Geotechnical Engineering Lab Manual

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FIELD IDENTIFICATION TEST

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1.1 Introduction
The identification is based on Visual- examination and manual test. The first step in any geotechnical
engineering project is to identify and describe the subsoil condition. For example, as soon as a ground is
identified as gravel, engineer can immediately form some ideas on the nature of problems that might be
encountered in a tunneling project. In contrast, a soft clay ground is expected to lead to other types of
design and construction considerations. Therefore, it is useful to have a systematic procedure for
identification of soils even in the planning stages of a project. Soils can be classified into two general
categories: (1) coarse grained soils and (2) fine grained soils. Usually coarse-grained soils are sand,
gravel, cobble and boulder, while fine-grained soils are silt and clay.

1.2 Objective of the test

 To determine the procedures for the description of soils for engineering use.
 To determine the visual manual classification of soil sample.

1.3 Standard Reference

ASTM D 2488 - Standard Practice for Description and Identification of Soils (Visual – Manual
Procedure).

1.4 Apparatus
 Spatula
 Wooden hammer
 Beaker
 Glass rod / Stirrer
 1/8inch diameter steel rod

1.5 Preliminary identification

Soils can be classified into two general categories: (1) coarse grained soils and (2) fine grained soils.
Examples of coarse-grained soils are gravels and sands. Examples of fine-grained soils are silts and
clays. Procedures for visually identifying these two general types of soils are described in the
following sections.

 The soil is fine grained if it contains 50% or more fines.

 The soil is coarse grained if it contains less than 50% fines.
 Identify the color (e.g. brown, gray, brownish gray), odor (if any) and texture (coarse or fine-
grained) of soil.
 Identify the major soil constituent (>50% by weight) using Table 1.1 as coarse gravel, fine
gravel, coarse sand, medium sand, fine sand, or fines.
 Estimate percentages of all other soil constituents using Table 1.1 and the following terms: Trace
- 0 to 5% by weight Few – 5 to 10 % Little - 15 to 25% Some - 30 to 45% Mostly - 50 to 100%
Table 1.1:Percentages of soil constituents

Soil Constituent Size Limits Familiar Example

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 Boulder 12 in. (305 mm) or more Larger than basketball
Cobbles 3 in (76 mm) -12 in (305 mm) Grapefruit
Coarse Gravel % in. (19 mm) — 3 in. (76 mm) Orange or Lemon
Fine Gravel 4.75 mm (No.4 Sieve) — % in. (19 mm) Grape or Pea

Coarse Sand 2 mm (No.10 Sieve) — 4.75 mm (No. 4 Rock salt

Sieve)
Medium Sand 0.42 mm (No. 40 Sieve) — 2 mm (No. 10 Sugar, table salt
Sieve)
Fine Sand* 0.075 mm (No. 200 Sieve) — 0.42 mm (No. Powdered Sugar
40 Sieve)
Fines Less than 0.0075 mm (No. 200 Sieve) -

*Particles finer than fine sand cannot be discerned with the naked eye at a distance of 8 in (20 cm).

 If the major soil constituent is sand or gravel: Identify particle distribution. Describe as well
graded or poorly graded. Well-graded soil consists of particle sizes over a wide range.
Poorly graded soil consists of particles which are all about the same size. Identify particle
shape (angular, sub-angular, rounded, sub-rounded) using Figure 1.2 and Table 1.2.

Figure 1-1: Shapes of coarse-grained soil particles

1.6 Procedure for Identifying Coarse-grained Soils

 The percentages of following particle sizes are estimated:
 Gravel fraction (75 mm – 4.75 mm or approximately 5 mm),
 Sand fraction (4.75 or 5 mm – 75 micron), and
 Soil fines, i.e., silt and clay fraction (smaller than 75 micron).

According to USCS followed by USBR (USA), Army Corps of Engineers ASTM and ASCE:
Range of silt size is 0.002 mm to 0.074 mm and clay particles are smaller than 0.002 mm. (After
S.K.–Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Sixth Revised Edn. 2005, p. 17)
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 If the gravel fraction is greater than sand fraction, identify the soil as "gravel" (G). The gravel fraction
may be further divided into
 coarse gravel (75 mm-20 mm) and
 fine gravel (20 mm-4.75 mm).

 If the gravel fraction is equal to or less than sand fraction, identify the soil as "sand" (S). The sand
fraction may be further divided into
 Coarse sand (4.75 mm – 2 mm),
 Medium sand (2 mm – 425 microns), and
 Fine sand (425 microns – 75 microns)
 Identify the soil further as ―clean gravel‖ or "clean sand" if the percentage of fines is estimated to be
less than 5 percent. Identify it as "gravel with fines" or "sand with fines" if the percentage of fines is
estimated to be more than 15%.
 Classify the "clean gravels" or "clean sand" as follows:
 Identify the soil as well graded gravel (GW), or as a well graded sand (SW) if there is good
representation of all particle sizes.
 Identify the soil as poorly graded gravel (GP), or as a poorly graded sand (SP) if it contains
predominantly of one size (uniformly graded) or it has a wide range of sizes with some
intermediate size(s) obviously missing (gap graded).
1. Classify "gravel with fines" or "sand with fines" as follows: If the other course grained constituent
is less than 15% then:
 Silty gravel (GM) or silty sand (SM) if the fines have little or no plasticity, or
 Clayey gravel (GC) or clayey sand (SC), if the fines are of low to medium or high plasticity.
 If the other course grain constituent is greater than 15%, then the group name shall be a
combination from the two columns below:
2. If the percentage of fine is in between 5~15% then the group name shall be a combination from
the two columns below:
Boundary classifications: Assume the coarser soil first, when there is a choice, complete the
classification and assign the appropriate symbol Then beginning where the choice was made, assume
the finer soil, complete the classification and assign the second group symbol. The examples are as
follows: GW-GP, GM-GC, GW-GM, GW-GC, SW-SP, SM-SC, SW-SM, SW-SC, GW-SW, GP-SP, GM-
SM, GC-SC, SM-ML, SC-CL etc.

1.7 Field Identification of Fine-grained Soils (Silts and Clays)

Select a representative sample of the material for examination. Silt and clay particles are not visible to
naked eyes. The amount of silt and clay in a soil sample can be identified by the following field tests:

 Dispersion Test.
 Dry strength Test.
 Dilatancy Test/Shaking Test/Water Mobility Test.
 Plasticity Test/Toughness Test.
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 1.1.1 Dispersion Test:
 A small quantity of the collected soil sample is dispersed or mixed with water in a glass
cylinder or test tube or beaker and then allowed to settle.

 Silt particles usually settle in 15 to 60 min. whereas clay particles will remain in suspension for at least
several hours or may remain even for several days. If some sand particles are present in sample, then it
settles in 30 to 60 sec.

Figure 1-2:Dispersion Test

1.1.2 Dry Strength Test:

 At first the soil samples are molded. Then prepare four or five pats from this molded sample,
about 25 mm in diameter and 6 mm in thickness.
Dry all the pats completely (either naturally or in an oven).

 Measure its resistance to crushing between the fingers. This resistance, called the dry strength or
crushing strength, is a measure of the plasticity of the soil.

 Crushing of dry clay lumps is relatively difficult, whereas silt lumps break quite easily.

 Test the strength of the dry pats or lumps by crushing between the fingers and note the
strength in accordance with the criteria in Table 1.3.

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 Figure 1-3:Dry Strength Test

Table 1.2: Dry Strength Test (Engineering Properties of Soils Based on Laboratory Testing Prof.
Krishna Reddy, UIC)

Description Criteria
None The dry specimen crumbles into powder with mere pressure of handling
Low The dry specimen crumbles into powder with some finger pressure
Medium The dry specimen break into pieces or crumbles with considerable finger pressure
High The specimen cannot be broken with finger pressure. Specimen will break into pieces
between thumb and hand surface

Very H i g h The specimen cannot be broken between the thumb and hard surface

The presence of high-strength water soluble cementing materials, such as calcium carbonates, may
cause exceptionally high dry strength. The presence of calcium carbonate can usually be deleted from
the intensity of the reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid.

1.1.3 Dilatancy Test:

From the specimen select enough material to mold into a ball about 0.5'' in diameter. Mold the material,
adding water if necessary, until it has a soft, but not sticky, consistency. Smooth the soil ball in the palm
of one hand with the blade of a knife or small spatula. Shake horizontally, striking the side of the hand
vigorously against the other hand several times. Note the reaction of water appearing on the surface of
the soil. Squeeze the sample by closing the hand or punching the soil between the fingers, and note the
reaction in accordance with the criteria in Table 1.4.

Table 1.3:Dilatancy Test

Description Criteria
None No visible change in specimen
Water appears slowly on the surface of the specimen during shaking and does not disappear or disappear
Slow
slowly upon squeezing

Water appears quickly on the surface of the specimen during shaking and disappears quickly upon
Rapid
squeezing

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 1.1.4 Toughness or plasticity Test:
 Following the completion of the dilatancy test, the test specimen is shaped into an elongated pat and
rolled by hand on a smooth surface or between the palms into a thread about 1/8 in, in diameter. If the
sample is too wet to roll easily, it should be spread into a thin layer and allowed to lose some water by
evaporation.

 Fold the sample threads and reroll repeatedly until the thread crumbles at a diameter of about 1/8 in.
The thread will crumble at a diameter of 1/8 in, when the soil is near the plastic limit. Note the pressure
required to roll the thread near the plastic limit.

 Also note the strength of the thread. After the thread crumbles, note the toughness of the
materials during kneading.

 In a word, it is expressed as: clay can be rolled out into small threads (about 1/8in. thickness), whereas
silt is much more difficult to roll into small threads and generally requires more water.

Table 1.4: Toughness Test of plastic thread

Description Criteria
Low Only slight pressure is required to roll the tread near the plastic limit. The thread and
the lump are weak and soft.
Medium Medium pressure is required to roll the tread near the plastic limit. The thread and the
lump have medium stiffness.
High Considerable pressure is required to roll the thread near the plastic limit. The thread
and the lump have very high stiffness.

Table 1.5: Plasticity Test (Engineering Properties of Soils Based on Laboratory Testing Prof. Krishna Reddy,
UIC)

Description Criteria
Non plastic A 1/8 in, thread cannot be rolled at any water content.
Low The thread can barely be rolled and the lump cannot be formed when drier than the plastic limit.

Medium The thread is easily to roll and not much time is required to reach the plastic limit. The thread
cannot be rolled after reaching the plastic limit. The lump crumbles when drier than the plastic
limit.
High It takes considerable time rolling and kneading to reach the plastic limit. The thread can be rolled
several times after reaching the plastic limit. The lump can be formed without crumbling when drier
than the plastic limit.

Combining all four field test result:

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 Table 1.6: : Field Identification of Fine Grained Soil (Engineering Properties of Soils Based on
Laboratory Testing Prof. Krishna Reddy, UIC)

Typical Name Dry strength Dilatancy Toughness of plastic Time to settle in

reaction thread dispersion test
Sandy silt None to very high Rapid Low 30sec to 60 min
Silt Very low to low Rapid Low 15 to 60 min
Clayey silt Low to medium Rapid to slow Medium 15 to several hrs
Sandy clay Low to high Slow to none Medium 30 sec to several hrs
Siltv clav Medium to high Slow to none Medium 15 min to several hrs
Clav High to very high None High Several hours to davs
Organic silt Low to medium Slow Low 15 min to several hrs
Organic clay Medium to very high None High Several hours to days

Table 1.7: Identification of inorganic fine-grained soil (Engineering Properties of Soils Based on
Laboratory Testing Prof. Krishna Reddy, UIC)

Soil Symbol Dry Strength Dilatancy Toughness

ML None or Low Slow to Rapid Low or thread cannot be formed
CL Medium to High None to Slow Medium
MH Low to Medium None to Slow Low to Medium
CH High to Very High None High

Table 1.8: Criteria for describing soil-moisture condition (Engineering Properties of Soils
Based on Laboratory Testing Prof. Krishna Reddy, UIC)

Description Criteria
Dry Soil is dry to the touch, dusty, a clear absence of moisture
Moist Soil is damp, slight moisture ;soil may begin to retain molded form
Wet Soil is clearly wet; water is visible when sample is squeezed
Saturated Water is easily visible and drains freely from the sample

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MOISTURE CONTENT DETERMINATION

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2.1 Introduction
The water content is the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the mass of pore or free water in a given mass of
soil to the mass of the dry soil solids. For many soils, the water content may be an extremely important index
used for establishing the relationship between the way a soil behaves and its properties. The consistency
of a fine-grained soil largely depends on its water content. The water content is also used in expressing
the phase relationships of air, water, and solids in a given volume of soil.

2.2 Objective of the test

 To determine the water (moisture) content of soils.
2.3 Standard Reference
ASTM D 2216 - Standard Test Method for Laboratory Determination of Water (Moisture) Content of Soil
and Rock by mass.

2.4 Apparatus
3. Drying Oven
4. Balance
5. Specimen Container
6. Gloves
7. Spatula

2.5 Test Procedure

8. Record the specimen container and lid number. Determine and record the mass of empty, clean,
and dry container with its lid (M1).
9. Place the moist soil in the specimen container and secure the lid. Determine and record the mass
of the specimen container (now containing the moist soil) with the lid (M2).
10. Remove the lid and place the container (containing the moist soil) in the drying oven that is set
at 105 °C.
11. After the material has dried to constant mass, remove the container from the oven. Carefully but
securely, replace the lid on the container using gloves, and allow it to cool to room temperature.
Determine and record the mass of the container and lid (containing the dry soil) (M3).
12. Empty the moisture can and clean the can and lid.

2.6 Calculation
(1) Determine the mass of soil solids.
MS = M3-M1

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 (2) Determine the mass of water.
MW=M2-M3

(3) Determine the water content.

= 100%

2.7 Data Sheet

Moisture Content Test

BH No: Sample No: Depth:

Sample No 1 2 3
Wt. of the dry can (M1),g 10.0
Wt. of Moist soil + can, (M2),g 35.0
Wt. of dry soil + can, (M3),g 28.0
Wt. of water (Ms),g 7.0
Wt. of solid (Ms),g 18.0
Moisture Content, % 38.89

Sample Calculation-

Mass of soil solid, Ms = 28.0-10.0 =18.0 gm

Mass of pore water, Mw = 35.0-28.0 = 7.0 gm

Water content, W= × 100 = 38.89%

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 Specific Gravity Test

3.1 Introduction
Specific gravity is the ratio of unit weight of soil at a stated temperature to the unit weight of same volume of gas-
free distilled water at the stated temperature. In general, the specific gravity Gs of a material represents the
ratio of the mass of a given volume of that material at a temperature to the mass of an equal volume of
distilled water at the same temperature. It is usually determined by the principle of displacement of water
by soil in a pycnometer.

3.2 Objective of the test

 To determine the specific gravity of soil sample by using pycnometer.

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3.3 Standard References
ASTM D 854-00 – Standard Test for Specific Gravity of Soil Solids by Water Pycnometer.

3.4 Apparatus
13. Pycnometer (volumetric bottle)
14. Balance (0.01g sensitivity)
15. Distilled water,
16. Drying oven,
17. Desiccator,
18. Vacuum source (optional),
19. Funnel,
20. Thermometer,
21. Pipette or medicine dropper,
22. Spoon etc.

3.5 Test Procedure

1. Determine and record the weight of the empty water pycnometer.
2. Measure 50 gm oven dry soil sample.
3. Place the measured 50 gm soil in the pycnometer.
4. Add tap water to fill the about ¾ of the pycnometer.
5. Soak the sample for about 10 minutes.
6. Heat the sample until the water in the soil-water mixture start to boil.
7. Apply vacuum to the contents 10 minutes during boiling of water in soil-water mixture to remove the
entrapped air.
8. Stop the vacuum and carefully remove the line from pycnometer. Fill the pycnometer with water to
the mark and keep for one day to bring it to the room temperature.
9. Next day, take the weight of the pycnometer filled with water and soil sample.
10. Empty the pycnometer and clean it. Then fill it with water to the mark.
11. Determine the weight of the pycnometer and water.
12. Determine the room temperature with thermometer.

3.6 Calculation
The specific gravity of the soil, GT,

=
+

Ws= Wt. of soil

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W1= Wt. of Bottle + water + soil

W2= Wt. of Bottle + water

Specific Gravity of soil at 20 C temperature,

( ) °
=
( ) 20°

Figure 3-1: Picture of a pycnometer

3.7 Result
1. Identification of the soil (material) being tested, such as boring number, sample number, depth,
and test number.
2. Visual classification of the soil being tested (group name and symbol in accordance with Practice
D 2487).
3. Percent of soil particles passing the No. 4 (4.75-mm) sieve.
4. If any soil or material was excluded from the test specimen, describe the excluded material.

3.8 Data sheet

Project Name:

Client:

BH No: Sample No: Depth:

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 Determination no 1 2 3
Wt. of bottle (gm) 96.20
Wt. of bottle + dry soil (gm) 146.30
Wt. of dry soil, Ws (gm) 50.10
Wt. of bottle + water + soil, W1 (gm) 376.50
Wt. of bottle + water. W2 (gm) 344.51
Room Temperature, T C 27
Specific gravity of water, (Gw) at T C 0.9982
Specific gravity of water, (Gw) at 20 C 0.9965
Specific gravity of soil at 20 C 2.77

Sample Calculation:

50.1
= = 2.77
50.1 376.5 + 344.51

0.9982
= 2.77 × = 2.774
0.9965

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Standard Test Methods for Amount of Material in Soils
Finer than the No. 200 (75-μm) Sieve

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4.1 Introduction
These test methods cover determination of the amount of material finer than a 75-μm (No. 200) sieve by
washing. This test identifies soil as coarse grained or fine grained.

4.2 Objective of the test

23. Determination of the amount of material finer than a 75-μm (No. 200) sieve by washing.

4.3 Standard References

ASTM Standards: D 1140 – 00 Standard Test Methods for Amount of Material in Soils Finer than the No.
200 (75-μm) Sieve.

4.4 Apparatus
 Balance—A balance or scale conforming to the requirements of Specification D 4753, readable
(with no estimation) to 0.1 % of the test mass, or better.
 Sieves—A minimum nest of two sieves is recommended, the lower must be a 75-μm (No. 200)
sieve and the upper may be a 425-μm (No. 40) or larger sieve. Chose a sieve with a diameter
sufficient to handle the size of specimen. The 75-μm sieve should have a backing to prevent
damage.
 Oven—An oven of sufficient size, capable of maintaining a uniform temperature of 100 °C
(230°F)

4.5 Test Procedure

24. Dry the test specimen to a constant mass at a temperature of 110 ± 5°C (230 ±9°F) and
determine its mass to the nearest 0.1 g. To determine the balance needed, multiply the mass by
0.001, check the resultant number with Table 1 of Specification D 4753 for the required balance.
25. After preparing the specimen, place the specimen on the uppermost (coarsest) sieve. Wash the
specimen (material) on the sieve(s) by means of a stream of water from a faucet. The material
may be lightly manipulated by hand, to facilitate the washing process, taking care not to lose any
of the retained material. No downward pressure should be exerted on the retained material or
sieve to avoid the forcing of particles through the sieve or damage to the sieve. Continue the
washing until the water coming through the sieve(s) is clear.

4.6 Calculation
Calculate the amount of material passing the 75-μm (No. 200) sieve by washing using the following
formula:

= × 100%

Where, A = percentage of material finer than the 75-μm sieve by washing, nearest 0.1 %

B = original dry mass of sample, gm, and

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C = dry mass of specimen retained on the 75-μm sieve including the amount retained on an upper sieve
after washing, gm.

4.7 Result
1. Report the percentage of material finer than the 75-μm (No. 200) sieve by washing to the nearest
0.1 %.
2. Indicate whether the specimen was soaked and length of time.
3. Indicate method used (A or B).

4.8 Data Sheet

Wash Sieve Analysis for Bore Hole

Weight of
Weight Weight of
Weight Weight of Can + Percentage Percentage of
Serial Depth Can of Dry Washed
of Can Can + Dry Washed of Fines Coarse
No. (m) No. Soil Dry Soil
(gm) Soil (gm) Dry Soil Content (%) Content (%)
(gm) (gm)
(gm)

1 1.5 44 18.54 82.12 63.58 38.26 19.72 69 31

2
3

Sample Calculation-

Here,

B= 63.58 gm

C= 19.72 gm

A= ((63.58-19.72)/63.58) *100%

= 69 %

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 Grain Size Analysis (Sieve Analysis)

5.1 Introduction
Sieve analysis is performed to determine the gradation of different particle sizes of coarse grained soil or
coarser portion of a soil containing both coarse (sand & silt) and fine (silt & clay) particles. A sieve analysis
consists of shaking the soil through a stack of wire screens with openings of known sizes; the definition
of particle diameter for a sieve test is therefore the side dimension of a square hole. It should be noted
that sieve analysis does not give any idea about the shape of the particles. Sieves are made of woven

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wires with square openings. From sieve analysis, information about grain size distribution is obtained.
Besides the gradation curve, other parameters namely uniformity coefficient Cu, coefficient of curvature,
Cc are determined and all this information are used for classification.FM (Fineness Modulus) is
determined from sieve analysis done on fine and coarse aggregates. However, FM has almost no
meaning and use in geotechnical interpretation and understanding of soil behavior as a foundation
material.

5.2 Objective of the test

 To determine the percentage of different grain sizes contained within a soil.
 The mechanical or sieve analysis is performed to determine the distribution of the coarser, larger-
sized particles,
 The hydrometer method is used to determine the distribution of the finer particles.
5.3 Standard references
ASTM D6913-04 Standard Test Methods for Particle-Size Distribution (Gradation) of Soils Using Sieve
Analysis.

5.4 Apparatus
26. ASTM Sieve #4, #8, #16, #30, #50, #100, #200 Pan
27. Lead
28. Brush
29. Container
30. Spoon
31. Bowel
32. Balance
33. Sieve shaker

Table 5.1: Standard Sieve Set

Sieve No Opening Sieve No Opening

4 4.75 35 0.50
5 4.00 40 0.425
6 3.35 45 0.335
7 2.80 50 0.30
8 2.36 60 0.25
10 2.00 70 0.212

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 12 1.70 80 0.180
14 1.40 100 0.150
16 1.18 120 0.125
18 1.00 140 0.106
20 0.85 200 0.075
25 0.71 270 0.053
30 0.60 400 0.0381

5.5 Test Procedure

34. Write down the weight of each sieve as well as the bottom pan to be used in the analysis.
35. Record the weight of the given soil sample.
36. Make sure that all the sieves are clean, and assemble them in the ascending order of sieve
numbers (#4 sieve at top and #200 sieve at bottom). Place the pan below #200 sieve. Carefully
pour the soil sample into the top sieve and place the cap over it.
37. Place the sieve stack in the mechanical shaker and shake for 10 minutes.
38. Remove the stack from the shaker and carefully weigh and record the weight of each sieve with
its retained soil. In addition, remember to weigh and record the weight of the bottom pan with its
retained fine soil.

5.6 Calculation
1. Obtain the mass of soil retained on each sieve by subtracting the weight of the empty sieve from
the mass of the sieve + retained soil, and record this mass as the weight retained on the data
sheet. The sum of these retained masses should be approximately equals the initial mass of the
soil sample. A loss of more than two percent is unsatisfactory.
2. Calculate the percent retained on each sieve by dividing the weight retained on each sieve by
the original sample mass.
3. Calculate the percent passing (or percent finer) by starting with 100 percent and subtracting the
percent retained on each sieve as a cumulative procedure.
4. Calculate Fineness Modulus.

∑( )
. =
100
5. Make a semi logarithmic plot of grain size vs. percent finer.
6. Find the value of D10, D30 & D60
7. Compute Uniformity coefficient, Cu and Coefficient of gradation, Cz for the soil.

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 =
×

5.7 Results
The results of a grain size analysis are usually presented in the form of a distribution curve; this curve is
obtained by plotting diameter against per cent finer. The uniformity of a soil can be expressed by the
uniformity coefficient which is the ratio of D60 to D10. A soil having a uniformity coefficient smaller than
about 2 would be considered ‘uniform’.

There are several grain size classifications , which give good indications of typical particle sizes.

5.8 Data sheet

Project:

Client:

BH no.: Sample no: Depth:

Sieve No Sieve Weight of Weight of Weight of Cumulative Percent Fineness

Size sieve Sieve soil soil retained finer Modulus
(W1) +soil (W2) retained
(Ws)
#4 4.75 327.07 327.07 0.00 0.00 100.0 1.32
#8 2.36 346.27 346.27 0.00 0.00 100.0
#16 1.18 318.70 318.81 0.11 0.11 99.7
#30 0.60 334.89 335.05 0.16 0.27 99.3
#50 0.30 303.98 305.90 1.92 2.19 94.6
#100 0.15 319.66 325.55 5.89 8.08 80.2
#200 0.075 292.92 310.98 18.06 26.14 36.1
Pan --- 282.59 282.59 14.76 40.90 ---

Sample Calculation-

For Sieve #30,

Ws = W2-W1

=335.05-334.89

=0.16

Percent Finer = 100 – Cumulative soil retained

= 100-0.16

=99.3 %

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 SAND
Gravel
Coarse Medium Fine
100

90

80

70
Percent finer (%)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
10 4.75 2 1 0.425 0.1 0.075 0.01
Particle Size (mm)

Figure 5-1:Grain Size Distribution

PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS BY HYDROMETER

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6.1 Introduction
Grain size distribution of soil that contain significant amount of finer particles (silt and clay) cannot be
done by sieve analysis. Hydrometer analysis is required to determine the grain size distribution of the
finer portion. For many natural soils we require both sieve analysis and hydrometer analysis to obtain the
complete gradation of the coarse and fine fraction. In the sieve analysis test we have used #200 sieve
(opening 0.074 mm) as the finest sieve. Now hydrometer analysis will be performed on a fine grained soil
that passes #200 sieve.

According to ASTM D422, when combined analysis is required, the sample is to be divided into two parts.
Sieve analysis is to be done on the coarser portion and hydrometer analysis is to be done into finer
portion. Division of the sample into two portion is to be done by either of #4 (4.75mm), #10 (2.00 mm),
#40 (0.425mm) or #200 (0.074 mm) sieve depending on the specific gravity of particles. However, for our
natural soils separation on #200 sieve will be sufficient.

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6.2 Objective of the test
 The lab test is performed to determine the percentage of different grain sizes contained within a
fine grained soil.
 The hydrometer analysis is performed to determine the distribution of the finer particles.

6.3 Standard References

ASTM D7928-17 Standard Test Method for Particle-size Distribution (Gradation) of Fine-Grained Soils
Using the Hydrometer Analysis.

6.4 Apparatus
 Hydrometer
 Glass measuring cylinder (jar), 1000ml
 Rubber bung for the cylinder (jar)
 Mechanical stirrer
 Weighing balance, accuracy 0.01g
 Oven
 Deflocculating agent.
 Desiccator
 Evaporating dish
 Conical flask or beaker, 1000ml
 Stop watch
 Wash bottle
 Thermometer
 Water bath
 75 µ Sieve
 Scale.

6.5 Theory of hydrometer

The particle size (D) is given by:

Where,

In which,

26 | P a g e
 K= constant
L= effective depth,
t= time in minutes at which observation is taken, reckoned with respect to the beginning of
sedimentation.

The percentage finer than the size D is given by

100 × ×
=

Where,

R= corrected hydrometer reading, Ms = mass of dry soil in 1000ml suspension.

6.6 Procedure of Hydrometer Test

6.7 Part – 1: Calibration of Hydrometer

1. Take about 800ml of water in one measuring cylinder. Place the cylinder on a table and observe the
initial reading.

2. Immerse the hydrometer in the cylinder. Take the reading after the immersion.

3. Determine the volume of the hydrometer (VH) which is equal to the difference between the final and
initial readings. Alternatively weigh the hydrometer to the nearest 0.1g. The volume of the hydrometer
in ml is approximately equal to its mass in grams.
4. Determine the area of cross section (A) of the cylinder. It is equal to the volume indicated between any
two graduations divided by the distance between them. The distance is measured with an accurate
scale.

5. Measure the distance (H) between the neck and the bottom of the bulb. Record it as the height of the
bulb (h).

6. Measure the distance (H) between the neck to each marks on the hydrometer (Rh).
7. Determine the effective depth (L), corresponding to each of the mark (Rh) as
[Note: The factor VH/A should not be considered when the hydrometer is not taken out when taking
readings after the start of the sedimentation at ½, 1, 2, and 4 minutes.]
8. Draw a calibration curve between L and Rh. Alternatively, prepare a table between L and Rh. The curve
may be used for finding the effective depth L corresponding to reading Rh.

27 | P a g e
 Figure 6-1:Hydrometer Method

Figure 6-2: Hydrometer Calibration Chart

6.8 Part – 2: Meniscus Correction

1. Insert the hydrometer in the measuring cylinder containing about 700ml of water.

2. Take the readings of the hydrometer at the top and at the bottom of the meniscus.

3. Determine the meniscus correction, which is equal to the difference between the two readings.

28 | P a g e
4. The meniscus correction Cm is positive and is constant for the hydrometer.
5. The observed hydrometer reading Rh’ is corrected to obtain the corrected hydrometer reading Rh as
= +

6.9 Part – 3: Pretreatment and Dispersion

1. Weigh accurately, to the nearest 0.01g about 50g air-dried soil sample passing 2mm IS sieve, obtained
by riffling from the air-dried sample passing 4.75mm IS sieve. Place the sample in a wide mouthed conical
flask.
2. Add about 150ml of hydrogen peroxide to the soil sample in the flask. Stir it gently with a glass rod for a
few minutes.

3. Cover the flask with a glass plate and leave it to stand overnight.

4. Heat the mixture in the conical flask gently after keeping it in an evaporating dish. Stir the contents
periodically. When vigorous frothing subsides, the reaction is complete. Reduce the volume to 50ml by
boiling. Stop heating and cool the contents.

5. If the soil contains insoluble calcium compounds, add about 50 ml of hydrochloric acid to the cooled
mixture. Stir the solution with a glass rod for a few minutes. Allow it to stand for one hour or so. The
solution would have an acid reaction to litmus when the treatment is complete.

6. Filter the mixture and wash it with warm water until the filtrate shows no acid reaction.

7. Transfer the damp soil on the filter and funnel to an evaporating dish using a jet of distilled water. Use
the minimum quantity of distilled water.

8. Place the evaporating dish and its contents in an oven and dry it at 105 to 110-degree Celsius. Transfer
the dish to a desiccator and allow it to cool.

9. Take the mass of the oven-dried soil after pretreatment and find the loss of mass due to pretreatment.

10. Add 100ml of sodium hexa-metaphosphate solution to the oven – dried soil in the evaporating dish after
pretreatment.

11. Warm the mixture gently for about 10 minutes.

12. Transfer the mixture to the cup of a mechanical mixture. Use a jet of distilled water to wash all traces of
the soil out of the evaporating dish. Use about 150 ml of water. Stir the mixture for about 15minutes.

13. Transfer the soil suspension to a 75 µ IS sieve placed on a receiver (pan). Wash the soil on this sieve
using a jet of distilled water. Use about 500ml of water.

14. Transfer the soil suspension passing 75 µ sieve to a 1000ml measuring cylinder. Add more water to
make the volume exactly equal to 1000ml.

29 | P a g e
15. Collect the material retained on 75 µ sieve. Dry it in an oven. Determine it’s mass. If required, do the
sieve analysis of this fraction.

6.10 Part – 4: Sedimentation Test

1. Place the rubber bung on the open end of the measuring cylinder containing the soil suspension. Shake
it vigorously end-over-end to mix the suspension thoroughly.

2. Remove the bung after the shaking is complete. Place the measuring cylinder on the table and start the
stop watch.

3. Immerse the hydrometer gently to a depth slightly below the floating depth, and then allow it to float freely.

4. Take hydrometer reading (Rh’) after 1/2, 1, 2 and 4 minutes without removing the hydrometer from the
cylinder.
5. Take out the hydrometer from the cylinder, rinse it with distilled water.

6. Float the hydrometer in another cylinder containing only distilled water at the same temperature as that
of the test cylinder.

7. Take out the hydrometer from the distilled water cylinder and clean its stem. Insert it in the cylinder
containing suspension to take the reading at the total elapsed time interval of 8minutes. About 10 seconds
should be taken while taking the reading. Remove the hydrometer, rinse it and place it in the distilled
water after reading.

8. Repeat the step (7) to take readings at 15, 30, 60, 120 and 240minutes elapsed time interval.

9. After 240 minutes (4 hours) reading, take readings twice within 24 hours. Exact time of reading should
be noted.

10. Record the temperature of the suspension once during the first 15minutes and thereafter at the time of
every subsequent reading.

11. After the final reading, pour the suspension in an evaporating dish, dry it in an oven and find its dry
mass.

12. Determine the composite correction before the start of the test and also at 30min, 1, 2 and 4 hours.
Thereafter just after each reading, composite correction is determined.

13. For the determination of composite correction (C), insert the hydrometer in the comparison cylinder
containing 100ml of dispersing agent solution in 1000 ml of distilled water at the same temperature. Take
the reading corresponding to the top of meniscus. The negative of the reading is the composite correction.

30 | P a g e
 Figure 6-3: Downward Movement of Hydrometer

6.11 Data Sheet for Hydrometer Test

Mass of dry soil (Ms)=_______gm

Meniscus correction (Cm)= ______

Specific gravity of solids (G)= ______

31 | P a g e
Table 1: Observation recording sheet

Actual Meniscus Corrected Effective Temperature Zero Corrected Particle Percent

Correction Constant,
Hydrometer Correction, Reading, Depth, L Correction, Correction, Reading, Size, D Finer, P
Factor, α K
Reading, R Cm RCL (cm) CT Cz RCP (mm) (%)
34.0 0.5 34.5 10.60 1.30 0.0 35.3 1.00 0.01265 0.0582 86.3
23.0 0.5 23.5 12.40 1.30 0.0 24.3 1.00 0.01265 0.0445 59.4
17.5 0.5 18 13.30 1.30 0.0 18.8 1.00 0.01265 0.0326 46.0
14.0 0.5 14.5 13.90 1.30 0.0 15.3 1.00 0.01265 0.0236 37.4
12.0 0.5 12.5 14.20 1.30 0.0 13.3 1.00 0.01265 0.0169 32.5
6.12 Result of Hydrometer Test
Particle Size distribution curve can be plotted using particle size and percentage fineness.

6.13 Combined Analysis of Expt. 3 and Expt. 4

For mixture of coarse-grained soil and fine-grained soil the following combined analysis was done:

1. Oven dry the collected disturbed sample and then break up all lumps with the grinding
machine or mechanically by hammer and fingers.
2. Run a sieve analysis as above. Then wash the soil retained on the No. 200 sieve.
3. Weigh out to 0.01g about 50g of the dry soil retained in the pan from the sieve analysis.
4. Run a hydrometer test on the dry soil following above procedure.
5. Compute the particle size and percent finer for the two parts of the combined analysis as
shown in sieve analysis and hydrometer analysis. The weight of dry soil, Ws to be used in
computing the sieve analysis should be the total sample.
6. The corrected percentage, N is found as follows:

= × = % . 200

Where,

N = percentage finer that was computed in Expt. No. 4.

W1= weight of dry soil passing No. 200 sieve.
Ws = total weight of dry soil used for sieve analysis computation.

6.14 Sample Calculation

Actual Hydrometer Reading, R= 34.0

Meniscus Correction, Cm = 0.5

Corrected Reading, RCL= R+ Cm = 34.0+0.5=34.5

Temperature Correction, Ct = 1.30

Zero Correction, Cz = 0.0

Corrected Reading, Rcp = RCL + Ct –Cz = 34.5 +1.3 = 35.8

Particle size, D = k √(L/t) = 0.01265*√ (10.60/0.50) = 0.0582 mm

× × × . × .
Percent finer, P = = .
= 86.3%

33 | P a g e
Atterberg Limit Test

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7.1 Introduction
In the early 1900’s Swedish soil scientist, A. Atterberg, identified different states in cohesive soils depending
on the amount of water in the system. After many experiments, Atterberg came to the realization that at least
two parameters were required to define plasticity of clays – the upper and lower limits of plasticity. He also
defined the plasticity index, which is the range of water content where the soil is plastic, and he was the first
to suggest that it could be used for soil classification. In present geotechnical engineering practice, we usually
use the Liquid Limit (LL or WL), the Plastic Limit (PL or WP), and sometimes the Shrinkage Limit (SL or
Ws).

He defined the LL as that water content at which a standard-groove cut in the remolded soil sample by a
grooving tool will close over a distance of 13 mm (1/2 in) at 25 blows of the LL cup falling 10 mm on a hard
rubber or micarta plastic base. In practice, it is difficult to mix the soil so that the groove closure occurs at
exactly 25 blows, but Casagrande found that if you plot the water contents of tests where you get closure at
other blow counts versus the logarithm of the number of blows, you get a straight line called the flow curve.
Where the flow curve crosses 25 blows, that water content is defined as the liquid limit.

The PL is defined as the water content at which a thread of soil just crumbles when it is carefully rolled out
to a diameter of 3 mm. It should break up into segments about 3 to 10 mm long. If the threads can be rolled
to a smaller diameter, then the soil is too wet (above the PL); if it crumbles before you reach 3mm in diameter,
then you are past the PL.

7.2 Objective of the test

 To determine the plastic and liquid limits of a fine-grained soil.
7.3 Standard references
ASTM D 4318 - Standard Test Method for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils. ASTM D
427-04 - Standard Test Method for Shrinkage Factors of Soils by the Mercury Method.

7.4 Apparatus
 Liquid limit device
 Porcelain (evaporating) dish
 Flat grooving tool with gage,
 Moisture cans
 Balance
 Glass plate
 Spatula
 Wash bottle filled with distilled water
 Drying oven set at 1050 C.

35 | P a g e
7.5 Liquid Limit

7.5.1 Test Procedure

1. Take roughly 3/4 of the soil and place it into the porcelain dish. Assume that the soil was
previously passed through a No. 40 sieve, air-dried, and then pulverized. Thoroughly mix the soil with a small
amount of distilled water until it appears as a smooth uniform paste. Cover the dish with cellophane to prevent
moisture from escaping.

2. Weigh four of the empty moisture cans with their lids, and record the respective weights and can numbers
on the data sheet.

3. Adjust the liquid limit apparatus by checking the height of drop of the cup. The point on the cup that meets
the base should rise to a height of 10 mm. The block on the end of the grooving tool is 10 mm high and
should be used as a gage. Practice using the cup and determine the correct rate to rotate the crank so that
the cup drops approximately two times per second.

4. Place a portion of the previously mixed soil into the cup of the liquid limit apparatus at the point where the
cup rests on the base. Squeeze the soil down to eliminate air pockets and spread it into the cup to a depth
of about 10 mm at its deepest point. The soil pat should form an approximately horizontal surface.

5. Use the grooving tool carefully cut a clean straight groove down the center of the cup. The tool should
remain perpendicular to the surface of the cup as groove is being made. Use extreme care to prevent sliding
the soil relative to the surface of the cup.

6. Make sure that the base of the apparatus below the cup and the underside of the cup is clean of soil. Turn
the crank of the apparatus at a rate of approximately two drops per second and count the number of drops,
N, it takes to make the two halves of the soil pat come into contact at the bottom of the groove along a
distance of 13 mm (1/2 in.). If the number of drops exceeds 50, do not record the number of drops, otherwise,
record the number of drops on the data sheet.

7. Take a sample, using the spatula, from edge to edge of the soil pat. The sample should include the soil
on both sides of where the groove came into contact. Place the soil into a moisture can cover it. Immediately
weigh the moisture can be containing the soil, record its mass, remove the lid, and place the can into the
oven. Leave the moisture can in the oven for at least 16 hours. Place the soil remaining in the cup into the
porcelain dish. Clean and dry the cup on the apparatus and the grooving tool.

8. Remix the entire soil specimen in the porcelain dish. Add a small amount of distilled water to increase the
water content so that the number of drops required closing the groove decrease.

9. Repeat steps six, seven, and eight for at least two additional trials producing successively lower numbers
of drops to close the groove. One of the trials shall be for a closure requiring 25 to 35 drops, one for closure
between 20 and 30 drops, and one trial for a closure requiring 15 to 25 drops. Determine the water content
from each trial by using the same method used in the first laboratory. Remember to use the same balance
for all weighing.

36 | P a g e
 Figure 7-1:Liquid limit Test

Figure 7-2:(a) Grind the soil sample into pieces (b) Mix considerable amount of water with
the soil and make a paste (c) Using the spatula place soil sample to the liquid limit device, cut
the soil sample using grooving tools and give anti clockwise blow. (d) After come in contact
the soil take samples, weight and dry them.

37 | P a g e
7.5.2 Calculation to Determine Liquid Limit

1. Calculate the water content of each of the liquid limit moisture cans after they have been in the oven for
at least 16 hours.

2. Plot the number of drops, N, (on the log scale) versus the water content (w). Draw the best-fit straight line
through the plotted points and determine the liquid limit (LL) as the water content at 25 drops.

Figure 7-3: Plasticity Chart

7.5.3 Data Sheet

Project:

Client:

BH No: 162 Sample no: D-01 Depth: 15.0m

Liquid limit sample data sheet

Test Can no Weight Weight Weight Weight Weight of Moisture No. of

of can of can + of can + of Dry moisture Content, blows
(gm), W1 moist soil dry soil Soil (gm), Ww M
(gm), W2 (gm), W3 (gm), Ws
1 41 8.82 19.72 16.63 7.81 3.09 39.6 16
2 53 7.55 22.93 18.61 11.92 4.32 36.2 20
3 55 7.74 20.70 17.22 9.48 3.48 36.7 27
4 56 7.46 17.51 14.83 11.48 2.68 23.3 37
5 64 8.94 20.73 17.75 15.05 2.98 19.8 40

38 | P a g e
 Bore Hole No.: 162 Sample ID: D-01 Depth: 15.0 m
45

40
Moisture Content (%)

35

30

25

20
10 20 30 40 50
No. of Blows (N)

Liquid Limit, LL (moisture content for 25 blows) = 32.

7.6 Plastic Limit

7.6.1 Test Procedure

1. Weigh the remaining empty moisture cans with their lids, and record the respective weights and can
numbers on the data sheet.

2. Take the remaining 1/4 of the original soil sample and add distilled water until the soil is at a consistency
where it can be rolled without sticking to the hands.

3. Form the soil into an ellipsoidal mass. Roll the mass between the palm or the fingers and the glass plate.
Use sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a thread of uniform diameter by using about 90 strokes per
minute. (A stroke is one complete motion of the hand forward and back to the starting position.) The thread
shall be deformed so that its diameter reaches 3.2 mm (1/8 in.), taking no more than two minutes.

4. When the diameter of the thread reaches the correct diameter, break the thread into several pieces. Knead
and reform the pieces into ellipsoidal masses and re-roll them. Continue this alternate rolling, gathering
together, kneading and re-rolling until the thread crumbles under the pressure required for rolling and can
no longer be rolled into a 3.2 mm diameter thread.

5. Gather the portions of the crumbled thread together and place the soil into moisture can, and then cover
it. If the can does not contain at least 6 grams of soil, add soil to the can from the next trial. Immediately
weigh the moisture can be containing the soil, record it’s mass, remove the lid, and place the can into the
oven. Leave the moisture can in the oven for at least 16 hours.

6. Repeat steps three, four, and five at least two more times. Determine the water content from each trial by
using the same method used in the first laboratory. Remember to use the same balance for all weighing.

39 | P a g e
 Figure 7-4: (a) Ellipsoidal Soil Mass (b) Soil Rolling (c) Soil Gets Crumbled at 1/8 inch

7.6.2 Calculation to Determine Plastic Limit

1. Calculate the water content of each of the plastic limit moisture cans after they have been in the oven for
at least 16 hours.

2. Compute the average of the water contents to determine the plastic limit, PL. Check to see if the difference
between the water contents is greater than the acceptable range of two results (2.6 %).

3. Calculate the plasticity index, PI=LL-PL. Report the liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity
index to the nearest whole number, omitting the percent designation.

7.6.3 Data Sheet

Test Can no Weight Weight Weight Weight Weight of Moisture Average

of can of can + of can + of Dry moisture Content Moisture
(gm) moist soil dry soil Soil (gm) (gm) Content
(gm) (gm)
1 66 8.31 14.41 13.28 4.97 1.13 22.7 22.9
2 67 8.02 14.35 13.16 5.14 1.19 23.2

7.6.4 Sample Calculation

For liquid limit, (From liquid Limit data sheet)

Wt. of dry soil, Ws = W3- W1 = 16.63-8.82= 7.81 gm

40 | P a g e
Wt. of moisture, Ww= W2 – W3 = 19.72 -16.63 = 3.09 gm

Moisture content, M = (3.09/7.81) *100 = 39.6%

Plasticity Index = Liquid Limit – plastic limit = 32 -22.9 =9.1

7.7 Plastic Limit

7.7.1 Test Procedure

Procedure in Brief:
A sample of fine-grained soil is thoroughly remolded with water to approximate the liquid
limit consistency.
The saturated paste is placed into a container of known volume and slowly dried.
The final mass and volume of the solid soil pat are determined.
These measurements are used to compute the SL.

7.7.2 Procedure in Detail (Volume of Wet Soil Pat):

1. Make the soil paste of liquid consistency.

2. Coat the inside of the shrinkage dish with a thin layer of petroleum jelly, silicone grease, or similar lubricant
to prevent the adhesion of the soil to the dish.

3. Determine and record the mass in grams of the empty dish, MT.

4. Place the shrinkage dish in the shallow pan in order to catch any mercury overflow.

5. Fill the shrinkage dish to overflowing with mercury.

6. Remove the excess mercury by pressing the glass plate firmly over the top of the shrinkage dish.

7. Determine the volume of mercury held in the shrinkage dish either by means of the glass graduate or by
dividing the measured mass of mercury by the mass density of mercury (equal to 13.55 Mg/m3).

8. Record this volume in cubic centimeters of the wet soil pat, V.

7.7.3 Procedure in Detail (Volume of Dry Soil Pat)

1. Place the glass cup in the shallow pan in order to catch any mercury overflow.

2. Fill the glass cup to overflowing with mercury.

3. Remove the excess mercury by pressing the glass plate with the three prongs firmly over
the top of the cup.

4. Place the evaporating dish in the shallow pan in order to catch any mercury overflow.
Place the cup filled with mercury in the evaporating dish and rest the soil pat on the
surface of the mercury (it will float).

41 | P a g e
5. Using the glass plate with the three prongs gently press the pat under the mercury and
press the plate firmly over the top of the cup to expel any excess mercury. Observe that
there is no air trapped between the plate and mercury,

6. Measure the volume of the mercury displaced into the evaporating dish either by means
of the glass graduate or by dividing the measured mass of mercury by the mass density of
mercury.

7. Record the volume in cubic centimeters of the dry soil pat, Vo

7.7.4 Calculation to determine shrinkage limit

1. Calculate the water content of each of the liquid limit moisture cans after they have been in the oven for
at least 16 hours.
= × 100

2. Compute Shrinkage Limit by the following equation:

( )
= × 100

Figure 4-5: Atterberg Limit

42 | P a g e
UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST

43 | P a g e
8.1 Introduction
For soils, the undrained shear strength (Su) is necessary for the determination of the bearing capacity of
foundations, dams, etc. The undrained shear strength (Su) of clays is commonly determined from an
unconfined compression test. The undrained shear strength (Su) of a cohesive soil is equal to one half the
unconfined compressive strength (qu) when the soil is under the f = 0 condition (= the angle of internal
friction). The most critical condition for the soil usually occurs immediately after construction, which
represents undrained conditions, when the undrained shear strength is basically equal to the cohesion (c).

8.2 Objective of the test

 To determine the unconfined compressive strength,
 To calculate the unconsolidated undrained shear strength of the clay under unconfined conditions.

8.3 Standard References

ASTM D 2166 - Standard Test Method for Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soil.

8.4 Apparatus
 Compression device
 Load and deformation dial gauges
 Sample trimming equipment
 Balance
 Moisture can.

8.5 Test Procedure

1. Extrude the soil sample from Shelby tube sampler. Cut a soil specimen so that the ratio (L/d) is
approximately between 2 and 2.5. Where L and d are the length and diameter of soil specimen,
respectively.
2. Measure the exact diameter of the top of the specimen at three locations 120° apart, and then make
the same measurements on the bottom of the specimen. Average the measurements and record
the average as the diameter on the data sheet.
3. Measure the exact length of the specimen at three locations 120° apart, and then average the
measurements and record the average as the length on the data sheet.
4. Weigh the sample and record the mass on the data sheet.
5. Calculate the deformation (DL) corresponding to 15% strain (e).

, ∈=

Where, Lo=Original specimen length (as measured in step 3).

44 | P a g e
6. Carefully place the specimen in the compression device and center it on the bottom plate. Adjust
the device so that the upper plate just makes contact with the specimen and set the load and
deformation dials to zero.
7. Apply the load so that the device produces an axial strain at a rate of 0.5% to 2.0% per minute, and
then record the load and deformation dial readings on the data sheet at every 20 to 50 divisions on
deformation the dial.
8. Keep applying the load until (1) the load (load dial) decreases on the specimen significantly, (2) the
load holds constant for at least four deformation dial readings, or (3) the deformation is significantly
past the 15% strain that was determined in step 5.
9. Draw a sketch to depict the sample failure.

Figure 8-1: Different Types of Failure Modes in Unconfined Compression Test

10. Remove the sample from the compression device and obtain a sample for water content
determination. Determine the water content as in Experiment 1.

Figure 8-2:Unconfined Compression Test Machine in Laboratory

45 | P a g e
8.6 Calculation
1. Convert the dial readings to the appropriate load and length units, and enter these values on the
data sheet in the deformation and total load columns. (Confirm that the conversion is done correctly,
particularly proving dial gage readings conversion into load).
2. Compute the sample cross-sectional area

= ×
4
3. Compute the strain,

, ∈=

4. Compute the corrected area,

=
1 ∈
5. Using Ac, compute the specimen stress,

(Be careful with unit conversions and use constant units).

6. Compute the water content, w%.

7. Plot the stress versus strain. Show qu as the peak stress (or at 15% strain) of the test. Be sure that
the strain is plotted on the abscissa.

8.7 Result
The results of an unconfined test can be presented in a summary table and/or by a stress-strain curve. An
indication of typical values of shear strength is given by the following classification of clay based on
consistency:

Consistency of clay Shear strength (lb./sq. ft.)

Very soft <250
Soft 250-500
Medium 500-1000
Stiff 1000-2000
Very stiff 2000-4000
Hard >4000

8.8 Data Sheet

Date:

BH No:

46 | P a g e
Sample No:

Initial Diameter, D = 38.1 mm (1.5 in)

Initial Length, L = 76.2 mm (3 in)

Area, A= 1140.1 mm2

Volume, V= 86875.2 mm3

Dial gauge Constant = 0.01 mm

Can No:

Weight of Can =

Weight of can + moist sample =

Weight of can + dry sample =

Weight of sample=

Weight of water =

Moisture Content =

Wet Unit weight=

Dry unit weight=

Total Axial Axial Axial Stress,

Displacement Corrected Load Dial
Displacement, Strain, Strain, ε Load, P σ=P/Ac
Dial Reading Area, A (mm2) Reading
ΔL (mm) ε=ΔL/L (%) (N) (kPa)
0 0.00 0.0000 0.0000 1140.09 0 0.000 0.000
3 0.03 0.0004 0.0394 1140.539031 0.5 0.000 0.000

Sample Calculation-

Strain, ε = L/L = 0.03/76.2 = 0.0004

.
Correct Area, AC = ∈
= .
= 1140.539031

47 | P a g e
 .
Stress, σ= = .
= 0.000

8.9 Sample Graph:

Bore Hole No.: 01 Sample No.: UD-01 Sample Depth: 2.4 m

320

280

240
Axial Stress (kN/m2)

200

160

120

115.2
80

40

0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0
5.91 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0
Axial Strain (%)
Unconfined Compressive Strength, qu = 115.2 kN/m2
Axial Strain at Failure = 5.91 %
Moisture Content = 20.74 % Checked by
Wet Unit Weight = 18.2 kN/m3
Dry Unit Weight = 15.1 kN/m3

Figure 8-2:Unconfined Compression test Graph

48 | P a g e
Direct Shear Test

49 | P a g e
9.1 Introduction
The shear strength is one of the most important engineering properties of a soil, because it is required
whenever a structure is dependent on the soil’s shearing resistance. The shear strength is needed for
engineering situations such as determining the stability of slopes or cuts, finding the bearing capacity for
foundations, and calculating the pressure exerted by a soil on a retaining wall. The direct shear test is one
of the oldest strength tests for soils. In this laboratory, a direct shear device will be used to determine the
shear strength of a cohesion less soil (i.e. angle of internal friction (). From the plot of the shear stress
versus the horizontal displacement, the maximum shear stress is obtained for a specific vertical confining
stress.

9.2 Objective of the test

 To determine the consolidated-drained shear strength of a sandy to silty soil.

9.3 Standard references

ASTM D 3080 / D3080M - Standard Test Method for Direct Shear Test of Soils Under
Consolidated Drained Conditions.

9.4 Apparatus
 Direct shear device,
 Load and deformation dial gauges,
 Balance.

Figure 9-1:Direct Shear Test Machine of the laboratory

9.5 Test Procedure

1. Weigh the initial mass of soil in the pan.

2. Measure the diameter and height of the shear box. Compute 15% of the diameter in millimeters.
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3. Carefully assemble the shear box and place it in the direct shear device. Then place a porous stone and
a filter paper in the shear box.

4. Place the sand into the shear box and level off the top. Place a filter paper, a porous stone, and a top
plate (with ball) on top of the sand.

5. Remove the large alignment screws from the shear box. Open the gap between the shear box halves to
approximately 0.025 in. using the gap screws, and then back out the gap screws.

6. Weigh the pan of soil again and compute the mass of soil used.

7. Complete the assembly of the direct shear device and initialize the three gauges (Horizontal
displacement gage, vertical displacement gage and shear load gage) to zero.

8. Set the vertical load (or pressure) to a predetermined value, and then close bleeder valve and apply the
load to the soil specimen by raising the toggles witch.

9. Start the motor with selected speed so that the rate of shearing is at as elected constant rate, and take
the horizontal displacement gauge, vertical displacement gage and shear load gage readings. Record the
readings on the data sheet. (Note: Record the vertical displacement gage readings, if needed).

10. Continue taking readings until the horizontal shear load peaks and then falls, or the horizontal
displacement reaches 15% of the diameter.

9.6 Calculation
7. Calculate the density of the soil sample from the mass of soil and volume of the shear box.
8. Convert the dial readings to the appropriate length and load units and enter the values on the data
sheet in the correct locations. Compute the sample area A, and the vertical (Normal) stress σ,

Where: F = normal vertical force, and σ = normal vertical stress

9. Calculate shear stress () using   F/A ,Where F = shear force measured with shear load gage.
10. Plot the shear stress () versus shear displacement.

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 Figure 9-2:Stress vs Displacement Graph
11. Calculate the maximum shear stress for each test.
12. Plot the value of the maximum shear stress versus the corresponding vertical stress for each test,
and determine the angle of internal friction () from the slope of the approximated Mohr-Coulomb
failure envelope.

Figure 9-3:Stress-strain relationship of sand

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9.7 Result
A typical value of ф is approximately 30 .

9.8 Data Sheet:

Date:

BH No:

Sample No:

Initial Diameter, D =

Initial Length, L =

Area, A=

Volume, V=

Dial gauge Constant =

Can No:

Weight of Can =

Weight of can + moist sample =

Weight of can + dry sample =

Weight of sample=

Weight of water =

Moisture Content =

Wet Unit weight=

Dry unit weight=

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 : 10.00
IDR: 512 FDR: 501.5 Weight, P Time (min): 23
Kg

Normal Horizontal Shear

Normal Normal Shear Shear Proving
Stress, Shear Stress,
Dial Displacement Displacement Displacement Ring Dial
σ=P/A Force, Fs τ=Fs/A
Reading (mm) Dial Reading (mm) Reading
(kPa) (kN) (kPa)

40.07 579.0 0.579 0 0.00 0 0.039 15.848

578.0 0.578 5 0.05 2 0.062 25.487

Normal Displacement = 578*0.001= 0.578

Shear displacement = 5*0.01

Horizontal Shear force= 0.0118*2+0.0388=0.062 kN

.
Shear stress, τ = . ×
= 25.487 kPa

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9.9 Sample Graph

Bore Hole No.: 01 Sample No.: D-06 Sample Depth: 9.0 m

250

200187.0
Shear Stress (kN/m2)

150

100.2
100

64.0

50 Normal Stress = 40 kPa

Normal Stress = 80 kPa
Normal Stress =160 kPa

0
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00
Horizontal Displacement (mm)

Shear Strength = 64.0 kPa

Shear Strength = 100.2 kPa
Checked by
Shear Strength = 187.0 kPa

Figure 9-4:Shear Stress vs Displacement Graph

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 Bore Hole No.: 01 Sample No.: D-06 Sample Depth: 9.0 m
200

y = 1.031x + 20.667
180

160

140
Shear Stress (kN/m2)

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Effective Normal Stress (kN/m2)

Cohesion, c = 20.67 kN/m2

Angle of Internal Friction, φ = 46° Checked by

Figure 9-5:Shear Stress vs Normal Stress

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Consolidation Test

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10.1 Introduction
Consolidation is the process of time-dependent settlement of saturated clayey soil when
subjected to an increased loading. In this chapter, the procedure for one-dimensional laboratory
consolidation test will be described, and methods of calculation of obtaining the void ratio-pressure
curve (e vs. log p), pre consolidation pressure (p), and the coefficient of consolidation (Cv) will be
outlined.

10.2 Objective of the test

The test is conducted to determine the settlement due to primary consolidation.
 Rate of consolidation under normal load.
 Degree of consolidation at any time.
 Pressure-void ratio relationship.
 Coefficient of consolidation at various pressures.
 Compression index.
The above information can be used to predict the time rate and extent of settlement of structures founded
on fine-grained soils. It is also helpful in analyzing the stress history of soil.

10.3 Standard References

ASTM D2435-11 Standard test method for Consolidation Test.

10.4 Apparatus
 Consolidation unit
 Specimen trimming device
 Wire saw
 Balance, sensitive to 0.01 g
 Stop watch
 Moisture can
 Oven.

10.5 Test Procedure

1. Prepare a soil sample for the test. The specimen is prepared by trimming an undisturbed sample
obtained in Shelby tubes. The Shelby tube sample should be about ¼ to ½ in. larger in diameter
than the specimen diameter to be prepared for the test.
2. Collect some excess soil that has been trimmed in a moisture can for moisture content
determination.
3. Collect some of the excess soil trimmed in step 1 for determination of the specific gravity of soil
solids, Gs.
4. Determine the weight of the consolidation ring (W1).

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5. Place the soil sample in the consolidation ring. Use the wire saw to trim the specimen flush with the
top and bottom of the consolidation ring. Record the size of the specimen.
6. Determine the weight of the consolidation ring and specimen (W2).
7. Saturate the lower porous stone on the base of the consolidometer.
8. Place the soil specimen in the ring over the lower porous stone.
9. Place the upper porous stone on the specimen in the ring.
10. Attach the top ring to the base of the consolidometer.
11. Add water to the consolidometer to submerge the soil and keep it saturated. In the case of the fixed
ring consolidometer, the outside ring (attached to the top of the base) and the stand pipe connection
attached to the base should be kept full with water. This needs to be done for the entire period of
the test.

Figure 10-1:Consolidation test Machine

12. Place the consolidometer in the loading device.
13. Attach the vertical deflection dial gauge to measure the compression of soil. It should be fixed in
such a way that the dial is at the beginning of its release run. The dial gauge used should be
calibrated to read as 1 small div = 0.0001 in.
14. Apply load to the specimen such that the magnitude of pressure, p, on the specimen is ½ ton/ft2
(47.88 kN/m2). Take the vertical deflection dial gauge reading at the following times, t, counted from
the time of the load application, 0 min, 0.25 min, 1 min, 2.25 min, 4 min, 6.25min, 9 min, 12.25 min,
20.25 min, 25 min, 36 min, 60min, 120min, 240min,480min, 1440min (24 hour).
15. The next day add more load to the specimen such that the total magnitude of the pressure on the
specimen becomes 1 ton/ft2. Take the vertical dial gauge readings at similar time intervals stated in
step 14. Note, here we have p/p =1 (where p = increase of pressure and p = the existing
pressure).

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 16. Repeat step 15 for soil pressure magnitude of 2 ton/ft2 (191.52 kN/m2), 4 ton/ft2 (383.04 kN/m2) and
8 ton/ft2 (766.08 kN/m2), etc. Note: In all cases p/p=1.
17. At the end of the test, remove the soil specimen and determine its moisture content.

10.6 Calculation
13. Collect all the time vs vertical dial readings data.
14. Determine the time for 90% primary consolidation, t90, from each set of time vs vertical dial readings.
15. Determine the time for 50% primary consolidation, t50, from each set of time vs vertical dial readings.
Determine the dial gauge reading corresponding to 50% primary consolidation as
+
=
2
16. Determine the height of solids of the specimen in the mold as

=
( )

Hs = height of solids

Ws = dry weight of soil specimen

D = diameter of the specimen

Gs= specific gravity soil solids

ρ= specific gravity of soil solids.

17. Determine the change in heights, H, of the specimen due to load increments from p to p + p
18. Determine the final specimen height, Ht(f), at the end of the consolidation due to a given loading.
19. Determine the height of voids, H, in the specimen at the end of consolidation due to a given loading,
p, as
20. = ( )

21. Determine the final void ratio at the end consolidation for each loading, p,

22. Determine the average specimen height, Ht(av), during consolidation for each incremental loading.
23. Calculate the coefficient of consolidation, Cv.

Where,

Tv = time factor, T90 =0.848

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 H= maximum length of drainage path =

(since the specimen is drained at the top and bottom)

So,

0.848 × ( )
=
4

24. Calculate the coefficient of consolidation, cv from t50 as,

( ) =
% 0.197 = = ( )
[ ]2

0.197 ( )
=
4

25. Plot a semi logarithmic graph of pressure vs. final void ratio. Pressure p is plotted on the log scale,
and the final void ratio on the linear scale.
26. Calculate compression index, Cc. This is the slope of the linear portion of the e vs log p plot.

27. On the semi logarithmic graph, using the same horizontal scale, plot the values of cv.
28. Determine pre consolidation pressure, pc.

10.7 Result
The results of a consolidation test are often presented by plotting on the same sheet the log of pressure
against the following:

1. Void ratio, e
2. Coefficient of consolidation, cv,
3. Primary compression ratio, r.

10.8 Data Sheet

10.8.1 Data for e-logσ’ Curve

BH No: Sample No: Depth:

Diameter of the ring = Specific Gravity of sample, GS =

Height of the ring = Can No=

Area of specimen, A = Weight of can =

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Height of soil solids. Hs = Weight of can + Dry specimen =

Dial gauge constant = Weight of soil solids, WS =

Stage Consolidation Dial Total Specimen Void Average Average

Pressure, σ’ reading deformation Height, H ratio, Specimen longest
(kPa) after 24 (mm) (mm) ev Height, Hav Drainage
Hours (mm) Path, Hdr
(mm)
0 1000.0 0.000 17.800 0.512 17.800 8.900

Loading

Unloading

Compression Index Swell Index

Pressure Log Void ratio Cc Pressure Log Void ratio CS
(pressure) (pressure)

Sample Calculation-

Wt. of soil solids, Ws= 92.18 gm

.
Height of specimen, H = × ×
= . × . ×
= 1.178 = 17.80

. .
Void ratio, ev= = .
= 0.505

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 Bore Hole No.: 02 Sample No.: D-02
0.60

0.50

0.40
Void Ratio, e

0.30

0.20

0.10

0.00
1.00 10.00 100.00 500.00 1000.00 10000.00
Pressure, σ' (kPa)
Preconsolidation Pressure
= 500.0 kPa

Figure 10-2:e-log σ’ graph

10.8.2 Data for t50 and t90

Consolidation T50 T90

pressure, σ’ Elapsed Dial Deformation Square
Dial
time, t reading (mm) Elapsed Root of
Reading Deformation
after 24 Time, t Elapsed
after 24 (mm)
hours (min) Time, √t
Hours
√(min)
5 0.00 977.0 0.230 0.00 0.00 977.0 0.230
0.10 967.0 0.330 0.10 0.32 967.0 0.330
0.25 966.0 0.340 0.25 0.50 966.0 0.340

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 Bore Hole No.: 02 Sample No.: D-02 Sample Depth: 3.0 m
0.30

0.32
0.320

0.34
Deformation (mm)

0.36

0.364
0.38

0.40

0.407
0.42

0.44
0 1
1.30 10 22.50 100 1000 10000
Elapsed Time, t (min)

Consolidation Pressure, σ' = 3200.0 kN/m2

50% Consolidation time, t50 = 5 min

Figure 10-3: Deformation (mm) vs elapsed time(min)

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 Bore Hole No.: 02 Sample No.: D-02 Sample Depth: 3.0 m
0.20

0.25
Deformation (mm)

0.30

0.35

0.365

0.40

0.45
0 1.20 2 4 6 8 10
√(Elapsed Time, t) √(min)

Consolidation Pressure, σ' = 3200.0 kN/m2

90% Consolidation time, t90 = 5 min Checked by

Figure 10-4:Deformation (mm) vs √(elapsed time)

Sample Calculation-

Calculating Cv using t50,

. ( ) . × .
= = .
= 7.33

Calculating Cv using t90,

0.848 ( ) 0.848 × 0.008826

= = = 10.95
0.0000060312

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Calculating compression index, Cc,

0.415 0.299
= = . = 0.200
.

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Triaxial Shear test

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11.1 Introduction
Triaxial test is more reliable because we can measure both drained and untrained shear strength.

Generally, 1.4” diameter (3” tall) or 2.8” diameter (6” tall) specimen is used. Specimen is encased by a thin
rubber membrane and set into a plastic cylindrical chamber. Cell pressure is applied in the chamber (which
represents σ3’) by pressurizing the cell fluid (generally water).

Vertical stress is increased by loading the specimen (by raising the platen in strain controlled test and by
adding loads directly in stress controlled test, but strain controlled test is more common) until shear failure
occurs. Total vertical stress, which is σ1’ is equal to the sum of σ3’ and deviator stress (σd). Measurement of
σd, axial deformation, pore pressure, and sample volume change are recorded.

Depending on the nature of loading and drainage condition, triaxial tests are conducted in three different
ways.

i. UU Triaxial test

ii. CU Triaxial test

iii. CD Triaxial test.

11.2 Objective of the test

29. To find the shear strength of the soil by undrained Triaxial Test.

11.3 Standard References

ASTM D4761 Standard test method for Undrained triaxial shear test.

11.4 Apparatus

11.4.1 Special
30. A constant rate of strain compression machine of which the following is a brief description of one in
common use.
31. A loading frame in which the load is applied by yoke acting through an elastic dynamometer, more
commonly called a proving ring which used to measure the load. The frame is operated at a constant
rate by a geared screw jack. It is preferable for the machine to be motor driven, by a small electric
motor.
32. A hydraulic pressure apparatus including an air compressor and water reservoir in which air under
pressure acting on the water raises it to the required pressure, together with the necessary control
valves and pressure dials.
33. A triaxial cell to take 3.8 cm diameter and 7.6 cm long samples, in which the sample can be subjected
to an all-round hydrostatic pressure, together with a vertical compression load acting through a
piston. The vertical load from the piston acts on a pressure cap. The cell is usually designed with a
non-ferrous metal top and base connected by tension rods and with walls formed of Perspex.

68 | P a g e
11.4.2 General
i. 3.8 cm (1.5 inch) internal diameter 12.5 cm (5 inches) long sample tubes.
ii. Rubber ring.
iii. An open ended cylindrical section former, 3.8 cm inside diameter, fitted with a small rubber tube
in its side.
iv. Stop clock.
v. Moisture content test apparatus.
vi. A balance of 250 gm capacity and accurate to 0.01 gm.

11.5 Test Procedure

1. The sample is placed in the compression machine and a pressure plate is placed on the top. Care
must be taken to prevent any part of the machine or cell from jogging the sample while it is being
setup, for example, by knocking against this bottom of the loading piston. The probable strength of
the sample is estimated and a suitable proving ring selected and fitted to the machine.
2. The cell must be properly set up and uniformly clamped down to prevent leakage of pressure during
the test, making sure first that the sample is properly sealed with its end caps and rings (rubber) in
position and that the sealing rings for the cell are also correctly placed.
3. When the sample is setup water is admitted and the cell is fitted under water escapes from the beed
valve, at the top, which is closed. If the sample is to be tested at zero lateral pressure water is not
required.
4. The air pressure in the reservoir is then increased to raise the hydrostatic pressure in the required
amount. The pressure gauge must be watched during the test and any necessary adjustments must
be made to keep the pressure constant.
5. The handle wheel of the screw jack is rotated until the underside of the hemispherical seating of the
proving ring, through which the loading is applied, just touches the cell piston.
6. The piston is then removed down by handle until it is just in touch with the pressure plate on the top
of the sample, and the proving ring seating is again brought into contact for the begging of the test.
7. The machine is set in motion (or if hand operated the hand wheel is turned at a constant rate) to
give a rate of strain 2% per minute. The strain dial gauge reading is then taken and the corresponding
proving ring reading is taken the corresponding proving ring chart. The load applied is known. The
experiment is stopped at the strain dial gauge reading for 15% length of the sample or 15% strain.

11.6 Data Sheet

Size of specimen:

Length:

Proving ring constant:

Diameter:

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Initial Area:

Initial Volume:

Strain dial count:

Sample Wet bulk Cell Compressive Strain at Moisture Shear Angle of

no density pressure stress at failure content strength shearing
failure resistance
1
2
3

Cell pressure Strain dial Proving ring Load on Corrected area Deviator stress
reading sample
0.5 0
50
100
150

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