16. Functional Morphology of the adrenal glands. Hormones of the adrenal medulla.

Physiological
effects and control of secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine.

The adrenal glands are small structures attached to the top of each kidney. The human body has two
adrenal glands that release hormones into the bloodstream. The adrenal medulla is part of the adrenal
gland and surrounded by the adrenal cortex. The adrenal medulla produces catecholamines:

Catecholamines include adrenaline, noradrenaline and small amounts of dopamine - these hormones
are responsible for all the physiological characteristics of the stress response (flight or fight).

Morphology:

The adrenal medulla consists of irregularly shaped cells grouped around blood vessels. These cells are
intimately connected with the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). In fact,
these adrenal medullary cells are modified postganglionic neurons, and preganglionic autonomic nerve
fibers lead to them directly from the central nervous system. The adrenal medulla therefore affects
available energy, heart rate, and metabolism.

Epinephrine (adrenaline) and Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

- are two separate but related hormones and neurotransmitters

- serve as chemical mediators, and also convey the nerve impulses to various organs
Adrenaline has many different actions depending on the type of cells it is acting
upon. However, the overall effect is to prepare the body for the ‘fight or flight’ response in
times of stress, ie, for vigorous and/or sudden action.
-  increasing the heart rate, increasing blood pressure, expanding the air passages of the lungs,
enlarging the pupil in the eye (see figure), redistributing blood to the muscles and altering the
body’s metabolism, so as to maximise blood glucose levels (primarily for the brain)

noradrenaline is released mainly from the nerve endings of the sympathetic nervous
system (as well as in relatively small amounts from the adrenal medulla)

- There is a continuous low level of activity of the sympathetic nervous system resulting in
release of noradrenaline into the circulation
- is stored in small amounts in adrenal tissue. Its major site of storage and release are the
neurons of the sympathetic nervous system
- Thus, norepinephrine functions mainly as a neurotransmitter with some function as a
hormone (being released into the bloodstream from the adrenal glands).
- exerts its effects by binding to α- and β-adrenergic receptors (or adrenoceptors, so named
for their reaction to the adrenal hormones) in different tissues
- In the blood vessels, it triggers vasoconstriction (narrowing of blood vessels), which
increases blood pressure
- Blood pressure is further raised by norepinephrine as a result of its effects on the heart
muscle, which increase the output of blood from the heart
- Norepinephrine also acts to increase blood glucose levels and levels of circulating free
fatty acids

- Secretion control: ratio of secreted Adrenaline : Noradrenaline = 4 : 1

,but ratio in blood plasma = 1 : 5 (since noradrenergic postganglionic

sympathetic nerve endings release additional Noradrenaline)

o Adrenaline is mainly released in response to stressful events to prepare the body for the
‘fight or flight’ response
o  activation of nerves connected to the adrenal glands, which trigger the secretion of
adrenaline
o  this happens within 2 to 3 minutes of the stressful event being encountered
o When the stressful situation ends, the nerve impulses to the adrenal glands are
lowered, meaning that the adrenal glands stop producing adrenaline.

o More detailed, if necessary:

o Acetylcholine from preganglionic sympathetic neurons leads by activation of nicotin
receptors to Ca2+ influx to chromaffin cells and exocytosis of Adrenaline and
noradrenaline