Chapter 4 - Part 2 - MJ PDF

PULSE
MODULATION
CHAPTER 4
Part 2
EKT358 – Communication System

Dr. Muzammil Bin Jusoh 1
Digital Pulse Modulation
□Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
□Sample
□ Quantize:
□Types of quantization : Uniform, non-
uniform
□Uniform quantization: midtread, midrise
□Quantization error and SQR
□Non-uniform quantization-> Companding
□Encode
□PCM Transmission
□Line speed
□Bandwidth
□Noise in PCM
□Advantages & Application EKT358 – Communication System
Pulse Modulation
• Analog pulse modulation: Sampling, i.e.,
information is transmitted only at discrete
time instants. e.g. PAM, PPM and PDM
• Digital pulse modulation: Sampling and

quantization, i.e., information is discretized in
both time and amplitude. e.g. PCM

Analog input signal
Sample at discrete time

instants
Analog pulse modulation,

PAM signal
Digital pulse modulation,

PCM code
PCM- PULSE CODE MODULATION
• DEFINITION: Pulse code modulation (PCM) is

essentially analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion
where the information contained in the
instantaneous samples of an analog signal is
represented by digital words in a serial bit
stream.

PCM Block Diagram
• Most common form of analog to digital modulation
• Four step process

1. Signal is sampled using PAM (Sample)
2. Integer values assigned to signal (PAM)
3. Values converted to binary (Quantized)
4. Signal is digitally encoded for transmission
(Encoded)
4 Steps Process

PCM-Sampling, Quantizing, and

Encoding
The PCM signal is generated by carrying out three basic
operations:
1. Sampling
2. Quantizing
3. Encoding
 Sampling operation generates a flat-top PAM signal.
 Quantizing operation approximates the analog values by
using a finite number of levels, L.
 PCM signal is obtained from the quantized PAM signal by
encoding each quantized sample value into a digital word.

PCM as ADC
Analog
 Sampling
Input  Makes the signal discrete in time.
Signal  If the analog input has a bandwidth of
B Hz, then the minimum sample
Sample frequency such that the signal can be
reconstructed without distortion, fs >=
2B
ADC  Quantization
Quantize
111
110
 Makes the signal discrete in
101
100
amplitude.
011
010  Round off to one of q discrete levels.
001
Encode 000
 Encode
 Maps the quantized values to digital
words that are n bits long.
Digital Output
Signal
111 111 001 010 011 111 011

Eeng 360 9
Definition of Quantization
• A process of converting an infinite number of possibilities to a
finite number of conditions (rounding off the amplitudes of
flat-top samples to a manageable number of levels).
• In other words, quantization is a process of assigning the
analog signal samples to a pre-determined discrete levels. The
number of quantization levels, L determine the number of bits
per sample, n.
L  2n n  log 2 L

Quantization
 The output of a sampler is still continuous in amplitude.
– Each sample can take on any amplitude value e.g. 3.752 V,
0.001 V, etc.
– The number of possible values is infinite.
 To transmit as a digital signal we must restrict the number of
possible values.
 Quantization is the process of “rounding off” a sample
according to some rule.
– E.g. suppose we must round to the nearest discrete value,
then:
3.752 --> 3.8 0.001 --> 0

Quantization Example
Analogue signal
Sampling TIMING
Quantization levels.
Quantized to 5-levels
Quantization levels
Quantized 10-levels
12
Types of Quantization
1. Uniform type : The levels of the quantized amplitude are uniformly spaced.
2. Non-uniform type : The levels are not uniform.
13
Types of Uniform Quantization
Midtread: Origin lies in the middle of Midrise: Origin lies in the middle of a
a tread of the staircase like graph in rising part of the staircase like graph
(a), utilized for odd levels (b), utilized for even levels
14
Uniform Quantization
Dynamic Range: Most ADC’s use uniform

(-8, 8) quantizers.
Output sample 7  The quantization levels of a
X Q
5 uniform quantizer are equally
3
spaced apart.
1
 Uniform quantizers are optimal
-8 -6 -4 -2 -1 2 4 6 8
Input sample X when the input distribution is
-3
uniform. When all values
-5
-7
within the Dynamic Range of
Quantization Characteristic
the quantizer are equally likely.
Example: Uniform n =3 bit quantizer
L=8 and XQ = {1,3,5,7}

Eeng 360 15
Dynamic Range (DR)
• Largest possible magnitude/smallest possible magnitude.
Vmax Vmax
DR  
Vmin resolution
DR  2n  1
DR(dB)  20 log( DR)
• Where
• DR = absolute value of dynamic range
• Vmax = the maximum voltage magnitude
• Vmin = the quantum value (resolution)
• n = number of bits in the PCM code
DR(dB)  6n for n > 4

Coding Efficiency
• A numerical indication of how efficiently a
PCM code is utilized.
• The ratio of the minimum number of bits
required to achieve a certain dynamic range to
the actual number of PCM bits used.
Coding Efficiency = Minimum number of bits x 100

Actual number of bits

Example 1
1. Calculate the dynamic range for a linear PCM
system using 16-bit quantizing.
2. Calculate the number of bits in PCM code if

the DR = 192.6 dB. Determine the coding
efficiency in this case.

Cont’d…
 The quantization interval @ quantum
= the magnitude difference between adjacent steps,
v
 The resolution
= the magnitude of a quantum
= the voltage of the minimum step size.
 The quantization error
= the quantization noise
= ½ quantum
= (orig. sample voltage – quantize level)
 The quantization range: is the range of input voltages that
will be converted to a particular code.

Quantization Error
• A difference between the exact value of the analog signal & the
nearest quantization level.
• Quantization error is a round-off error in the transmitted signal that
is reproduced when the code is converted back to analog in the
receiver.
20
Quantization Noise
 The process of quantization can be interpreted as an additive
noise process.
Signal Quantized
X Signal, XQ
Quantization
Noise, nQ
• The signal to quantization noise ratio (SNR)Q=S/N is given as:
Average Power{ X }
( SNR)Q 
Average Power{nQ }
Signal to Quantization Noise Ratio
(SQR)
• The worst possible signal voltage-to-quantization noise
voltage ratio (SQR) occurs when the input signal occurs when
input signal is at its minimum amplitude. SQR is directly
proportional to resolution.
• The worst-case voltage SQR
resolution
SQR(min) 
Qe

Cont'd R =resistance
(ohm)
v = rms signal
voltage
• SQR for a maximum input signal
q = quantization
interval
Vmax
SQR(max)  Qe = quantization
Qe error
• The signal power-to-quantizing noise power ratio
average signal power

SQR( dB)  10 log
average quantization noise power
v2  v2  v
 10 log q2
R
 10 log  q 2   10.8  20 log
( )
12  12  q
R
Example 2
1. Calculate the SQR (dB) if the input signal = 2 Vrms and the
quantization noise magnitudes = 0.02 V.
2. Determine the voltage of the input signals if the SQR =

36.82 dB and q =0.2 V.

Nonuniform Quantization
Many signals such as speech have a nonuniform distribution.
 The amplitude is more likely to be close to zero than to be at higher levels.
Nonuniform quantizers have unequally spaced levels
 The spacing can be chosen to optimize the SNR for a particular type of signal.
Output sample
XQ 6
2 Example: Nonuniform 3 bit quantizer
-8 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6 8
-2
Input sample
X
-4
-6
25
Companding
• Nonuniform quantizers are difficult to make and expensive.
• An alternative is to first pass the speech signal through a
nonlinearity before quantizing with a uniform quantizer.
• The nonlinearity causes the signal amplitude to be
Compressed.
▫ The input to the quantizer will have a more uniform distribution.
• At the receiver, the signal is Expanded by an inverse to the
nonlinearity.
• The process of compressing and expanding is called
Companding.

Cont'd
• The process of compressing and then expanding.
• The higher amplitude analog signals are compressed
prior to transmission and then expanded in receiver.
• Improving the DR of a communication system.

Companding Functions

Method of Companding
 For the compression, two laws are adopted: the -law in US and Japan and
the A-law in Europe.
 -law Vmax ln(1   Vin Vmax ) Vmax= Max uncompressed

 Vout  analog input voltage
ln(1   ) Vin= amplitude of the input
signal at a particular of
AVin Vmax 
 A-law instant time
 Vin 1
 Vmax 0  Vout= compressed output
 1  ln A Vmax A amplitude
Vout  
 1  ln( AVin
Vmax ) 1 Vin
 1
A, = parameter define the
 1  ln A A Vmax amount of compression
 The typical values used in practice are: =255 and A=87.6.

 After quantization the different quantized levels have to be represented in
a form suitable for transmission. This is done via an encoding process.

Cont’d...
μ-law A-law
Example 3
• A companding system with µ = 255 used to
compand from 0V to 15 V sinusoid signal.
Draw the characteristic of the typical system.

Example 4
• A companding system with µ = 200 is used to compand -4V to
4V signal. Calculate the system output voltage for Vin = -4, -2,
0, 2 and 4V.
Equation: Vmax ln(1   Vin Vmax )

Vout 
ln(1   )
Vin (V) -4 -2 0 2 4
Vout (V) -4 -3.48 0 3.48 4

Plot the compression characteristic that will handle
input voltage in the given range and draw an 8 level
non-uniform quantizer characteristic that corresponds
to the given µ.
33
SNR Performance of Compander
• The output SNR is a function of input signal level for uniform

quantizing.
• But it is relatively insensitive for input level for a compander.
• α = 4.77 - 20 Log ( V/x for Uniform Quantizer
rms)
V is the peak signal level and xrms is the rms value
• α = 4.77 - 20 log[Ln(1 + μ)] for μ-law companding

• α = 4.77 - 20 log[1 + Ln A] for A-law companding
Encoding
 The output of the quantizer is one of L possible signal levels.
 If we want to use a binary transmission system, then we need to map
each quantized sample into an n bit binary word.
L  2n n  log 2 L
 Encoding is the process of representing each quantized sample
by n bit code word.
 The mapping is one-to-one so there is no distortion introduced by
encoding.

Eeng 360 35
PCM encoding example
Levels are
encoded using
this table
Table: Quantization levels with belonging code

words
L=8
Chart 2. Process of restoring a signal.

PCM encoded signal in binary form:
Chart 1. Quantization and digitalization of a 101 111 110 001 010 100 111 100 011 010
signal. Signal is quantized in 11 time points & 8 101
quantization segments. Total of 33 bits were used to encode a
signal 36
PCM Example

Nonlinear Encoding
• Quantization levels not evenly spaced
• Same concept as non-uniform quantization
• Reduces overall signal distortion
• Can also be done by companding

PCM Line Speed
• The data rate at which serial PCM bits are clocked out
of the PCM encoder onto the transmission line.
samples bits
line speed  X
second sample
• Where
• Line speed = the transmission rate in bits per
second
• Sample/second = sample rate, fs
• Bits/sample = no of bits in the compressed PCM
code
• Line speed also known as bit rate

Example 5
• For a single PCM system with a sample rate fs
= 6000 samples per second and a 7 bits
compressed PCM code, calculate the line
speed.

Channel Bandwidth
• The channel bandwidth, B required to transmit a
pulse is given by
B  nW
• Where
• κ = a constant with a value between 1 to 2
• n = number of bits
• W = signal bandwidth
• Channel BW = transmission BW

Bandwidth of PCM Signals
 The spectrum of the PCM signal is not directly
related to the spectrum of the input signal.
 The bandwidth of (serial) binary PCM
waveforms depends on the bit rate R and the
waveform pulse shape used to represent the
data.
 The Bit Rate R is
R=nfs
Where n is the number of bits in the PCM

word (M=2n) and fs is the sampling rate.

 For no aliasing case (fs≥ 2B), the
MINIMUM Bandwidth of PCM
Bpcm(Min) is:
Bpcm(Min) = R/2 = nfs//2
The Minimum Bandwidth of nfs//2 is
obtained only when sin(x)/x pulse is
used to generate the PCM waveform.
 For PCM waveform generated by
rectangular pulses, the First-null
Bandwidth is:
Bpcm = R = nfs
Example 6
A signal with a bandwidth of 4.2 MHz is
transmitted using binary PCM. The number of
representation levels is 512. Calculate
(a)The code word length
(b)The bit rate
(c)The transmission bandwidth, assuming that, κ = 2
(d)Find the SQR in dB for the signal given that peak
signal voltage is 5Vp

PCM transmitter/receiver
Bandlimited Flat-top
Analog signal PAM signal
Analog LPF Sampler
signal
BW=B & Hold
Quantizer
Encoder Quantized
PCM No. of levels=M
signal PAM signal
Channel, Telephone lines with regenerative repeater
Reconstruction
Decoder
PCM Quantized LPF
signal PAM signal Analog
Signal
output
Noise in PCM Systems
 Two main effects produce the noise or distortion in the PCM output:
– Quantizing noise that is caused by the M-step quantizer at the PCM transmitter.
– Bit errors in the recovered PCM signal, caused by channel noise and improper
filtering.
• If the input analog signal is band limited and sampled fast enough so that the
aliasing noise on the recovered signal is negligible, the ratio of the recovered
analog peak signal power to the total average noise power is:

46
Dr. Muzammil Bin Jusoh
Cont’d
• The ratio of the average signal power to the average noise power is
– M is the number of quantized levels used in the PCM system.

– Pe is the probability of bit error in the recovered binary PCM signal at the
receiver DAC before it is converted back into an analog signal.

Effects of Quantizing Noise
• If Pe is negligible, there are no bit errors resulting from channel noise and no ISI,
the Peak SNR resulting from only quantizing error is:
• The Average SNR due to quantizing errors is:
• Above equations can be expresses in decibels as,
Where, M = 2n
α = 4.77 for peak SNR
α = 0 for average SNR
48
Virtues & Limitation of PCM
The most important advantages of PCM
are:
– Robustness to channel noise and
interference.
– Efficient regeneration of the coded signal
along the channel path.
– Efficient exchange between BT and SNR.
– Uniform format for different kind of base-
band signals.
– Flexible TDM.
Cont’d…
– Secure communication through the use of
special modulation schemes of encryption.
– These advantages are obtained at the cost of
more complexity and increased BT.
– With cost-effective implementations, the cost
issue no longer a problem of concern.
– With the availability of wide-band
communication channels and the use of
sophisticated data compression techniques,
the large bandwidth is not a serious
problem.

Application:
PCM in Wired Telephony
• Voice circuit bandwidth is 3400 Hz.
• Sampling rate is 8 KHz (samples are 125 s apart) above Nyquist rate,
6.8KHz to avoid unrealizable filters required for signal reconstruction.
• Each sample is quantized to one of 256 levels (n=8).
• The 8-bit words are transmitted serially (one bit at a time) over a digital
transmission channel. The bit rate is 8x8,000 = 64 Kb/s.
• The bits are regenerated at digital repeaters.The received words are

decoded back to quantized samples, and filtered to reconstruct the analog
signal.

PCM in Compact Disk (CD)
• High definition Audio signal bandwidth is band
limited to 15kHz.
• Although the Nyquist rate is only 30kHz, the
actual sampling of 44.1kHz is used to avoid
unrealizable filters required for signal
construction
• The signal is quantized into a rather large
number of levels, L=65,536 (n=16) to reduce
quantization noise
Exercise 1
• A compact disc(CD) records audio signals digitally
by using PCM. Assume the audio signal
bandwidth to be 15 kHz.
– (a) What is the Nyquist rate?
– (b) If the Nyquist samples are quantized into L= 65,
536 levels and then binary coded, determine the
number of binary digits required to encode the
sample.
– (c) Determine the number of binary digits per
second(bits/s) required to encode the audio signals.
53
Exercise 2
• This problem addresses the digitization of a
television signal using pulse code modulation.
The signal bandwidth is 4.5 MHz. Specifications of
the modulator include the following:
– Sampling : 15% in excess of Nyquist rate
– Quantization: uniform with 1024 levels
– Encoding : binary
• Determine (a) sampling rate and (b) minimum
permissible bit rate
54

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PULSE

EKT358 – Communication System

• Digital pulse modulation: Sampling and

EKT358 – Communication System

Sample at discrete time

Analog pulse modulation,

Digital pulse modulation,

• DEFINITION: Pulse code modulation (PCM) is

EKT358 – Communication System

• Most common form of analog to digital modulation

• Four step process

EKT358 – Communication System

EKT358 – Communication System

EKT358 – Communication System

EKT358 – Communication System

EKT358 – Communication System

EKT358 – Communication System

DR(dB)  6n for n > 4

EKT358 – Communication System

Coding Efficiency = Minimum number of bits x 100

EKT358 – Communication System

2. Calculate the number of bits in PCM code if

EKT358 – Communication System

EKT358 – Communication System

• The signal to quantization noise ratio (SNR)Q=S/N is given as:

• The worst-case voltage SQR

EKT358 – Communication System

• The signal power-to-quantizing noise power ratio

average signal power

2. Determine the voltage of the input signals if the SQR =

EKT358 – Communication System

2 Example: Nonuniform 3 bit quantizer

EKT358 – Communication System

EKT358 – Communication System

EKT358 – Communication System

 -law Vmax ln(1   Vin Vmax ) Vmax= Max uncompressed

 The typical values used in practice are: =255 and A=87.6.

EKT358 – Communication System

EKT358 – Communication System

Equation: Vmax ln(1   Vin Vmax )

Vout (V) -4 -3.48 0 3.48 4

EKT358 – Communication System

• The output SNR is a function of input signal level for uniform

• α = 4.77 - 20 log[Ln(1 + μ)] for μ-law companding

EKT358 – Communication System

Table: Quantization levels with belonging code

Chart 2. Process of restoring a signal.

EKT358 – Communication System

• Same concept as non-uniform quantization

• Reduces overall signal distortion

• Can also be done by companding

EKT358 – Communication System

• Line speed also known as bit rate

EKT358 – Communication System

EKT358 – Communication System

EKT358 – Communication System

Where n is the number of bits in the PCM

EKT358 – Communication System

EKT358 – Communication System

Channel, Telephone lines with regenerative repeater

EKT358 – Communication System

– M is the number of quantized levels used in the PCM system.