أو أكثر من خاليا الجريب‬ –

• ***The process of ovulation ‫عمليه االباضه‬
– Expels ‫ فصل‬an egg cell from the follicle ‫خباء‬
• The remaining follicular tissue ‫ نسيج مسامي‬then grows

within the ovary
– To form a solid mass called the corpus luteum
‫الجسم األصفر‬, which secretes hormones, depending
on whether or not pregnancy occurs
‫ثم ينمو النسيج الجريبي المتبقي داخل المبيض‬
‫ اعتمادًا على‬، ‫لتكوين كتلة صلبة تسمى الجسم األصفر الذي يفرز الهرمونات‬
‫حدوث الحمل أم ال‬

Oviducts and Uterus
• The egg cell is released ‫ توضع‬into the
abdominal cavity
– Near the opening of the oviduct ‫قناة البيض‬, or
fallopian tube
• ***Cilia in the tube

– Convey ‫ تنقل‬the egg to the uterus ‫الرحم‬

Vagina ‫ المهبل‬and Vulva ‫فرج‬
• The vagina is a thin-walled chamber
– That is the repository ‫ يجمع‬for sperm during
copulation ‫الجماع‬
– That serves as the birth canal ‫قناه والده‬
through which a baby is born
• The vagina opens to the outside at the vulva ‫الفرج‬

– Which includes the hymen ‫غشاء البكارة‬, vestibule ‫دهليز‬,
labia minora ‫الشفرين الصغيرين‬, labia majora ‫الشفرين‬
‫الكبيرين‬, and clitoris ‫بظر‬

Mammary Glands ‫الغدد الحليبيه‬
• ***The mammary glands are not part of the
reproductive system
– But are important to mammalian reproduction
• ***Within the glands

– Small sacs ‫ أكياس صغيرة‬of epithelial tissue ‫األنسجة‬
‫ الطالئية‬secrete milk

Male Reproductive Anatomy End of lecture
• ***In most mammalian species

1- The male’s external reproductive organs are
the scrotum ‫ وعاء الخصيتين‬and penis ‫قضيب‬
• ***The internal organs

2- Consist of the gonads ‫الغدد التناسلية‬, which
produce sperm‫ المني الحيوان المنوي‬and hormones,
and accessory glands ‫الغدد التبعي‬

• Reproductive anatomy of the human male
‫ الحويصلة المنوية‬Seminal (Urinary

vesicle bladder)
(behind
bladder)
Prostate gland
Urethra
‫مجرى البول‬ Bulbourethral
gland ‫الغدة البصلية اإلحليلية‬
Erectile tissue
Scrotum of penis
Vas deferens ‫األسهر‬
‫وعاء الخصيتين‬ Epididymis ‫البربخ‬
Glans penis Testis
‫حشفة القضيب‬
(Urinary
Seminal vesicle
bladder)
(Rectum ‫)شرج‬ (Pubic bone)
Erectile
Vas deferens‫األسهر‬
tissue of
Ejaculatory duct ‫قناة دافقة‬ penis
Prostate gland
Urethra ‫مجرى البول‬
Bulbourethral gland ‫الغدة البصلية اإلحليلية‬
Vas deferens Epididymis ‫البربخ‬ Glans penis
Testis
Scrotum ‫وعاء الخصيتين‬ Prepuce ‫جلدة عضو التناسل‬

Testes
• ***The male gonads, or testes
– Consist of many highly coiled tubes surrounded by
several layers of connective tissue
• The tubes are seminiferous tubules ‫األنابيب المنوية‬
– Where sperm form
• ***Production of normal sperm
1- Cannot occur at the body temperatures of most
mammals
• The testes of humans and many mammals
2- Are held outside the abdominal cavity in the
scrotum ‫وعاء الخصيتين‬, where the temperature is lower
than in the abdominal cavity
Ducts ‫القنوات الناقلة ل‬
• ***From the seminiferous tubules ‫األنابيب المنوية‬
of a testis
– The sperm pass into the coiled tubules
‫األنابيب الملتفة‬of the epididymis ‫البربخ‬
• ***During ejaculation ‫قذف‬

– Sperm are propelled ‫ الدفع‬through the muscular
vas deferens ‫العضالت القناة الناقلة‬, the ejaculatory
duct, and exit the penis through the urethra
‫مجرى البول‬

Glands ‫الغدد‬
• ***Three sets ‫ ثالث مجموعات‬of accessory glands
Add secretions to the semen, the fluid that is ejaculated
‫أضف اإلفرازات إلى السائل المنوي الذي يقذف‬
• ***A pair of seminal vesicles: Contributes about 60% of the
total volume of semen
• ***The prostate gland ‫غدة البروستات‬
– Secretes its products directly into the urethra ‫ مجرى البول‬through
several small ducts, the main function of the prostate
gland is to secrete an alkaline fluid that comprises
approximately 70% of the seminal volume. The secretions
produce lubrication and nutrition for the sperm.
• ***The bulbourethral gland ‫الغدة البصلية اإلحليلية‬
– ****Secretes a clear mucus before ejaculation that
neutralizes
Copyright © 2005 acidic
Pearson Education, Inc. publishing urine
as Benjamin remaining in the urethra
Cummings
Semen in the Female Reproductive Tract
• ***Once in the female reproductive tract
– A number of processes, including contractions
of the uterus, help move the sperm up the uterus
‫ هناك عدد من‬، ‫حينما يصل الحيوان المنوي في الجهاز التناسلي األنثوي‬
‫ تساعد في تحريك الحيوانات المنوية‬، ‫ بما في ذلك تقلصات الرحم‬، ‫العمليات‬
‫أعلى الرحم‬

Penis
• ***The human penis
– Is composed of ‫ تتكون من‬three cylinders of
spongy erectile tissue ‫أنسجة االنتصاب إسفنجي‬
• ***During sexual arousal ‫إثارة‬

– The erectile tissue fills with blood from the
arteries, causing an erection ‫االنتصاب‬

***Human Sexual Response ‫االستجابة الجنسية اإلنسان‬
• ***Two types of physiological reactions predominate in
both sexes
1- Vasocongestion, the filling of tissue with blood
2- Myotonia, increased muscle tension ‫زيادة توتر العضالت‬
• ***The sexual response cycle can be
divided into four phases
– Excitement, ‫تهيج او إثارة‬
– plateau,‫هضبة‬
– orgasm,‫رعشة الجماع‬
– and resolution ‫ارتخاء‬
• Concept 46.4: In humans and other
mammals, a complex interplay ‫ تفاعل معقد‬of
hormones regulates gametogenesis
• ***The process of gametogenesis
– Is based on meiosis ‫ إنقسام منصف‬, but differs
in females and males

Oogenesis is the development of mature ova Spermatogenesis is the production of mature sperm
Ovary
Primary germ cell in embryo
Differentiation
Oogonium
2n Oogonium in ovary
Mitotic
division
Primary
oocyte
within
Primary oocyte, follicle
2n arrested in prophase
of meiosis I
(present at birth)
Growing
Completion of meiosis I follicle
and onset of meiosis II
First n Secondary oocyte,
polar n arrested at meta-
body phase of meiosis II
Ovulation
Entry of Mature follicle

n sperm triggers
n
completion of Ruptured
meiosis II follicle
Ovum
Ovulated
secondary oocyte
Corpus luteum
Degenerating
Figure 46.11 corpus luteum

• ***Oogenesis differs from spermatogenesis
– In three major ways

The Reproductive Cycles ‫ دورات اإلنجابية‬of Females
• **In females: The secretion of hormones and the
reproductive events they regulate are cyclic
Menstrual Versus Estrous Cycles
‫الحيض مقابل دورات الشبق‬
• ***Two different types of cycles occur in females

• ***In menstrual cycles ‫حيض‬
1- The endometrium is shed ‫ ذرف‬from the uterus ‫ الرحم‬in a
bleeding called menstruation ‫نزيف دعا الحيض‬
2- Sexual receptivity ‫ التقبل الجنسي‬is not limited to a specific
timeframe or stimulus..‫ال يقتصر التقبل الجنسي على إطار زمني محدد أو حافز‬
• ***In estrous cycles ‫الدورة النزوية شبق‬

1- The endometrium is reabsorbed ‫ استيعابها‬by the uterus ‫الرحم‬
2- Sexual receptivity is limited to a “heat” period
"‫يقتصر التقبل الجنسي على فترة "الحرارة‬

The Human Female Reproductive Cycle: A Closer Look
• ***The female reproductive cycle
– ***Is one integrated cycle ‫دورة متكاملة‬
involving two organs, the uterus and
ovaries

• ***Cyclic secretion ‫إفراز دوري‬of GnRH
(gonadotropin-releasing hormone) from the
hypothalamus ‫المهاد‬
– And of FSH and LH from the anterior
pituitary ‫ نخامي‬orchestrates ‫ ينسق‬the female
reproductive cycle
• ***Five kinds of hormones

– Participate in an elaborate scheme ‫مخطط‬
involving both positive and negative
feedback

• The reproductive cycle of the human female
(a)
Control by hypothalamus Inhibited by combination of
estrogen and progesterone
Hypothalamus
Stimulated by high levels
1 GnRH of estrogen
Anterior pituitary Inhibited by low levels of
estrogen
2 FSH LH
(b)
Pituitary gonadotropins
in blood 6
LH
FSH
3 FSH and LH stimulate LH surge triggers
follicle to grow ovulation
(c) Ovarian cycle 7 8 ‫صعود‬
Growing follicle Corpus Degenerating

Mature
luteum corpus luteum
follicle
Follicular phase Ovulation Luteal phase

Estrogen secreted Progesterone and
4 by growing follicle in estrogen secreted
increasing amounts by corpus luteum
(d)
Ovarian hormones Peak causes
in blood 5 LH surge
10
‫صعود‬
Estrogen Progesterone
Estrogen level Progesterone and estro-

9
very low gen promote thickening
of endometrium
(e)
Uterine (menstrual) cycle
Endometrium
Menstrual flow phase Proliferative phase Secretory phase

Days
0 5 10 14 15 20 25 28
‫المرحلة إفرازية المرحلة التكاثري‬
The Ovarian Cycle ‫دورة المبيض‬
• ***In the ovarian cycle
– ***Hormones stimulate follicle (FSH, LH) ‫الثمرة‬
‫ الجرابية‬growth, which results in ovulation
‫اإلباضة‬
• Following ovulation
– ***The follicular tissue left behind transforms
into the corpus luteum ‫الجسم األصفر‬

The Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle ‫دورة الرحم‬
• ***Cycle after cycle
– The maturation and release of egg cells from the ovary are
integrated with changes in the uterus
• ***If an embryo has not implanted in the endometrium by
the end of the secretory phase (day 28th) ‫المرحلة إفرازية‬
– ***A new menstrual flow commences ‫يبدأ تدفق جديد للحيض‬
Proliferative phase

Menopause
• ***After about 450 cycles, human females
undergo menopause ‫سن اليأس عند ( إنقطاع الطمث‬
‫المرأة‬
***The cessation ‫ إنقطاع مطلق‬of ovulation and
menstruation
The menstrual cycle 
Menstruation: the condition in female when the lining of
the uterus breaks down and blood with cells pass out of
the vagina during the period.
 Between the ages of 45-55 years a woman’s periods
stop as her menstrual cycles have stopped which is called
a menopause.

******Stages in the menstrual cycle
 Girls are born with many potential egg cells in their ovaries.
 Each potential egg is surrounded by a small group of
cells and together they form a follicle.
  At puberty, some of the follicles start to develop. This
development involves the egg dividing by meiosis which
reduces the number of chromosomes in the nucleus by
half.
 Each month one or a few follicles start to develop.
 A follicle starts to develop in the ovary at the beginning of
the cycle as menstruation finishes.
 After 2 weeks, the follicle bursts releasing the egg
(ovulation).

 The follicle cells left behind in the ovary form the yellow
body which remains for the next 2 weeks.
  If implantation does not occur, it will then decrease in
size. If implantation occurs it remains active during
pregnancy.
 If fertilization occurs, the fertilized egg divides to form a
ball of cells which implants into the thick uterus lining and
pregnancy occur.
 If fertilization does not occur, the egg dies and passes out
of the vagina and the yellow body in the ovary breaks down.
The thick lining of the uterus breaks down and is lost during
menstruation.
 If a pregnancy does occur, the embryo releases a
hormone that stimulates the yellow body to remain active
which in turn stimulates the lining of the uterus to thicken and
ensures that menstruation will not occur.
Control of the menstrual cycle
 Hormones from the pituitary gland control the cycles.
 A follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates a follicle to
develop. The egg cell starts to divide inside the follicle and
getting bigger.
  Cells in the follicle start to secrete estrogen that causes
the thickening of the lining of the uterus in preparation to
receive a fertilized egg and prevents any more eggs
developing. estrogen also passes to the pituitary gland
to stops from making any more FSH.

 Estrogen also stimulates the production of Luteinizing
Hormone (LH).
  LH travels to the ovary and stimulates it to do an
ovulation and stimulate the making of a yellow body. 
The yellow body starts to make the hormone
progesterone to thicken the lining of the uterus.
 If pregnancy occurs, both estrogen and progesterone
continue to be produced.

Summary  During a menstrual cycle a follicle develops
inside the ovary and thicken the lining of the uterus. If
implantation does not occur, the lining of the uterus and
vagina breakdown (menstruation).
 The pituitary hormone FSH stimulates the development
of a follicle inside the ovary and the secretion of
estrogen.
 estrogen stimulates the thickening of the uterus lining,
stop the FSH production and causes the pituitary to release
LH.

Summary  LH stimulates ovulation and the formation of
the yellow body from the remains of the follicle.
 The yellow body secretes progesterone which

maintains the uterus lining.
 estrogen and progesterone will make sure that the
lining of the uterus stay thick and stop the woman’s
menstruation starting again (pregnancy)

Hormonal Control of the Male Reproductive System
• Testosterone and other androgens
– Are directly responsible for the primary and
secondary sex characteristics of the male
End of lecture

End of lecture

End of lecture

End of lecture

• ***Androgen secretion and sperm production
– Are both controlled by hypothalamic and pituitary
hormones ‫الغدة النخامية‬
Stimuli from other
areas in the brain
Hypothalamus
GnRH from the

hypothalamus regulates FSH Anterior
and LH release from the pituitary
anterior pituitary.
Negative
feedback
FSH acts on the
LH stimulates the
Sertoli cells of the
Leydig cells ‫ الخاليا ايديغ‬to make
seminiferous
testosterone, which
tubules, promoting
in turn stimulates
spermatogenesis. Leydig cells
sperm production.
make
testosterone
Sertoli cells Primary and
secondary sex
characteristics
Figure 46.14
Spermatogenesis Testis

• Concept 46.5: In humans and other placental mammals,
an embryo grows into a newborn in the mother’s uterus
Conception ‫ حمل‬, Embryonic Development, and Birth:
• ***In humans and most other placental mammals

– Pregnancy ‫ مرحلة الحمل‬, or gestation‫ مرحلة الحمل‬, is the
condition of carrying one or more embryos in the
uterus
• ***After fertilization
– ***The zygote undergoes cleavage and develops into
a blastocyst ‫ الكيسة األريمية‬before implantation in the
endometrium

• ***Fertilization of an egg by a sperm, conception ‫حمل‬
– Occurs in the oviduct
3Cleavage (cell division) 4 Cleavage continues.
begins in the oviduct By the time the embryo
as the embryo is moved reaches the uterus,
toward the uterus it is a ball of cells.
by peristalsis and the It floats in the uterus for
movements of cilia. Ovary
several days, nourished by
endometrial secretions. It
2 Fertilization occurs. A sperm becomes a blastocyst.
enters the oocyte; meiosis of
the oocyte finishes; and the 5 The blastocyst implants
nuclei of the ovum and sperm in the endometrium
fuse, producing a zygote. about 7 days after conception
Uterus
‫حمل‬
1Ovulation releases a
secondary oocyte, which Endometrium
enters the oviduct.
(a) From ovulation to implantation
Endometrium Inner cell mass
Cavity
Blastocyst Trophoblast
‫األرومة الغاذية‬
Figure 46.15a, b (b) Implantation of blastocyst
First Trimester ‫الفصل األول‬
• ***Human gestation ‫الحمل البشري‬

– Can be divided into three trimesters of about
three months each
• The first trimester

– Is the time of most radical change ‫تغير جذري‬
for both the mother and the embryo

• ***During its first 2 to 4 weeks of
development
– The embryo obtains nutrients directly from
the endometrium ‫بطانة الرحم‬
• Meanwhile, the outer layer of the blastocyst

– Mingles with the endometrium and
eventually forms the placenta ‫مشيمة‬

• ***Blood from the embryo
– Travels to the placenta ‫ مشيمة‬through arteries of
the umbilical cord and returns via the umbilical
Maternal Maternal
vein arteries veins
Placenta
Maternal portion
of placenta
Umbilical cord
Chorionic villus
containing fetal
capillaries Fetal portion of
placenta (chorion)
Maternal blood
pools
Uterus Umbilical arteries

Fetal arteriole
Fetal venule Umbilical vein
Figure 46.16 Umbilical cord

• ***The first trimester is the main period of
organogenesis(the production and
development of the organs)
– The development of the body organs
(a) 5 weeks., Limb buds (b) 14 weeks. Growth and (c) 20 weeks. By the end of the
(b) ‫ براعم األطراف‬eyes, the development of the offspring, second trimester (at 24 weeks),
heart, the liver, and rudiments now called a fetus ‫جنين‬, continue the fetus grows to about 30 cm
of all other organs have started during the second trimester. in length.
to develop in the embryo, which This fetus is about 6 cm long.
is only about 1 cm long.
Second Trimester
• ***During the second trimester
1- The fetus grows and is very active
2- The mother may feel fetal movements ‫حركات الجنين‬
3- The uterus grows enough for the pregnancy to become
obvious
Third Trimester:
• **During the third trimester
– The fetus continues to grow and fills the
available space within the embryonic
membranes

• ***A complex interplay of local regulators
and hormones
– ***Induces and regulates labor, the process
by which childbirth occurs
Estrogen Oxytocin
Positive feedback
from from fetus
ovaries and mother's
posterior pituitary
Induces oxytocin
receptors on uterus
Stimulates uterus
to contract
Stimulates
placenta to make
Prostaglandins
Stimulate more
Figure 46.18 contractions
of uterus
• ***Birth, or parturition
– Is brought about by a series of strong, rhythmic
uterine contractions

• ***The process of labor has three stages
Placenta
Umbilical
cord
Uterus
Cervix
1 Dilation of the cervix

‫اتساع عنق الرحم‬
2Expulsion: delivery of the infant

‫ والدة الرضيع‬:‫الطرد‬
Uterus
Placenta
(detaching)
Umbilical
cord
3Delivery of the placenta ‫خروج المشيمة‬

The Mother’s Immune Tolerance ‫ تسامح‬of the Embryo and
Fetus
• ***A woman’s acceptance of her “foreign”
offspring
1- Is not fully understood
2- May be due to the suppression ‫ كبت‬of the
immune response in her uterus
Contraception and Abortion ‫منع الحمل واإلجهاض‬
• Contraception ‫منع الحمل‬, the deliberate ‫متعمد‬
prevention of pregnancy
– ***Can be achieved in a number of ways

• **Some contraceptive methods
1- Prevent the release of mature eggs and
sperm from gonads
2- Prevent fertilization by keeping sperm and
egg apart
3- Prevent implantation of an embryo

• ***Mechanisms of some contraceptive methods Male Female
Vasectomy Method Event
Production of
viable sperm
Event
Production of
viable oocytes
Method
‫قطع القناة الدافقة‬ Vasectomy

Combination
birth control
pill (or injection,
patch, or
vaginal ring)
Abstinence ‫العفة‬
Sperm transport Ovulation
down male
duct system
Abstinence
Abstinence
Condom ‫واق ذكري‬

Condom
Coitus
interruptus
(very high Sperm Capture of the
failure rate) deposited oocyte by the
Coitus interrupts in vagina oviduct
Tubal ligation
(very high failure rate) Transport

Spermicides;
diaphragm;
cervical cap;
Sperm
‫انقطاع الجماع‬
movement of oocyte in progestin alone
through oviduct (minipill, implant,
female or injection)
reproductive
)‫(معدل فشل مرتفع للغاية‬

tract
Meeting of sperm and oocyte

in oviduct
Morning-after
Union of sperm and egg pill (MAP)
Progestin alone
Implantation of blastocyst
in properly prepared
endometrium
Figure 46.20 Birth

Modern Reproductive Technology
• ***Recent scientific and technological
advances
– Have made it possible to deal with many
reproductive problems
• ***Amniocentesis ‫ فحص المياه الجارية‬and chorionic

villus sampling ‫أخذ العينات زغابة المشيمي‬
– **Are invasive techniques in which amniotic
fluid ‫ السائل الذي يحيط بالجنين‬or fetal cells ‫خاليا‬
‫ الجنين‬are obtained for genetic analysis

• ***Noninvasive procedures ‫إجراءات غير الغازية‬
– **Usually use ultrasound imaging to detect
fetal condition
• Modern technology Head
– Can help infertile Head Body
couples ‫األزواج الذين‬ Body
‫يعانون من العقم‬
– by in vitro
fertilization ‫بواسطة‬
‫اإلخصاب في المختبر‬Figure 46.21
End of chapter
End of course materials

Chapter 6: A tour of the cell
Chapter 7: Membrane structure and function
Chapter 44: Osmoregulation and Excretion
Chapter 45: Endocrine System
Chapter 46: Animal reproduction
Evaluation: Quizzes 40% (the higher 4 quizzes will be taken)

Homework's 5%
Attendance and participation 5%
final 50% at the University campus

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Chapter 6

A Tour of the Cell

Lectures by Chris Romero

3- Cell structure is correlated to cellular function

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

***Scientists use microscopes to visualize

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100 nm Smallest bacteria

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.‫تباين مرحلي‬ (c) Phase-contrast. Enhances contrast

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(e) Fluorescence. Shows the locations of specific

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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

This SEM shows the surface of a

Beating of the cilia helps move

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Longitudinal Cross section

Figure 6.4 (b)

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1st : cells are homogenized in a blender to break them up.

2nd: The resulting mixture (cell homogenate) is then

In the original experiments, the researchers

In the next series of experiments, researchers used

Researchers currently use cell fractionation to isolate particular

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(a) A typical Flagella: locomotion (b) A thin section through the

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***Plant and animal cells: Have most of the

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Ribosomes (small brwon dots)

***The Nucleus: Genetic Library of the Cell

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Figure 6.10 Pore complexes (TEM). Nuclear lamina (TEM).

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**The endomembrane system, Includes many

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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

***The Golgi apparatus

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‫تتجمع الحويصالت لتشكيل حاضرات جولجي‬

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‫تحلل الاليسوسومات عملية الهضم داخل‬ Lysosome

‫الخاليا عن طريق البلعمة‬

Lysosome fuses with Hydrolytic enzymes

(b) Autophagy: lysosome breaking down damaged organelle

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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

the internal fluid

• The cytoskeleton: Gives mechanical support to the cell Is

(a) Motor proteins that

organelles can “walk” Microtubule Vesicles 0.25 µm

(b) Vesicles containing neurotransmitters migrate to the tips of nerve

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings