Quality & Capability

Haritha Saranga
This Session

◼ Concept of quality

◼ Tools to measure deviation in quality

◼ Process control & capability measures

◼ Diagnostic tools for root cause determination

◼ Process capability improvement

What is Quality?
◼ Fitness for use - J. Juran

◼ Conformance to requirements - P. Crosby

◼ Providing full customer satisfaction at the most economical

levels - A. Feigenbaum

◼ Closeness to the target - deviations mean loss to the society

- G. Taguchi
 Deviations from Target Design
Conformance
Quality
Expectation - Experience Quality

Process Product
Capability Quality

Supplier Process Product Customer

Selection Design Design Needs

Production Marketing
& Quality & Design
Control
Types and causes of variability
◼ Normal Variability
 Occurs due to common/random causes
 Need to redesign the system to reduce this

◼ Abnormal Variability
 Occurs due to special/assignable causes
 Can be eliminated easily in the short run
 Quality Improvement Process
◼ Measurement
 Measure Variation Innovate

◼ Analysis
P D
 Analyze Variation
A C
◼ Control
Improve
 Control Variation
◼ Improvement Innovate
 Reduce Variation
P D
◼ Innovation
A C
 Redesign Improve
Product/Process Control
Check Sheet

Type of Problem Number of Complaints

Cost

Response Time

Customization

Service Quality

Door Quality
Pareto Chart
The 80-20 Rule: Vital Few, Trivial Many
Door Quality

is the
◼ Fit and Finish main
culprit

◼ Ease of using the Garage Door

◼ Durability
 Data Collected – 5 times a day
for 20 days
Day
Time 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
9a.m 81 82 80 74 75 81 83 86 88 82
11a.m 73 87 83 81 86 86 82 83 79 84
1p.m 85 88 76 91 82 83 76 82 86 89
3p.m 90 78 84 75 84 88 77 79 84 84
5p.m 80 84 82 83 75 81 78 85 85 80
Day
Time 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
9a.m 86 86 88 72 84 76 74 85 82 89
11a.m 84 83 79 86 85 82 86 85 84 80
1p.m 81 78 83 80 81 83 83 82 83 90
3p.m 81 80 83 79 88 84 89 77 92 83
5p.m 87 83 82 87 81 79 83 77 84 77
 Run Chart

95
Door Weight (kg)

90

85

80

75

70

Time
 Multi-Vari Chart
Variation Within / Between Days
Histogram – The Door Weight Problem

Mean  = 82.5 kg, Standard Deviation  = 4.2 kg

Process Control Charts
Process Measure
◼ Information:
◼ Control Limits:
◼ Decision Rule:
◼ Errors:
Time
Monitor process variability over time
Average + z * Normal Variability
Ignore variability within limits as “normal”
Investigate variation outside as “abnormal”
Type I - False alarm (unnecessary investigation)
Type II - Missed signal (to identify and correct)
Types of Measurement Methods
◼ Variable Based
 Detailed observation of the characteristic (such as length, diameter,
weight)
 measurement will be expensive and more time consuming but will
provide a wealth of information about the process

◼ Attribute Based
 simple clustering of the characteristic into a few categories (such as
good or bad)
 Two frequently used attribute measures are:
◼ Proportion of defects (denoted as p)
◼ Number of defects (denoted as c)
 measurements are easy to make, quick & less expensive, but reveal
very little information about the process
Types of Control Charts

◼ Variable based control charts

X bar and R Charts

◼ Attribute based control charts

P chart
 C chart
 Criterion Notation Explanation
Sub-group size n Each sub-group consists of n
observations
Sub-group measures Variable measures Based on the n observations, each of
▪ Mean - X these measures can be computed for
▪ Range – R each sub-group
Attribute measures
▪ Proportion of defects – p
Notations ▪ No. of defects – c
for control Number of sub- m m measurements are used for
groups establishing the sampling
charts distribution and control chart
Mean of the Variable measures These means are nothing but the

▪ Mean - X = 
sampling distribution X process average (center line) of the
of the sub-groups m
respective control charts formed
using each of these measures.
▪ Range – R = 
R
m
Attribute measures
▪ Proportion of defects –

p=
p
m

▪ No. of defects - c = 
c
m
Standard deviation of Attribute measures Three standard deviations on either
the sampling ▪ Proportion of defects – side of the center line are the control
distribution of the p (1 − p ) limits for the respective charts.
sub-groups p =
n
▪ No. of defects -  c = c
X bar and R Chart
Setting control limits
Computations for the X chart

Process average or center line: X =

X
m

Upper Control Limit : UCL X = X + A2 R

Lower Control Limit: LCL X = X − A2 R

Computations for the R chart

Process average or center line: R=

R
m
Upper Control Limit : UCLR = D4 R
Lower Control Limit: LCL R = D3 R

* The values A 2, D 3 and D 4 can be read directly from the table in the next slide
 Coefficients for computing LCL and UCL in X-
bar and R charts*

Sample size (n) A2 D3 D4

2 1.880 0 3.268
3 1.023 0 2.574
4 0.729 0 2.282
5 0.577 0 2.114
6 0.483 0 2.004
7 0.419 0.076 1.924
8 0.373 0.136 1.864
9 0.337 0.184 1.816
10 0.308 0.223 1.777

Source: Juran, J.M. and F.M. Gryna, (1995), “Quality Planning and Analysis”, Tata McGraw-Hill, 3rd Edition, New Delhi, pp 385.
X Bar ( X ) Chart
UCL

LCL

◼ Average, X = 82.5

◼ Standard Deviation, σ = 4.2

◼ Control Limits = X + 3 / n
= 82.5  3 * (4.2 / 5 ) = [76.87, 88.13]
◼ Process is “in control” (i.e., the mean is stable)
 Range (R) Chart – small samples
20
UCL
15
Range

10
5
0
LCL
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Day
◼ Average Range R = 10.1 kg
◼ Lower Control Limit : D3 *10.1 = 0*10.1=0
◼ Upper Control Limit : D4 *10.1 = 2.144*10.1=21.654
◼ Process is “in control” (i.e., variation is stable)
P chart
Setting the 3-sigma control limits

Computations for p chart

Process average or center line: p=

 p
m

p (1 − p )
Upper Control Limit : UCL p = p + 3
n

p (1 − p )
Lower Control Limit: LCL p = p − 3
n
C Chart
Setting up the 3-sigma control limits

Computations for c chart

Process average or center line: c =

 c
m

Upper Control Limit : UCLc = c + 3 c

Lower Control Limit: LCLc = c − 3 c

Process Capability
◼ Is the ability of the process to meet the
customer requirements
◼ There are a variety of process capability
measures
1. Fraction Defective
2. Process capability ratio
3. Six Sigma capability
Fraction Defective
◼ Suppose, the engineering design specifications
reveal that, the Garage Door weight should lie
between 75 kg and 85 kg

◼ Thus, the Upper Specification limit (US)=85 kg

◼ Lower Specification limit (LS)=75 kg
◼ Fraction Defective = 1 – Fraction of good output
◼ Fraction of good output = Pr(LS ≤ X ≤ US)
Fraction Defective

Specs

Mean  = 82.5, Standard Deviation  = 4.2

Fraction Defective = 26% (Theoretical = 31.3%)
 Process Capability Ratio
Is based on properties of Normal distribution => 99.73% of
output falls within ( + 3)

Cpk = Min[(US - ) / 3, ( - LS) / 3] = 0.198

With centered process: (US - ) = ( - LS)

Cp = (US - LS)/6] = Voice of the Customer

Voice of the Process

= 0.3968
LS  US
Cp = 0.86 1 1.1 1.3 1.47 1.63 2.0
Defects/M = 9.88K 2.7K 966 96 10 1 2 ppb
 Cause - Effect Diagram
Equipment Material

Lack of
Vendor
Maintenance
Specifications
Door Frame
Design
Door Weight
Problem

Documentation Incentives

Feedback Lack of Training

Procedure Personnel
 Scatter Plot
Door weight

Rolling mill Settings

Process Capability Improvement

◼ Proportion of Output Within

Specs: Given a Process in
control with μ = 82.5 and
σ = 4.2, P(Meet Specs) = 0.687
LS 80 82.5
US

◼ Shifting μ to 80 yields
P(Meet Specs) = 0.766

◼ Reducing σ to 2.5 yields

P(Meet Specs) = 0.9544

LS  US
 Six Sigma Capability
(US −  ) (  − LS )
◼ Sigma Measure, S = min( , )
 

◼ If the process is correctly centered at the

middle of specification limits, then sigma
measure
(US − LS )
S=
2
◼ When S = 6, the process is called a 6-sigma
process
 3 Sigma Vs 6 Sigma
6 Sigma curve

-3σ +3σ

3 Sigma curve

LS US

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Fraction Defective & Six Sigma
With a mean
shift of 1.5σ

Sigma S 3 4 5 6
Capability Ratio 1 1.33 1.667 2
Defects (ppm) 66810 6210 233 3.4
Improvement in 10-fold 30-fold 70-fold
fraction defective
 Process shift in Automobile Industry
1.5 SD 1.5 SD

LSL USL

SD = 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
 Defects Per Million Opportunities (DPMO)

◼ Six Sigma allows managers to readily describe

process performance using a common metric:
Defects Per Million Opportunities (DPMO)

Number of defects
DPMO = x 1,000,000
 Number of 
 opportunities  x No. of units
 for error per 
 unit 
The Feedback Control Principle
Disturbances
Normal and Abnormal

Target Settings Process Measure

Performance

Decision Information
Performance Variation
Stable

Unstable

Trend

Cyclical

Shift
Process Control and Improvement

Out of Control
In Control
Improved
UCL

LCL
Quality of Conformance

Cost of Control
$ (Appraisal + Prevention)
Total Cost

Cost of Nonconformance
(Internal + External)

Degree of control
Optimum