HVAC DESIGN THUMB RULES

Anuj Bhatia

AIR-CONDITIONING CAPACITY

1) A ton of refrigeration (1TR) signifies the ability of air-conditioning

equipment to extract heat @ 12000 Btu/hr. ASHARE (American Society of
Heating, Refrigeration and Air-conditioning Engineers, Inc) has put together
a table using national average data showing the Sq-ft/Ton as follows:

Sq-ft/Ton High Average Low

Residential 600 500 380

Office 360 280 190

3) Each building is different and the design conditions differ greatly between
regions to region. Factors to consider when figuring the sq-ft/ ton ratio
include:

 Climate conditions (design temperatures)

 Expansive use of glass-particularly in the south and west orientations

 High ceilings-increasing the conditioned volume of the space

 Outside air requirements-especially important in high occupant load

areas like conference rooms and classrooms.

 Heat generating equipment – example computers, copiers, laser

printers, big screen TV’s etc.
 Lighting-especially the extensive use of incandescent and metal halide
lights. Fluorescent lights are more efficient and burn cooler-however;
their ballasts generate a fair amount of heat.

Application Average Load

Residence 400-600 sq. ft. floor area per ton

Apartment (1 or 2 room) 400 sq. ft. of floor area per ton

Church 20 people per ton

Office Building  

Large Interior 340 sq. ft. of floor area per ton

Large Exterior 250 sq. ft. of floor area per ton

Small Suite 280 sq. ft. of floor area per ton

Restaurant 200 sq. ft. of floor area per ton

Bar or Tavern 9 people per ton

Cocktail Lounge 175 sq. ft. of floor area per ton

Computer Room 50 – 150 sq. ft. of floor area per ton

Bank (main area) 225 sq. ft. of floor area per ton

Barber Shop 250 sq. ft. of floor area per ton

Beauty Shop 180 sq. ft. of floor area per ton

School Classroom 250 sq. ft. of floor area per ton

Bowling Alley 1.5 – 2.5 tons per alley

Department Store  
 Application Average Load

Basement 350 sq. ft. of floor area per ton

Main Floor 300 sq. ft. of floor area per ton

Upper Floor 400 sq. ft. of floor area per ton

Small Shop 225sq. ft. of floor area per ton

Dress Shop 280 sq. ft. of floor area per ton

Drug Store 150 sq. ft. of floor area per ton

Factory (precision manufacturing) 275 sq. ft. of floor area per ton

Groceries – Supermarket 350 sq. ft. of floor area per ton

Hospital Room 280 sq. ft. of floor area per ton

Hotel Public Spaces 220sq. ft. of floor area per ton

Motel 400 sq. ft. of floor area per ton

Auditorium or Theatre 20 people per ton

Shoe Store 220 sq. ft. of floor area per ton

Specialty & Variety Store 200 sq. ft. of floor area per ton

Air-conditioning requirements are higher (200 to 400 sq-ft/Ton) for hot and
humid regions and lower (150 – 200 sq-ft/Ton) for cooler places.

Note: The figures above indicative only. It is recommended to always generate

a detailed heating and cooling load calculation (such as using Manual J) for the
building or space in question.
AIR CONDITIONER CAPACITY RANGES

The application and unit capacity ranges are as follows:

1. Room air conditioner - Capacity ranges 0.5 to 2 TR per unit, suitable for
an area of not more than 1000 square feet

2. Packaged unit integral air-cooled condenser - Capacity ranges 3 to 50 TR,

suitable for a maximum an area of 1000 – 10000 square feet

3. Split system with outdoor air-cooled condenser - Capacity ranges 0.5 to

50 TR, suitable for an area of 100 – 10000 square feet

4. Central air-conditioning chilled water system with air cooled condensers

– Capacity ranges of 20 to 400 TR, suitable for an area of 4000 sq-ft and
higher

5. Central air-conditioning chilled water systems with outdoor water

cooled condenser - Capacity ranges 20 to 2000 TR, suitable for an area
of 4000 sq-ft and higher.

COOLING CAPACITY SELECTER FOR HOMES

Air conditioners are sized by cooling capacity in BTU's per hour. To estimate
the optimum capacity for any room, first calculate the size of the area to be
conditioned by multiplying its width times its length, measured in feet. Then
select the cooling capacity needed using the table below, The BTU's associated
with the square footage will give an approximate optimum for the space.
 Cooling Capacity (BTU
Room Area Square Feet
range)

10X15 150 up to 5200

10X20 200 6000

15X20 300 7500

17X20 340 8000

18X25 450 10000

22X25 550 12000

25X28 700 14000

25X32 800 15000

25X34 850 16000

25X40 1000 18000

27.5X40 1100 20000

35X40 1400 24000

37.5X40 1500 28000

40X40 1600 32000

Notes to using the table above

Cooling capacities are based on rooms occupied by two people and having
average insulation, number of windows, and sun exposure.

To adapt the table for varying conditions, modify the capacity figures as
follows:

1. Reduce capacity by 10% if area is heavily shaded.

 2. Increase capacity by 10% for very sunny areas.

3. Add 600 Btu/hr for each additional person if area is occupied routinely
by more than two people.

4. Add 4000 Btu/hr if area to be cooled is an average size kitchen.

5. Add 1000 Btu/hr for every 15 sq ft of glass exposed to sun.

6. Add 3414 Btu/hr for every 1000 watts of electronic equipment.

SUPPLY AIR REQUIREMENTS (MECHANICAL COOLING & HEATING)

Equipment Type Approximate Airflow Example

Rate

Gas/Oil Furnace 1 CFM per 100 Btu/hr 64000 Btu/hr output

output furnace = 640CFM

Electric Furnace 50 – 70 CFM per kW 10kW furnace = 10 x

input 70 = 700CFM

30kW furnace =

30 x 50 = 1500CFM

Electric Air- 400 CFM per ton 30000 Btu/hr cooling

conditioning 30000/12000= 2.5tons

2.5 x 400 = 1000 CFM

Heat Pump 450 CFM per ton 30000 Btu/hr cooling

 Equipment Type Approximate Airflow Example
Rate

30000/12000= 2.5tons

2.5 x 450 = 1125 CFM

Note the values vary significantly with the equipment. CFM/kW tends to be
higher with smallest equipment (5-15kW) and lower as equipment becomes
larger.

In general, the following guidelines may be noted:

 500 CFM/ton for Precision Air Conditioning

 400 CFM/ton for Comfort Cooling Air Conditioning

 200 CFM/ton Dehumidification

SELECTION OF CHILLERS

The following is used as a guide for determining the types of liquid chillers
generally used for air conditioning

 Up to 25 tons (88kW) – Reciprocating

 25 to 80 tons (88 to 280kW) – Reciprocating or Screw

 80 to 200 tons (280 to 700kW) – Reciprocating, Screw or Centrifugal

 200 to 800 tons (700 to 2800kW) – Screw or Centrifugal

 Above 800 tons (2800 kW) – Centrifugal

Circumstances Favouring Air-Cooled or Water Cooled Systems

Capacity Range (TR) Favourable System

40 to 200 Air-cooled chilled water system

(explore the pros and cons of using
multiple DX systems if possible)

200 and above Water-cooled chilled water system

CHARACTERISTICS & TYPICAL APPLICATIONS OF VARIOUS COOLING

SYSTEMS

Air-Cooled Water-Cooled Air-Cooled Water-Cooled

Characteristic Packaged Packaged Chilled-Water Chilled-Water
s Equipment Equipment System System
 

Typically
Building limited to 1-
Unlimited Unlimited Unlimited
Height to 4-story
buildings

Typically cost- Typically cost- Typically cost-

Minimum No limitation
effective for effective for effective for
Cooling for modular
projects >20 projects >100 projects >200
Capacity systems
tons tons tons
 Air-Cooled Water-Cooled Air-Cooled Water-Cooled
Characteristic Packaged Packaged Chilled-Water Chilled-Water
s Equipment Equipment System System
 

Cooling
Low Low-moderate High High
Control

Moderate-
Maintenance Low Moderate High
high

Moderate-
Installed Cost Low High High
high

Operating
Low-moderate
Costs Moderate-
Moderate (climate Low
(energy and high
dependent)
water)

Medium to
1- to 2-story large facilities Medium to
Typical 1- to 2-story buildings in with limited very large
Applications buildings hot/dry access to facilities and
climates water or campuses
maintenance

CONVERTING KW/TON TO COP or EER

If a chiller's efficiency is rated at 1 KW/ton, the COP=3.5 and the EER=12

kW/ton 12 / EER

kW/ton 12 /(COP x 3.412)

EER 12 / (kW/ton)

EER COP x 3.412

COP EER / 3.412

COP 12 / (kW/ton x 3.412)

TYPICAL EFFICIENCIES OF HVAC EQUIPMENT

A gas furnace has 78% AFUE efficiency (heat out delivered / heat in fuel
burned). An air conditioner or heat pump has 10 SEER or EER (Btu/hr/w). The
heating part of a heat pump achieves 6.6 Btu/hr/w heating season HSPF.

RECOMMENDED EFFICIENCY VALUES FOR UNITARY & APPLIED HEAT

PUMPS

Equipment Type Size Category Sub-Category or Required

Rating Condition Efficiency

Air Cooled Split System 13.0 SEER

< 65,000 Btuh
(Cooling Mode) Single Package 13.0 SEER

> 65,000 Btuh and Split System and 11.0 EER

 
< 135,000 Btuh Single Package 11.4 IPLV
 Equipment Type Size Category Sub-Category or Required
Rating Condition Efficiency

> 135,000 Btuh

Split System and 10.8 EER
  and
Single Package 11.2 IPLV
<240,000 Btuh

Split System and 10.0 EER

  > 240,000 Btuh
Single Package 10.4 IPLV

Air Cooled < 65,000 Btuh Split System 8.0 HSPF

(Heating Mode) (Cooling Capacity) Single Package 7.7 HSPF

47°F db/43°F wb
> 65,000 Btuh and 3.4 COP
Outdoor Air
  < 135,000 Btuh
17°F db/15°F wb
(Cooling Capacity) 2.4 COP
Outdoor Air

47°F db/43°F wb
3.3 COP
>135,000 Btuh Outdoor Air
 
(Cooling Capacity) 17°F db/15°F wb
2.2 COP
Outdoor Air

Water Source < 135,000 Btuh 85°F Entering

14.0 EER
(Cooling Mode) (Cooling Capacity) Water

Water-Source < 135,000 Btuh 70°F Entering

4.6 COP
(Heating Mode) (Cooling Capacity) Water
RECOMMENDED CHILLER PERFORMANCE LEVELS

ELECTRIC UTILIZATION INDEX (EUI)

Electric utilization index (EUI) is the ratio of annual electricity consumption in

kWh to the facility’s square footage.

Type of Building Common EUI

Grocery 61.0

Restaurant 38.9

Hospital / Health 16.4

 Retail 12.1

School / College 10.3

Hotel / Motel 8.2

Office 7.5

Misc. Commercial 6.4

Warehouse 6.1

HEAT GAIN FROM OCCUPANTS AT VARIOUS ACTIVITIES (At Indoor

Air Temperature of 78°F)

Activity Total heat, Btu/h Sensible Latent

Adult, male Adjusted heat, Btu/h heat,

Btu/h

Seated at 400 350 210 140

rest

Seated, very 480 420 230 190

light work,
writing

Seated, 520 580 255 325

eating

Seated, light 640 510 255 255

work, typing

Standing, 800 640 315 325

light work or
walking
slowly

Light bench 880 780 345 435

work

Light 1040 1040 345 695

machine
work,
walking
3miles/hr

Moderate 1360 1280 405 875

dancing

Heavy work, 1600 1600 565 1035

lifting

Athletics 2000 1800 635 1165

The values are for 78°F room dry bulb temperature. For 80°F dry bulb
temperature, the total heat remains the same, but the sensible heat value
should be decreased by approximately 8% and the latent heat values increased
accordingly.

HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH BUILDING ASSEMBLY

Typical Conductance U- Values in Btu / (hr square foot °F)

More insulation gives lower conductance. Less insulation gives higher
conductance.

These values include inside and outside air films, typical construction, and
effect of framing members.

 Heat conductance of building wall: Use 0.088 for R-13 insulated house
wall.

 Heat conductance of building floor: Use 0.047 for R-13 insulated house
raised floor.

 Heat conductance of building ceiling: Use 0.031 for R30 insulated ceiling
including attic and roof.

 Heat conductance of building roof: Use 0.031 for R30 insulated roof
including attic and ceiling.

 Heat conductance of window glass: Use 0.65 for dual pane window.

Typical Resistance Values in (hr square foot °F) / Btu

More insulation gives higher resistance. Less insulation gives lower resistance.

These values include inside and outside air films, typical construction, and
effect of framing members.

 Heat resistance of building wall: Use 11.3 for R-13 insulated house wall.

 Heat resistance of building floor: Use 21.4 for R-13 insulated house
raised floor.

 Heat resistance of building ceiling: Use 32.5 for R30 insulated ceiling
including attic and roof.
  Heat resistance of building roof: Use 32.5 for R30 insulated roof
including attic and ceiling.

 Heat resistance of window glass: Use 1.54 for dual pane window.

SOLAR LOADS

Solar – winter

The contribution of solar heat is ignored for the sizing of winter heating
equipment. It is most likely the greatest need for winter heat will occur at a
time when the sun is not out.

Solar – summer

Estimate 60 Btu/hr. / square foot enters every window on average during the
daylight hours. (Although there are about 450 Btu/hr. per square foot of
sunlight, this amount is not entering every window simultaneously, and there
are many other reasons to calculate with the lower rate. For discussion, see
solar through windows.)

This estimate assumes even distribution of windows around all sides of the
building, some overhangs, some window tinting, and curtains that are left
open. For other or non-average window conditions, a better solar estimate
may be necessary.

VENTILATION RECOMMENDATIONS

Application Occupancy CFM/person

(people/1000ft2)
Food and Dining rooms 70 20
Beverage Cafeteria, fast 100 20
Service food

Bars, cocktail 100 30

lounges

Kitchen 20 15
(cooking)

Offices Office space 7 20

Reception areas 60 15

Conference 50 20
rooms

Public Spaces Smoking lounge 70 60

Elevators 30 60

Retail stores, Basement & 20 25

Showrooms Street

Upper floors 20 15

Malls and 70 15
arcades

Smoking 25 25
lounges

Beauty shops 8 20
 Hardware 150 25
stores

Sports and Spectator areas 70 20

Amusements Games rooms 30 15

Playing rooms 100 15

Ballrooms and 150 15

discos

Theatres Lobbies 150 15

Auditorium 50 15

Education Classroom 50 15

Music rooms 20 20

Libraries 150 15

Auditoriums 30 30

Hotels, Motels Bedrooms 50 30

Resorts, Living rooms 120 30
Dormitories Lobbies 30 25

Conference 120 20
rooms

Assembly 20 15
rooms

Dry cleaning, 10 15
laundry
 Gambling 30 15
casinos

Health Care Operating 20 20

Facilities rooms

Patient rooms 20 20

Laboratories 20 30

Procedure 70 15
rooms

Pharmacies 100 20

Physical therapy 100 15

EXHAUST AIR REQUIREMENTS

Exhaust Air Requirements

Janitor Closets 10 Air changes/hr

Locker Rooms 10 Air changes/hr

Toilets 10 Air changes/hr

Mechanical/Electrical Rooms 12 Air changes/hr

Rooms with Steam System 25 Air changes/hr

(Laundry)

Battery Rooms 10 Air changes/hr

 TYPICAL DESIGN VELOCITIES FOR HVAC COMPONENTS

Equipment Velocity, Feet per minute

(FPM)

Intake Louvers Velocity (7000 CFM and 400 FPM

greater)

Exhaust Louvers (5000 CFM and 500 FPM

greater)

Panel Filters

Viscous Impingement 200 to 800 FPM

Panel Filters (Dry-Type, Pleated Media)

Low Efficiency 350 FPM

Medium Efficiency 500 FPM

High Efficiency 500 FPM

HEPA 250 FPM

Renewable Media Filters

Moving-Curtain Viscous Impingement 500 FPM

Moving-Curtain Dry-Media 200 FPM

Electronic Air Cleaners

Ionizing-Plate-Type 300 to 500 FPM

Charged-Media Non-ionizing 250 FPM

Charged-Media Ionizing 150 to 350 FPM

Steam and Hot Water Coils 200 min - 1500 max

Electric Coils

Open Wire Refer to Mfg. Data

Finned Tubular

Dehumidifying Coils 500 FPM

Spray-Type Air Washers 300 to 600 FPM

Cell-Type Air Washers Refer to Mfg. Data

High-Velocity, Spray-Type Air Washers 1200 to 1800 FPM

CENTRIFUGAL FAN PARAMETERS

Centrifugal fans are by far the most prevalent type of fan used in the HVAC
industry today. They are usually cheaper than axial fans and simpler in
construction, but generally do not achieve the same efficiency. Centrifugal fans
consist of a rotating wheel, or "impeller," mounted eccentrically inside a round
housing. The impeller is electrically driven by a motor connected via a belt
drive.

Parameters Backward Curve Forward

Curve

BC BI AF FC

Blades 6-16 6-16 6-16 24-64

 Parameters Backward Curve Forward
Curve

BC BI AF FC

Maximum 78 85 90 70
Efficiency (%)

Speed High High High Low

Cost Medium Medium High Med-Low

Static Very high High Very high Low (5 inch-

Pressure (40in-wg) w.g)

Power Curve Non- Non- Non- Overloading

overloading overloading overloading

Housing Scroll Scroll Scroll Scroll

AXIAL FAN PARAMETERS

Axial fans consist of a cylindrical housing, with the impeller mounted inside
along the axis of the housing. In an axial fan, the impeller consists of blades
mounted around a central hub similar to those of an airplane propeller.
Typically, axial fans are more efficient than centrifugal fans.

Parameters Propellers Tube Axial Vane axial

Blades 2 to 8 4 to 8 5 to 20

Maximum 50 75 85
Efficiency (%)
Parameters Propellers Tube Axial Vane axial

Speed Medium High Very high

Cost Low Medium High

Static Pressure Low (up to ¾ in) Medium High (up to 8 in)

Power Curve Non-overloading Non-overloading Non-

overloading

Housing Annular ring Cylindrical Cylindrical with

guide vanes on
downstream
side

FAN PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIPS

Variable Constant Law Equation

Rotational Speed Fan Size Flow is directly (Q1 / Q2) = (N1 /

Air Density proportional to N2)

speed
Duct System
Pressure is (P1 / P2) = [(N1 /
directly N2)]2
proportional to
speed2

Power is directly (HP1 / HP2) = [(N1

proportional to
Variable Constant Law Equation

speed3 / N2)]3

Fan Size and Tip Speed Flow and power (Q1 / Q2) = (HP1 /
Rotational Speed Air Density is directly HP2) = [(D1 / D2)]2
proportional to
diameter2

Speed is (N1 / N2) = (D2 /

inversely D1)
proportional to
diameter

Pressure remains P1 = P2
constant

Fan Size Rotational Speed Flow is directly (Q1 / Q2) = [(D1 /

Air Density proportional to D2)]2

Diameter2

Flow is directly (P1 / P2) = [(D1 /

proportional to D2)]2
Diameter2

Power is directly (HP1 / HP2) = [(D1

proportional to / D2)]3
Diameter3

Rotational Speed Fan Size Pressure Speed, flow and (N1 / N2) = (Q1 /
and Air Density power are Q2) =
inversely
Variable Constant Law Equation

proportional to (HP1 / HP2) =

square root of [(ρ1 / ρ2)]1/2
density

Air Density Rotational Speed Pressure and (P1 / P2) = (HP1 /

Fan Size power are HP2) = (ρ1 / ρ2) =

directly
Duct System
proportional to
density

Flow remains Q1 = Q2
constant

GUIDE TO AIR OUTLET SELECTION

Tables below provide a general guide for the proper selection of outlets based
on design requirements of CFM per square foot and air changes per hour
(SMACNA 1990).

Floor Space Approximate

CFM per Sq Feet Lps per Sq-m maximum air

Type of Outlet changes/hour
for 10 feet
ceiling

Grilles & 0.6 to 1.2 3 to 6 7

Registers
Slot Diffusers 0.8 to 2.0 4 to 10 12

Perforated Panel 0.9 to 3.0 5 to 15 18

Ceiling Diffuser 0.9 to 5.0 5 to 25 30

Perforated 1.0 to 10.0 5 to 50 60

Ceiling

REFRIGERANTS & ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

In general the comparison of 4 most common refrigerants employed today on

environmental factors is as below:

Criteria HCFC-123 HCFC-22 HFC-134a Ammonia

Ozone 0.016 0.05 0 0

Depletion
Potential

Global 85 1500 1200 0

Warming
Potential
(relative to
CO2)

Phase out 2030 2020 N/A N/A

Date

Occupation Low Low Low Low

Risk
 Criteria HCFC-123 HCFC-22 HFC-134a Ammonia

Flammable No No No Yes

CURRENT & FUTURE REFRIGERANTS

Equipment Type Traditional Replacement

Refrigerant Refrigerants

Rotary Screw - Chiller HCFC-22 R407C, HFC-134a

Scroll Chiller HCFC-22 R407C, R-410A

Reciprocating Chiller HCFC-22 R-407C, R-410A

Absorption Chiller R-718 (water) R-718

Centrifugal Chiller CFC-11, CFC-12 HFC-134a, HCFC-123

Packaged Air HCFC-22 R-407C, R-410A

Conditioners

Heat Pump HCFC-22 R-407C, R-410A

PTAC, PTHP HCFC-22 R-407C, R-410A

Room Air conditioning HCFC-22 R-407C, R-410A

RECOMMENDED SHEET METAL THICKNESS FOR DUCTS

Rectangular Duct Round Duct

Greatest Galvanized Aluminum Diameter Galvanized Aluminum
Dimensio Steel (gauge) Steel (gauge)
n (gauge) (gauge)

Up to 30 24 22 Up to 8 24 22
inch inch

31 – 60 22 20 9 – 24 22 20
inches inches

61 – 90 20 18 25 – 48 20 18
inches inches

91inches 18 16 49 – 72 18 16
and above inches

SHEET METAL THICKNESS & WEIGHTS

Gauge (or gage) sizes are numbers that indicate the thickness of a piece of
sheet metal, with a higher number referring to a thinner sheet. The
equivalent thicknesses differ for each gauge size standard, which were
developed based on the weight of the sheet for a given material. The
Manufacturers' Standard Gage provides the thicknesses for standard steel,
galvanized steel, and stainless steel. The Brown and Sharpe Gage, also known
as the American Wire Gage (AWG), is used for most non-ferrous metals, such
as Aluminium and Brass.
The chart below can be used to determine the equivalent sheet thickness, in
inches or millimetres, for a gauge number from the selected gauge size
standard. The weight per unit area of the sheet can also be seen in pounds
per square foot and kilograms per square meter.

Duct Thickness and Weight – Galvanized Steel

Galvanized Steel Carbon Steel

Gaug kg/m
in mm lb/ft² in mm lb/ft² kg/m²
e ²

8 0.1681 4.270 6.858 33.482 0.1644 4.176 6.707 32.745

9 0.1532 3.891 6.250 30.514 0.1495 3.797 6.099 29.777

10 0.1382 3.510 5.638 27.527 0.1345 3.416 5.487 26.790

11 0.1233 3.132 5.030 24.559 0.1196 3.038 4.879 23.822

12 0.1084 2.753 4.422 21.591 0.1046 2.657 4.267 20.834

13 0.0934 2.372 3.810 18.603 0.0897 2.278 3.659 17.866

14 0.0785 1.994 3.202 15.636 0.0747 1.897 3.047 14.879

15 0.0710 1.803 2.896 14.142 0.0673 1.709 2.746 13.405

16 0.0635 1.613 2.590 12.648 0.0598 1.519 2.440 11.911

17 0.0575 1.461 2.346 11.453 0.0538 1.367 2.195 10.716

18 0.0516 1.311 2.105 10.278 0.0478 1.214 1.950 9.521

19 0.0456 1.158 1.860 9.083 0.0418 1.062 1.705 8.326

20 0.0396 1.006 1.615 7.888 0.0359 0.912 1.465 7.151

 Galvanized Steel Carbon Steel

Gaug kg/m
in mm lb/ft² in mm lb/ft² kg/m²
e ²

21 0.0366 0.930 1.493 7.290 0.0329 0.836 1.342 6.553

22 0.0336 0.853 1.371 6.692 0.0299 0.759 1.220 5.955

23 0.0306 0.777 1.248 6.095 0.0269 0.683 1.097 5.358

24 0.0276 0.701 1.126 5.497 0.0239 0.607 0.975 4.760

25 0.0247 0.627 1.008 4.920 0.0209 0.531 0.853 4.163

26 0.0217 0.551 0.885 4.322 0.0179 0.455 0.730 3.565

Duct Thickness and Weight – Stainless Steel and Aluminium

Stainless Steel Aluminum

Gauge in mm lb/ft² kg/m² in mm lb/ft² kg/m²

0 0.3125 7.938 13.005 63.496 0.3249 8.252 4.585 22.386

1 0.2813 7.145 11.707 57.157 0.2893 7.348 4.083 19.933

2 0.2656 6.746 11.053 53.966 0.2576 6.543 3.635 17.749

3 0.2500 6.350 10.404 50.797 0.2294 5.827 3.237 15.806

4 0.2344 5.954 9.755 47.627 0.2043 5.189 2.883 14.076

5 0.2187 5.555 9.101 44.437 0.1819 4.620 2.567 12.533

6 0.2031 5.159 8.452 41.267 0.1620 4.115 2.286 11.162

 Stainless Steel Aluminum

Gauge in mm lb/ft² kg/m² in mm lb/ft² kg/m²

7 0.1875 4.763 7.803 38.098 0.1443 3.665 2.036 9.942

8 0.1719 4.366 7.154 34.928 0.1285 3.264 1.813 8.854

9 0.1562 3.967 6.500 31.738 0.1144 2.906 1.614 7.882

10 0.1406 3.571 5.851 28.568 0.1019 2.588 1.438 7.021

11 0.1250 3.175 5.202 25.398 0.0907 2.304 1.280 6.249

12 0.1094 2.779 4.553 22.229 0.0808 2.052 1.140 5.567

13 0.0937 2.380 3.899 19.039 0.0720 1.829 1.016 4.961

14 0.0781 1.984 3.250 15.869 0.0641 1.628 0.905 4.417

15 0.0703 1.786 2.926 14.284 0.0571 1.450 0.806 3.934

16 0.0625 1.588 2.601 12.699 0.0508 1.290 0.717 3.500

17 0.0562 1.427 2.339 11.419 0.0453 1.151 0.639 3.121

18 0.0500 1.270 2.081 10.159 0.0403 1.024 0.569 2.777

19 0.0437 1.110 1.819 8.879 0.0359 0.912 0.507 2.474

20 0.0375 0.953 1.561 7.620 0.0320 0.813 0.452 2.205

21 0.0344 0.874 1.432 6.990 0.0285 0.724 0.402 1.964

22 0.0312 0.792 1.298 6.339 0.0253 0.643 0.357 1.743

23 0.0281 0.714 1.169 5.710 0.0226 0.574 0.319 1.557

24 0.0250 0.635 1.040 5.080 0.0201 0.511 0.284 1.385

25 0.0219 0.556 0.911 4.450 0.0179 0.455 0.253 1.233

 Stainless Steel Aluminum

Gauge in mm lb/ft² kg/m² in mm lb/ft² kg/m²

26 0.0187 0.475 0.778 3.800 0.0159 0.404 0.224 1.096

DUCT REINFORCEMENT

Maximum Duct Width (W) and Maximum Reinforcement Spacing (RS)

Duct 26 gauge 24 gauge 22 gauge 20 gauge or

wall heavier

Static W RS W RS W RS W RS
Pressur
e

½ in. wg 20 in. 10 ft. 20 in. NR 20 in. NR 20 in. NR

18 in. NR

1 in. wg 20 in. 8 ft.

14 in. 10 ft. 20 in. 8 ft. 20 in. 10 ft. 20 in. NR

12 in. NR 14 in. NR 18 in. NR

2 in. wg 18 in. 5 ft. 18 in. 8 ft. 18 in. 10 ft. 18 in. NR

12 in. NR 14 in. NR

3 in. wg 12 in. 5 ft. 18 in. 5 ft. 18 in. 5 ft. 18 in. 6 ft.

10 in. 6 ft. 10 in. NR 12 in. NR 14 in. NR

4 in. wg Not Accepted 16 in. 5 ft. 12 in. 6 ft. 12 in. NR

8 in. NR 8 in. NR
DUCTWORK AIR CARRYING CAPACITY

Branch Duct Size Avg. CFM @ Static Duct Cross-section

Pressure

4” Round 30 CFM 12.57 Sq-in

5” Round 60 CFM 19.64 Sq-in

2 ¼” x 10” 60 CFM 23.00 Sq-in

2 ¼” x 12” 70 CFM 27.00 Sq-in

6” Round 100 CFM 28.27 Sq-in

3 ¼” x 10” 100 CFM 33.00 Sq-in

3 ¼” x 12” 120 CFM 39.00 Sq-in

7” Round 150 CFM 38.48 Sq-in

3 ¼” x 14” 140 CFM 46.00 Sq-in

8” Round 200 CFM 50.27 Sq-in

8” x 8” 260 CFM 64.00 Sq-in

10” Round 400 CFM 78.54 Sq-in

12 “ x 8” 440 CFM 96.00 Sq-in

12” 620 CFM 113.09 Sq-in

16” x 8” 660 CFM 128.00 Sq-in

14” Round 930 CFM 153.93 Sq-in

16” Round 1300 CFM 201.06 Sq-in

PIPE SELECTION

Pipe Size Steel Pipe Copper Pipe

Flow Rate Heating Cooling Flow Rate Heating Cooling

BTUH Tons BTUH Tons

1/2" 1.8 GPM 18,000 1.5 Tons 1.5 GPM 15,000 1.3 Tons
BTUH BTUH

3/4" 4 GPM 40,000 3.3 Tons 3.5 GPM 35,000 2.9 Tons
BTUH BTUH

1" 8 GPM 80,000 6.7 Tons 7.5 GPM 75,000 6.3 Tons
BTUH BTUH

1 1/4" 16 GPM 160,000 13.3 Tons 13 GPM 130,000 10.8 Tons

BTUH BTUH

1 1/2" 24 GPM 240,000 20 Tons 20 GPM 200,000 16.7 Tons

BTUH BTUH

2" 47 GPM 470,000 39 Tons 45 GPM 450,000 38 Tons

BTUH BTUH

2 1/2" 75 GPM 750,000 63 Tons 80 GPM 800,000 67 Tons

BTUH BTUH

3" 130 GPM 1,300,000 108 Tons 130 GPM 1,300,000 108 Tons
BTUH BTUH
 4" 270 GPM 2,700,000 225 Tons 260 GPM 2,600,000 217 Tons
BTUH BTUH

5" 530 GPM 5,300,000 442 Tons      

BTUH

6" 850 GPM 8,500,000 708 Tons      

BTUH

 Heating capacity BTUH based on a 20 degree F temperature differential.

Cooling capacity BTUH based on 10 to 16ºF temperature differential.

 Cooling capacity Tons based on a 10 degree F temperature differential

 Selection guide for water systems

 Pipe sized for a maximum of 4 feet/100 feet pressure drop

 GPM = BTUH / 10,000 (for heating units designed for 20ºF)

 Temperature differential = MBH / GPM / 500

 MBH = BTUH X 1,000

 Ton of cooling = 12,000 BTUH

CLEANROOM DESIGN

Cleanroom airflow design conventionally follows the table below to decide on

the airflow pattern, average velocities and air changes per hour. One has to
first identify the level of cleanliness required and apply the table below. Please
note that there is no scientific or statutory basis for this inference other than
the explanation that the table is derived from experience over past two
decades.

Clean room Airflow Type Av. Airflow Air

Class Velocity, fpm changes/hr

1 Unidirectional 70-100 350-650

10 Unidirectional 60-110 300-600

100 Unidirectional 50-90 300-480

1,000 Mixed 40-90 150-250

10,000 Mixed 25-40 60-120

100,000 Mixed 10-30 10-40

SOUND & ACOUSTICS

When trying to calculate the additive effect of two sound sources, use the
approximation as below (note that the logarithms cannot be added directly).

Adding Equal Sound Pressure Levels

Increase in Sound Increase in Sound

Number of Sources Power Level Pressure Level
( dB) dB

2 3 6

3 4.8 9.6

4 6 12

5 7 14
 Increase in Sound Increase in Sound
Number of Sources Power Level Pressure Level
( dB) dB

10 10 20

15 11.8 23.6

20 13 26

Adding Sound Power from Sources at different Levels

Sound Power Level Difference

Added Decibel to the Highest
between
Sound Power Level
two Sound Sources 
(dB)
(dB)

0 3

1 2.5

2 2

3 2

4 1.5

5 1

6 1

7 1
 Sound Power Level Difference
Added Decibel to the Highest
between
Sound Power Level
two Sound Sources 
(dB)
(dB)

8 0.5

9 0.5

10 or more 0

NOISE CRITERIA – OCCUPIED SPACES

Noise Criteria (NC) are the curves based on different dB levels at different
octave bands. Highest curve intercepted is NC level of sound source. See table
below

Occupied Spaces

Area Maximum NC

Conference Rooms NC 35

Corridors NC 40

Lobby NC 40

Large Offices & Computer Rooms NC 40

Small Private Office NC 35

Notes:

 The above NC levels must be attained in all octave bands.

 The above NC levels may be increased for the areas equipped with fan coil
units. The designer shall submit an analysis showing the expected noise
levels for the prior approval of VA.

 The systems must be engineered and the use of acoustic sound lining and
sound attenuators should be considered to achieve the design sound levels.

AVERAGE HEAT CONTENT (BTU) OF FUELS

Fuel Type No. of Btu/Unit

#2 Fuel Oil 140,000/gallon

#6 Fuel Oil 150,500 /gallon

Diesel 137,750/gallon

Kerosene 134,000/gallon

Electricity 3,412/kWh

Natural Gas* 1,025,000/thousand cubic feet

Propane 91,330/gallon

Wood (air dried)* 20,000,000/cord or 8,000/pound

Pellets (for pellet stoves; premium) 16,500,000/ton

Kerosene 135,000/gallon
 Coal 28,000,000/ton

GLAZING PROPERTIES

“U” Value
Material
(Btu / hr-ft2-°F)

Glass, single 1.13

Glass, double glazing .70

Single film plastic 1.20

Double film plastic .70

Corrugated FRP panels 1.20

Corrugated polycarbonate 1.20

Plastic structured sheet

16 mm thick .58

8 mm thick .65

6 mm thick .72

Concrete block, 8 inch .51

ROOF INSULATION

The following table provides some rules-of-thumb on the cost effectiveness of

adding roof insulation to an existing building.
 Is it cost effective to add
Existing Condition
insulation?

No insulation to R-6 Yes, always

Yes, if attic is accessible or if

R-7 to R-19
built-up roof is replaced

Greater than R-19 Not usually cost effective

ENERGY STAR BUILDING LABEL

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the U.S. Department of
Energy (DOE) joined forces in establishing the Energy Star Building Label, a
voluntary, performance based, benchmarking and recognition initiative. In
February 1998, DOE published Energy Star target performance levels for
thermal transmittance and solar heat gain factors for windows, doors and
skylights.

Region Item Energy Star

North Windows and Doors

(Mostly Heating) U factor / SHGC 0.35 / -

Skylights, U factor / 0.45 / -

SHGC

Central (Heating and Windows and Doors

Cooling) U factor / SHGC 0.40 / 0.55

Skylights, U factor / 0.45 / 0.55

Region Item Energy Star

SHGC

South Windows and Doors

(Mostly Cooling) U factor / SHGC 0.75 / 0.40

Skylights, U factor / 0.75 / 0.40

SHGC

LIGHTING WATTAGE ESTIMATION

Location Rule of thumb (Watts/sq-ft)

General Office Areas 1.5 to 3.0

Private 2.0 -5.0

Conference Rooms 2.0 – 6.0

Public Places (Banks, Post offices,

2.0 – 5.0
Courts etc)

Precision Manufacturing 3.0 – 10.0

Computer Rooms/Data Processing

2.0 – 5.0
Facilities

Restaurants 1.5 – 3.0

Kitchens 1.5 – 2.5

Pubs, Bars, Clubhouses, Taverns etc 1.5 – 2.0

 Location Rule of thumb (Watts/sq-ft)

Hospital Patient Rooms 1.0 – 2.0

Hospital General Areas 1.5 – 2.5

Medical /Dental Centres, Clinics 1.5 – 2.5

Residences 1.0 – 4.0

Hotel & Motels (public places and

1.0 – 3.0
guest rooms)

School Classrooms 2.0 – 6.0

Dining halls, Lunch Rooms,

1.5 – 2.5
Cafeterias

Library, Museums 1.0 – 3.0

Retail, Department & Pharmacist

2.0 – 6.0
Stores

Jewellery Showrooms, Shoes,

2.0 – 4.0
Boutiques etc

Shopping Malls 2.0 – 4.0

Auditoriums, Theatres 1.0 – 3.0

Religious Places (Churches) 1.0 – 3.0

Bowling Alleys 1.0 – 2.5

HEAT LOAD FROM OFFICE EQUIPMENT

RATE OF HEAT GAIN FROM MISCELLANEOUS APPLIANCES

SYNCHRONOUS SPEED BY NUMBER OF POLES

 POLES 60 CYCLES 50 CYCLES

2 3600 3000

4 1800 1500

6 1200 1000

8 900 750

10 720 600

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