Computer-Aided Design 37 (2005) 609–622

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3D virtual apparel design for industrial applications

Marzia Fontanaa,*, Caterina Rizzib, Umberto Cuginic
a
Dipartimento di Ingegneria, Università di Parma, 43100 Parma, Italy
b
Dipartimento di Ingegneria, Università di Bergamo, 24044 Dalmine (BG), Italy
c
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Meccanica, Politecnico di Milano, 20156 Milano, Italy
Accepted 15 September 2004

Abstract
The integration of physics-based models within CAD systems for garment design leads to highly accurate cloth shape results for virtual
prototyping and quality evaluation tasks. To this aim, we present a physics-based system for virtual cloth design and simulation expressly
conceived for design purposes. This environment should allow the designer to validate her/his style and design option through the analysis of
garment virtual prototypes and simulation results in order to reduce the number and role of physical prototypes. Garment shapes are
accurately predicted by including material properties and external interactions through a particle-based cloth model embedded in constrained
Newtonian dynamics with collision management, extended to complex-shaped assembled and finished garments. Our model is incorporated
within a 3D graphical environment, and includes operators monitoring the whole design process of apparel, e.g. panel sewing, button/dart
insertion, multi-layered fabric composition, garment finishings, etc. Applications and case studies are considered, with analysis of CAD
modelling phases and simulation results concerning several male and female garments.
q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Physics-based modelling; Virtual simulation; Cloth design; Newtonian dynamics

1. Introduction different 2D/3D modelling tools. In this paper we concentrate

Cloth modelling has recently become a topic of large
investigation in computer graphics. Laboured garments and
drapes, in fact, appear as key visualization elements in
animation movies, cartoons, etc. Further, a strong impulse
comes from clothing and fabric furniture industries, where
CAD tools are increasingly demanded to assist the whole
cloth design process. Until now, different systems for virtual
cloth modelling have been developed by scientific or
commercial communities with different points of view and
goals. Fig. 1 portrays a high level classification of some tools
used in computer graphics and industrial design. Software
products for cloth visualization aim at producing images that
look real for computer animation applications, while systems
for garment design focus on definition/construction of
detailed garment shapes for real manufacture, according to
* Corresponding author. Tel.: C39 052 190 5844; fax: C39 052 190
5705.
E-mail address: marzia.fontana@kaemart.it (M. Fontana).
our attention on methodologies and applications related to
garment design.
The skilled-labour dependent nature of apparel and
upholstery design did not have encouraged to a large
extent of automation and software programs. Although
several 2D CAD systems exist on the market for pattern
drafting, sizing, nesting, and marker making, together with
CAM modules for cutting/sewing, clothing companies
complain about the lack of effective garment-oriented
CAD packages to design directly in 3D and provide the
modellist with tools for shape modelling and cloth
behaviour simulation.
Regardless of the application domain, however,
packages for both animation and design need an underlying
cloth model representation. Several geometry- or physics-
based methods for cloth modelling have been proposed
since the 1980s (Section 3). Differently from purely
geometrical cloth’s descriptions, adequate for computer
animation tasks, physics-based models interpret cloth
within a physical framework, by considering internal

0010-4485//$ - see front matter q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.cad.2004.09.004
610 M. Fontana et al. / Computer-Aided Design 37 (2005) 609–622
Fig. 1. Garment virtual modelling.
mechanical properties and interactions with an external
environment. The inclusion of a physical substrate ensures a
more accurate shape description, suitable to a new
conception of CAD systems targeted to apparel or
functional cloth design endowed with simulation capabili-
ties. A current drawback of most of the existing commercial
CAD systems is, on the contrary, that they still rely on mere
geometrical modelling and do not provide virtual simulation
tools (with few exceptions, e.g. the DressingSim module
used by Investronica Sistemas [1]).
As a contribution to overcome this drawback, a CAD-
oriented physics-based system for virtual cloth design and
simulation is here presented. The system is expressly
conceived for design purposes, differently from other
research prototypes or systems currently available on the
market mainly oriented to visualization for movies, or
virtual catwalks (e.g. TopixCloth, plug-in for Softimage
V3.7 from Topix [2], or MayaCloth, plug-in for Maya from
AliasjWaveFront [3]). In the effort of getting closer to
cloth manufacturers’ needs, our main target has been the
development of a tool to assist the designer/modellist
throughout the cloth design process, managing aspects
related to the various garments’ structural parts (e.g.
shoulder paddings, collars) and to manufacturing processes
that influence the final garment shape. This environment
should allow the designer to validate his/her style and
design options through the analysis of garment virtual
prototypes and simulation results and, definitively, reduce
the number and role of physical prototypes. As a validation
of our approach, we analyse and simulate several female/
male garment models presenting different levels of design
complexities (e.g. skirts, dresses, jackets, etc.) whose
models have been directly provided by clothing
companies.
2. Apparel as a design process
Apparel appears in a large variety of shapes, textile
materials, as the result of several design, manufacturing and
finishing operations. We started our collaborations with
Italian and European clothing companies1 (Section 7), by
examining the apparel life cycle from earlier conceptual
design up to finished products ready for purchase. 2D CAD
systems and automated cutting/sewing devices are used in
most cases; nevertheless, human factors such as creativity of
stylists and technical skills of dressmakers for made-to-
measure clothing still continue to play a fundamental role,
making difficult a complete automation of the whole apparel
design process.
Such a difficulty is reinforced by several levels of design
complexities that have to be faced while defining shape,
assembly rules and aesthetic/functional details of real
tailored garments. A classical man jacket, for instance, is
a significant example of a particularly complex and
laboured garment (Fig. 2). It originates from a large number
of 2D panels corresponding to front, back and side parts,
sleeves, collar, lapel, etc. with complex-shaped borders
connected with each other by means of various darts and
single/multiple seams. Sewings needs to be carefully
applied with different degrees of tightness/looseness,
depending on position, function and shape curvature effects
(e.g. roller), by considering possible differences in the
length and shape of borders that have to be joint together,
with definition of markers and constraint points. Besides,
1
F.lli Corneliani, garment manufacturer, team coordinator of the italian
TA2000 Consortium, and Confecciones Mayoral (ES), GFT Donna (IT),
garment manufacturers cooperating in the framework of the Brite-Euram
MASCOT project [4].
 M. Fontana et al. / Computer-Aided Design 37 (2005) 609–622
Fig. 2. A man’s jacket: 2D patterns with specification of fabric layers, seams, darts and pleats.
the peculiar volume and shape consistency characterizing
male jackets is also the result of a multi-layered fabric
composition, following well-defined rules, with fabric
layers varying in number among the several jacket’s
structural parts and made of different heavier or lighter
materials (cotton, canvas, linen, horsehair, etc.). Internal
smooth linings, reducing friction against the body, give
stability to jacket’s shape, together with reinforcements and
tassels. Fig. 2 shows the multi-layered structures of jacket’s
front part and sleeve as well as types of sewing lines.
Stuffings for shoulders are placed to strategically correct
shape proportions along horizontal directions, emphasizing
larger shoulder-torso parts typical of male clothing. Small
aesthetic and functional features enrich the structure of the
jacket, e.g. buttons, hooks, external and internal pockets and
other finishings. Last but not least, the different sculptured
or smooth volume effect can be controlled/forced by
starching, pleating, ironing, and other several mechanical/
chemical actions inducing permanent or semi-permanent
deformations on jacket’s fabrics.
Is it possible to reconstruct such a complexity in a fully
computerized way? This is, evidently, a very cumbersome
and ambitious task. In spite of garments’ variety in shape,
611
material, function, and differentiation of each functional
garment template (jacket, skirt, shirt, etc.) due to different
human body sizes, aesthetic factors and fashion trends, there
exist, nevertheless, design/manufacturing stages generally
valid in all cases.
Stylists’ and manufacturers’ way of working can be, in
fact, analysed as a 3D-to-2D-to-3D process. Typically, the
process starts with stylists’ creative ideas originating
essentially from a 3D shape (a 3D conceptual idea in
mind or a completed garment already existing) from which
2D information are extracted, such as 2D patterns with
corresponding fabric layers (3D-to-2D stage). 2D fabric
panels are then assembled and sewn together to get a 3D
garment shape as close as possible to the original stylist’
idea (2D-to-3D stage). Procedurally, of course, a more
detailed sequence of design/manufacturing steps has to be
considered, involving aspects such as:
† definition of a reference 3D shape;
† 2D patterns definition/extraction (2D models);
† definition of assembly rules (seams, darts, overlapped
layers, buttons, etc.);
† definition of materials;
612 M. Fontana et al. / Computer-Aided Design 37 (2005) 609–622
† cut of 2D fabrics (single layers);
† assembly of fabrics by layer overlapping;
† assembly of one- or multi-layered fabrics along border
parts (seams, darts, etc.);
† mechanical/chemical post-treatment of textiles by shape
deformation (pleats, ironing, etc.);
† 3D configuration/placement over supports or external
objects (e.g. mannequins);
† analysis of the final garment’s shape and behaviour in the
3D physical space.
These common aspects help us in defining a computer-
assisted garment design methodology (Section 4). Our most
significant contribution, in particular, is the definition of a
design and simulation approach that takes into account the
following key-issues of cloth’s tri(bo)logy:
† Shape and structure, i.e. geometrical description of
garments and relation among parts (e.g. 2D profiles of
basic patterns and multi-layered parts);
† Material, i.e. mechanical/physical properties (e.g. KES
or FAST measurements of fabric types);
† Process, i.e. design and manufacturing processes
(e.g. ironing, starching).
Our approach leads to the definition of a complete
physics-based model for real apparel that incorporates the
above-mentioned aspects, aiming at reaching accurate
simulation of garments’ shape and behaviour for virtual
prototyping tasks.
3. Cloth models
As already mentioned, a key issue is the choice of a
model for cloth, capable of accurately reproducing/simulat-
ing its behaviour. Theoretical studies about fabrics and
fibers started about 60 years ago, mainly funded by the
textile industry, from Peirce’s precursor work in 1937 [5] up
to De Jong et al.’s model in the 1970s [6]. We focus here on
computable cloth models proposed in computer graphics
literature since the mid 1980s.
Among the so-called geometry-based approaches, the
well-known model from Weil in 1986 [7] describes drapes
through nets of suspended catenary curves. Agui et al. in
1990 [8] model the effect of a bended elbow, while Hinds
et al. [9] in 1990–1992 realize one of the first cloth-oriented
CAD prototypes, based on surface modelling.
More accurate than geometrical representations, physics-
based approaches analyse cloth’s behaviour through laws
derived from discrete dynamics, structural mechanics,
elasticity theories, fluid dynamics, or other physical
contexts. Cloth is dealt as a dynamic system with material
properties, subjected to internal interactions, and interacting
with an external environment through external forces/
stresses and response to collisions with obstacles.
Continuous physics-based models interpret cloth in the
framework of continuum mechanics, by means of PDE
problems generally solved by finite element or finite
difference methods. In the classical model by Terzopoulos
et al. proposed in 1986–1988 [10], cloth’s surface
deformation is described by continuous Lagrange equations,
as set of displacements from equilibrium positions. In 1996,
Eischen et al. [11] provide a non-linear shell description for
cloth. In 1990, Aono [12] simulates the effect of wrinkle and
drape propagation, considering the elasticity theory and
D’Alembert principle, from a modified wave equation
propagating in a continuous elastic medium. In 1993–1996,
Li et al. [13] describe cloth immersed in a quasi-stationary
viscous fluid by combining Navier-Stokes equations and
Terzopoulos’ model.
In discrete physics-based approaches, cloth objects are
modelled as systems composed of a finite number of
mechanical constitutive elements subjected to certain
static/dynamic laws. In the so-called particle-based
model, constitutive elements are particles with mass,
subjected to internal and external forces, subjected to
Newtonian dynamics (force-based formulation), or assum-
ing certain potential energies, e.g. Lagrangian formulations
(or other energy-based approaches). Compared to continu-
ous formulations based on deformable thin shells or plate
beams, particle-based cloth models tend to represent more
efficiently the highly flexible behaviour of cloth and its
characteristic ‘discrete’ structure as a woven or knitted
(or, in some cases, unorganized) plot of interlaced threads
(Fig. 3).
Feynman in 1986 [14] introduces the first discrete model
representing woven patterns by structured rectangular grids
defined from orthogonal weft and warp directions (Fig. 4).
Breen and House since early 1990s [15] have been
investigating in detail textiles as particle-based
‘mechanisms’ having certain internal stretching/repelling,
bending and trellising energies. In the period 1995–1997,
Provot [16] proposes a Newtonian mass-spring model in
which the elastic forces act not only along the weft and warp
directions, but also along the two diagonal directions of each
cell in the textile grid. At MiraLab laboratory in Geneve,
since the early 1990s, Magnenat-Thalmann and Volino have
been working intensively on virtual clothing [17,18].
Initially influenced by the continuous Terzopoulos’
Fig. 3. Thread patterns: (A) knitted; (B) woven.
 M. Fontana et al. / Computer-Aided Design 37 (2005) 609–622
Fig. 4. Particle-based model of a woven fabric.
approach, successively they have worked mainly on
particle-based systems, more efficient for non-linear defor-
mations in dynamic cases, using non-structured triangular
meshes with continuum mechanics applied inside each
element. Various techniques for collision detection and
response have been also investigated, to face constrained
cloth motion in complex scenes including obstacles and
self-collisions [17]. Since the mid 1990s, work on structured
thin deformable bodies, e.g. fabrics and other objects, has
been carried out at IMAG institute in Grenoble, by Desbrun,
Cani and others [19].
Recently, a great interest has been addressed to efficient
time discretization techniques for ODE systems generated
by cloth’s particle-based grids. Explicit low-order methods
(e.g. explicit Euler) used in the past are progressively
substituted by implicit and semi-implicit schemes (e.g.
modified backward Euler’s, multi-step BDF techniques), as
indicated by Baraff and Witkin in 1998 [20], Kang et al. in
2000 [21], Etzmuss et al. in 2001 [22,23], and Choi and Ko
in 2002 [24].
Hybrid models, with mixed geometric and physical
representations in cloth sub-regions, have been also
investigated. Earlier examples come from Rudomin [25]
and Kuni et al. [26] in 1990, Taillefeur [27] and Tsopelas
[28] in 1991, and Dhande et al. [29] in 1993. Among the
most recent results, in 2001 Oshita et al. [30] and Kang et al.
[31] propose coarse particle-based models coupled with
smoothing and interpolation techniques, and in 2002
Rudomin et al.’s consider [32] mesh particles moving
accordingly to sets of ellipsoids defining mannequins.
For a detailed overview on physics-based modelling, see
[33,34]. What emerges from the above-mentioned cloth
models, is that they describe cloth either as a geometrical
Fig. 5. Particle grid associated to fabric panels with internal force characterization.
613
entity or a mechanical system, and in some cases with
significantly accurate results [18,24], but very rarely cloth is
interpreted in its ‘construction process’, from single fabric
pieces up to complex-shaped assembled and finished textile
configurations, such as garments. This is a key issue:
although advanced virtual reality environments have been
proposed [18–22], these are not intended for design
applications, i.e. are not capable to drive the garment
design and manufacturing process as it is conceived for real
production tasks. Our intention is rather focusing on this
integration between particle-based modelling and CAD for
clothing production, as shown in the following sections.
4. The proposed garment physics-based model
4.1. Particle-based characterization of fabrics
We start by analysing single fabric pieces, as basic
garment model’s components. Woven textiles are con-
sidered, the most frequently used for apparel, with threads
interlaced according to orthogonal warp and weft directions.
Fabric’s flattened pieces, assumed to have a negligible
thickness, are defined as open connected and bounded
figures F 4R2 with piecewise regular boundary vF (e.g. a
closed loop of linear or curved edges). Similarly to Breen’s
and Provot’s models [15,16], we associate a particle-based
model to each fabric panel by defining a structured 2D grid
with coordinate lines along warp and weft directions.
Interior particles correspond to grid nodes, located at
warp/weft thread intersections, while boundary particles
are defined from intersection of grid lines with the fabric
border. Triangular elements are derived from the original
rectangular grid cells by adding diagonals (Fig. 5).
Differently from Breen’s energy-based method, we
here use a Newtonian force-based approach, as it can
include more general dynamic problems where parts can
be in motion (e.g. walking virtual humans, etc). Taking
into account the woven structure of threads, we consider
(Fig. 5):
stretching/repelling forces, acting to keep particles at
rest distance (modelled as Kelvin visco-elastic springs
directed along weft and warp);
614 M. Fontana et al. / Computer-Aided Design 37 (2005) 609–622
bending forces, acting out-of-plane to keep objects flat
(derived by torsional moments normal to their support
surface);
trellising (or shear) forces, acting to contrast any
possible deformation of the rectangular cells (mod-
elled again through torsional moments normal to the
cells).
Internal force values are estimated from global mechan-
ical data for textiles, measured by the Kawabata Evaluation
System (KES), a well-known system for ‘hand evaluation’,
based on experimental stress and deformation tests
performed on rectangular fabric samples with fixed dimen-
sions [35]. KES data are provided for a large list of textiles
typically used for clothing, and quantitatively measure
properties about geometry and mass (fabric thickness and
mass density); tension (elongation percentage, tensile
deformation energy and tensile resilience); compression
(shortening percentage, compression deformation energy
and resilience); bending (bending rigidity and correspond-
ing hysteresis); shear (shear stiffness and corresponding
hysteresis); superficial behaviour (averaged friction coeffi-
cient, standard deviation and rugosity).
Panel’s grid topology characterizes the internal discrete
force distribution, computed as linear or torsional springs
connecting neighbouring particles. Extracting from KES
data’s list the elongation ratio 3 under tension, the bending
rigidity B[N$m] and the shear stiffness T [N/(m$deg)] for a
certain fabric, easy computations provide
fS hy Bp
kS Z ; kT Z Thx hy cos wm ; kB Z
3 hx 180
as estimates of constants for spring forces, torsional
moments for trellising and bending, respectively [36]. In
Eq. (1), fS is the magnitude of a known imposed force
causing fabric’s tension or compression, wm is the (known)
angle of bending, while hx and hy are grid cell sizes along
weft and warp.
4.2. From fabrics to a assembled garments
A garment is the complex-shaped result of assembled
components. Thus, geometrical abstraction helps us in
defining a full garment shape as a non-manifold entity
GZ g Fi0 g g Ai ;
iZ1;.;nF iZ1;.;nA
where Fi0 are fabric layers in a spatial configuration (2D
manifolds in R3) deformed from original flat panels Fi 4R2 ,
for iZ 1; 2; .; nF , and Ai 4R3 are geometries of rigid or
soft accessories, for iZ 1; 2; .; nA . When existing, the latter
are generally few small entities, such as buttons, hooks,
zips, paddings, etc. Fabric layers are sewn with each other
along portions of their boundary, or can be partially or
totally attached in interior sub-regions with other layers (as
it occurs in multi-layered parts as shown in Fig. 2).
Under these premises, after particle grid discretization of
single fabric layers, we consider further steps to generate a
complete physics-based model for garment simulation. On
this regard, we define proper algorithms that locally
modify/upgrade the geometry and topology of cloth’s
particle meshes, with corresponding physical discrete
parameters (e.g. particle masses and internal force distri-
bution) with the purpose of emulating the following design
steps: (a) sewing of fabric panels; (b) insertion of darts;
(c) fabric layer overlapping; (d) insertion of buttons and
hooks; (e) placement of the full garment model in a 3D
space configuration (e.g. on a mannequin).
4.2.1. Sewing of fabric panels
For sake of simplicity, we interpret sewings as unary or
binary relationships, i.e. involving one or two fabric
components at a time, and locally preserving the
‘manifold’ behaviour. These constitute the basic ‘single’
seams considered in garment manufacturing. In our future
analysis, however, we will consider also multiple sewings,
involving more than two components at a time.
The counterpart of a sewing process from the point of
view of the particle-based model is essentially a mesh
assembly operation accompanied with local modification of
the internal force distribution. We implemented a new
algorithm in which panels’ particle grids to be connected
pairwise can present a different number of particles at the
border segments (we say that the two grids can be locally
non-conformal), as it occurs in case of particle resolution
different between one panel and the other, or in case of
(1) complex-shaped borders.
Fig. 6 shows a sewing process between two particle grids
of fabric panels.
Suppose a panel A has to be sewn with a panel B:
geometrically, this corresponds to know a one-to-one
mapping between a given sequence of consecutive oriented
border segments of panel A with another given sequence of
oriented border segments of panel B. The sewing algorithm is
then a grid assembly procedure progressively merging each
sewing segment pair of the mapping. For each segment pair,
in fact, let n be the number of original particles of the segment
in A (in the following denoted by A-segment) and m the
number of original particles of the corresponding segment in
B (B-segment). If the number of particles is different, say
n!m, then mKn particles will be added to the A-segment in
(2) proper intermediate positions to define a ‘local’ one-to-one
mapping also between particle pairs. Such positions are
derived as follows. First, one by one, we progressively search
for n ordered original particles of the B-segment having
relative line abscissa values in the segment that are as close as
possible to the relative line abscissa values of the n particles
of the A-segment. Practically, this corresponds to finding out
the particles in the more-refined segment that have a relative
distribution in the segment as similar as possible to the
particle distribution in the less-refined segment: this is the
local particle-to-particle mapping within the segment pair.
 M. Fontana et al. / Computer-Aided Design 37 (2005) 609–622
Fig. 6. Sewing process between two fabric panels: (1) seam definition as mapping 1 to 1 between vertices of panel borders; (2) detail of the sewing process over
a single segment pair.
Then, the particle grid in the A-segment is refined (in one or
more parts, depending on the local mapping) along each
original grid edge having as a vertex a particle excluded from
the local mapping, for a total of mKn new border grid edges,
with corresponding local re-triangulation around the sewing
segment pair at the side of the A-segment. Thus, when
definitively A-segment and B-segment have the same number
of particles, say again nZm for simplicity, each ith particle of
A is merged with the corresponding ith particle of B, for
iZ 1; 2; .; n; by moving particle pairs to an intermediate
position. n particles belonging to one of the two border
segments are then removed from one side. Correspondingly,
the mesh topology (grid particles, edges, triangles) around
that side is updated similarly to any standard mesh assembly
algorithm now involving conformal meshes. Internal force
values are re-computed around the sewn edges with particle
mass summation and value increment of the constants of
bending forces for all sewn edges.
Note that dart insertion is again a sewing operation, as
darts can be regarded as special seams along a fixed
sequence of edges, in which panel B coincides with panel A.
In other words, one (or more) vertice(s) is (are) sewn with
another (other) vertice(s) belonging to boundary loops of the
same panel.
4.2.2. Other construction processes
As regards the successive construction steps, an algor-
ithm for layer overlapping is considered to update the
original cloth particle-based grid in order to model the
presence of possible fabric layers placed on top of each
other, as in case of paddings, linings, etc (e.g. to strengthen
jackets). To this aim, we change physics-based properties
(masses, springs, bending and trellising forces) correspond-
ing to particles and edges inside specified subregions of
the main panels, substituting them with proper values
measuring all effects of single added layers, with their
specified materials, through the effect of a unique equivalent
material (e.g. mass summation, equivalent constants in
parallel spring networks, etc.)
Insertion of button and hooks is also considered. The
effect of buttons and hooks intervenes when two panels to be
615
connected are sufficiently close to each other. Each virtual
button is simulated by connecting the two grid points closest
to the required button position, imposing significantly hard
spring force effects and mass increment. Once the garment
particle-based model is assembled with all its components,
the corresponding garment’s placement in 3D has to be
defined. 3D particles’ configuration is arranged by con-
sidering the presence of external rigid objects in the scene
(e.g. mannequins or rigid supports) and according to
mapping laws from 2D onto 3D, respecting local isometries
in grid triangles/edges. Note that the 3D placement of the
garment onto the rigid support can be chosen with a certain
(relatively small) offset distance from rigid supports. The
final accurate 3D placement of the garment model onto the
support will be scope for the physical simulation phase.
5. Dynamic simulation
5.1. Newtonian constrained dynamics
The complete particle-based model of a garment is
defined by a system SZ fPi : iZ 1; .; Ng of N particles,
having masses mi, positions ri and velocities vi Z r_t , for
iZ 1; 2; .; N. The configuration of particles is assigned at
an initial time t0, by known positions {ri0} and velocities
{vi0}, iZ 1; .; N. The dynamic behaviour of the system is
thus governed by Newton’s problem
8
>
> ci Z 1; 2; .; N
<
mi r€ i Z FðintÞ C FðextÞ (3)
>
>
i i
:
ri ðt0 Þ Z ri0 ; vi ðt0 Þ Z vi0
where FðintÞ
i _ tÞ and FðextÞ
ðr; r; i ðr; r;
_ tÞ are, respectively,
the total internal and external resultant forces acting on
particles i, being rZ ðr1 ; .; rN Þ the system configuration at
time t. Eq. (3) is a Cauchy problem for a system of 3N
second order ordinary differential equations, equivalent to a
system of 6N first order equations. Solutions are trajectories
{r i(t)}, with corresponding velocities {vi(t)}, for
iZ 1; 2; .; N, t 2½t0 ; T, uniquely determined under
616 M. Fontana et al. / Computer-Aided Design 37 (2005) 609–622
hypotheses of sufficiently regular data Fi, satisfied in our
linear force estimation method [37]. In Eq. (3), the total
internal force FðintÞ
i is computed by summing up the resultant
stretching, repelling, bending and trellising forces FðstretchÞ
i ,
Fi , FðbendÞ
i and F i acting on particle i, while the total external
force FðextÞ
i is computed by summing up FðaÞ i , resultant active
external force on i, with FiðrÞ , reactive force associated to
possible constraints imposed on i.
Among the several methods for constraint management
(e.g. penalty method, rate-controlled constraints, Lagrange
multipliers and dynamic constraints [38–40]), the dynamic
constraint method has been here considered, with reactive
forces FðrÞ
i computed from Lagrange multipliers by solution
of a linear system, since it permits to apply multiple
constraints to the same particle and ensures the respect of all
the constraints at each time step of the simulation. Several
types of bilateral constraints have been considered, such as
fixed positions, constant distances between points or
particles, area or volume conservation, as well as assigned
trajectories for points or particles.
The solution of Eq. (3) can be numerically estimated
by using proper time discretization schemes on a discrete
sequence t0 ; t1 ; .; tn of time steps. In our case, an
improved two-steps Euler scheme has been utilized [16],
stabler than explicit Euler’s and still computationally
cheap, with particles’ positions at kth time step derived
from velocities updated at kth time step and corrected
with post-collision response. To increase the convergence
speed and manage stiff equations, implicit or semi-
implicit integration schemes are currently under
implementation, according to [20–22,24].
5.2. Collision management
To complete the analysis of the interactions with the
surrounding environment, also possible collisions are taken
into account. These occur, for instance, when parts of
flexible objects (e.g. garments) hit some rigid objects (e.g.
mannequins) or penetrate towards each other (self-col-
lisions). In Fig. 7, for instance, collision effects were
dominant in simulating cloth positioning on a table or a
sphere, or cloth fall on the floor.
Fig. 7. Simulation of fabrics on rigid objects: (1) tablecloth on a table; (2) carpet on a sphere; (3) tablecloth falling on the floor; (4) ribbon falling on the floor.
Collision detection plays a significant part in the total
computational time of simulations, as proximity queries
and checks for possible collisions need to be done between
pairs of elementary object entities (points or particles,
edges, triangles). Among several techniques for collision
detection, e.g. voxel subdivision, octree subdivision,
bounding box hierarchy, proximity tracking, and curva-
ture-based methods [16–18], aligned axis bounding box
(AABB) hierarchies with region subdivision have been
here adopted, as a good compromise between simplicity
and efficiency.
In the collision response phase, the velocities of particles
belonging to colliding entities are modified due to elastic/
anelastic bouncing off. The corresponding velocity variations
due to collisions are computed as solution of a linear
system, by handling collisions as unsatisfied scalar unilateral
constraints di ðr1 ; r2 ; .; rN ; tÞ! 0, for iZ 1; 2; .; s, where
s is the number of collisions at a certain time, and using again
the dynamic constraint approach [38,40].
6. SoftWorld system
The particle-based model described in Sections 4 and 5
has been implemented in a system named SoftWorld2.0,
running on Windows, Unix/Linux, SGI-IRIX platforms.
SoftWorld is composed of several executable modules, with
functions for data conversion, geometric modelling, phy-
sics-based modelling, dynamic simulation, provided
with a graphical user interface. Grouping together the
several modules by purpose, two fundamental systems are
singled out:
† 2D/3D modeller, creating the physics-based model
associated to the 3D configuration of the garment. It
generates the particle-based grid of all 2D panels, sewing
and assembling them over the mannequin, to create
the initial 3D configuration for garment simulation
(Section 4).
† 3D simulator, generating garment’s simulated frames at
discrete time steps t0 ; t1 ; ::; tn , with simulation based on
constrained Newtonian dynamics with collision manage-
ment (Section 5).
 M. Fontana et al. / Computer-Aided Design 37 (2005) 609–622
Fig. 8. Basic SoftWorld’s architecture.
The system is provided with a Graphical User Interface
to create a unique environment from which both the
Modeller and the Simulator are executed. Fig. 8 displays
the overall SoftWorld architecture. Table 1 displays input
and output data of the 2D/3D Modeller, while Table 2
describes the main algorithm in the 3D Simulator.
7. Case studies
Several tests were done to evaluate our computer assisted
design methodology and simulation results using Soft-
World2.0. Fig. 7 already showed earlier SoftWorld’s
simulation results such as fabrics falling over rigid
objects such as a table, a sphere, or the floor—classical
reference test cases in the literature of cloth modelling.
Actually, for our design intents, these examples are not
so significant because they deal with simple-shaped one-
layered fabric without any of those design complexities
(seams, complex borders, layers, different materials, etc.)
encountered in real cloth manufacture.
As we were interested in real complex-shaped apparel,
analysis and simulation of garment examples were
carried out starting from initial geometrical 2D and 3D
models directly provided by clothing companies. The
next sections present the adopted methodology and some
simulation results, with case studies for both male and
female clothing. Results were obtained within the
framework of Brite-Euram MASCOT [41] and Italian
TA2000 [42] research projects, in cooperation with
industrial partners from the clothing industry (see note1),
and CAD/CAM developers2. Although based on the
same modelling and simulation algorithms, the two ways
of proceeding while defining male and female clothes
were quite different.
2
Lectra Systemes (FR), Investronica Sistemas (ES), and TELMAT (FR),
in the framework of MASCOT project.
617
7.1. Design of women’s garments
The activity on female garment design was carried out
within MASCOT project [41]. The main goal was to
develop a 3D graphic environment for industrial appli-
cations in clothing industry to permit the design of woman
base garment in 3D, the evaluation of the style by
comparing different types of fabric, and the automatic
generation of the 2D panels starting from the 3D
representation. SoftWorld was integrated with a geometric
3D garment modeller, based on NURBS representation and
developed by the University of Valenciennes [43]. Regard-
ing the modelling phases, we started from 3D garment
models, directly chosen from a library of template cloth
shapes (skirt, blouse, etc.) that were modified by 3D surface
modelling tools acting on characteristic lines. Seams,
pences, and other textile characterizations were defined on
the 3D model, from which 2D panels were extracted with all
information (e.g. sewing lines) necessary to the simulator
for their correct location on virtual mannequins.
Once generated the 2D panels from the geometric 3D
modeller, our 2D/3D Modeller (Table 1) could define the
particle-based grid of each 2D panel associating proper KES
Table 1
Input and output data of the 2D/3D Modeller
2D/3D modeller
Input data
(a) Material properties (e.g. KES data for fabrics)
(b) Rigid bodies (e.g. mannequins, frames)
(c) Geometry of 2D panels (for extended version with full 3D soft
modelling tools: geometry of 3D soft shapes)
(d) Rules for 2D/3D mapping
(e) Model construction constraints (e.g. textile operations: seams,
darts, fabric layers, buttons)
(f) (If any) dynamic constraints (kinematics of rigid parts)
Output data
(a) Physics-based information about soft objects (particle 3D positions,
masses, associated grid, internal/external forces, geometric and
kinematic constraints)
(b) Physics-based information about rigid parts (3D point positions,
the associated grid, geometric and kinematic constraints)
618 M. Fontana et al. / Computer-Aided Design 37 (2005) 609–622

Table 2 data of the chosen fabric material. By using information

Main algorithm of the 3D simulator provided by the geometric modeller, 2D panels were sewn
3D simulator and located properly on the mannequin for the final
Known configuration {ri(t0), vi(t0)}, for iZ 1; 2; .; N simulation of its behaviour in static conditions.
For step kZ 1; 2; .; n: To generate the physics-based model, we started from the
(1) It computes the active forces FiðaÞ ðtk Þ (from internal and external following basic assumptions:
contributions) on each particle i;
(2) Estimates the effect of bilateral constraints by computing equivalent
† use of a simplified model representing the fabric as
reactive forces FðrÞ
i ðtk Þ for each i;
(3) Computes the new velocities vi(tk) from numerical solution of
composed of a single equivalent layer;
Newton’s law (ODE solver, first part); † generation of a final configuration in 3D depending on
(4) Detects the colliding particles; the 2D geometry of patterns but also on intrinsic
(5) Updates velocities vi(tk) with vi(tk)CDvi for the colliding particles, mechanical properties due to the considered type of
from velocity variation of collision response algorithm (linear system fabric (e.g. cotton, linen, silk, etc.);
solution), with DviZ0 for uncolliding particles;
(6) Computes the new particle positions ri(tk) from ODE solver,
† choice of KES measurements to characterize fabric’s
second part mechanical behaviour;
† use of geometric information at several levels, e.g. to
define 2D patterns profiles, and functional/aesthetic

Fig. 9. Particle-based models of women’s garments placed on mannequins before simulation.

Fig. 10. Simulation of women’s garments: dress, tunic and trousers.

 M. Fontana et al. / Computer-Aided Design 37 (2005) 609–622 619

Fig. 11. System architecture in the design of men’s garments.

details such as the location of seams, darts, buttons and
other constraints.
In Fig. 9, we display the particle-based models of a skirt,
a top and a woman’s dress before simulation, showing
the different 2D panels sewn along the sewing lines and
darts. Fig. 10 presents the accurate simulation results of a
dress, a linen tunic and a pair of trousers.
Validation and assessment procedures were defined and
the environment was experimented by the end-users
participating to the project. As concerns the simulation
phase, we selected a set of different garments (Figs. 9 and 10),
whose physical prototypes were realized by the end-users
allowing a comparation with the simulation results, in most
cases considered satisfactory. At this stage, however,
comparisons have only been made at a qualitative level.
7.2. Design of men’s garments
Tasks for men’s garment design were developed in the
framework of TA2000 [42]. Differently from female fashion,
the production of men’s garments follows more standardized
shapes (jackets, trousers, shirts, etc.) that only slightly differ
from one season and the other. Here, therefore, we chose to
work by modification of existing apparel articles. Together

Fig. 12. Virtual design of male garments. Main steps: (1) Selection of base jacket. (2) Modification module—definition of a new garment style. (3) Generation
of 2D patterns. (4) Particle-based model of each panel. (5) Panel assembly with final particle-based model ready for 3D simulation. (6) Simulation results.
620 M. Fontana et al. / Computer-Aided Design 37 (2005) 609–622
Fig. 13. Right front 2D panel and related regions.
with the technical staff of F.lli Corneliani company
(manufacturer of male garments) we selected a jacket as a
significant test-case (Section 2), to properly validate the
physics-based modeller and simulator for real complex-
shaped clothing. Fig. 11 shows the overall architecture of the
software environment developed for men’s cloth design,
including SoftWorld (here named 3D Simulator) to physi-
cally model and simulate men’s garments.
The design process currently followed by clothing
companies was first analysed to extrapolate useful func-
tionalities for the geometric modelling phase. Typically,
the designer defines a new style by modifying the shape of a
physical prototype, e.g. changing the length of the sleeves or
tightening the waist, according to fashion trends and
stylist’s sketches. To do this, the designer uses some
reference elements such as sewing lines or significant
and structural elements (e.g. waist or shoulders, etc.).
A modelling system should permit the designer to operate in
the same way, using a digital prototype instead of a physical
one. Therefore, an editor module was implemented by using
and combining MAYA Deformers [44], to enable the user to
change the shape of a geometric model. From the analysis of
modellist’s modus operandi, we identified and implemented
a set of shape modifiers emulating traditional modifications
on garment’s parts. Some examples were: shorten/lengthen
sleeves, tighten/enlarge shoulders, tighten/enlarge waist,
shorten/lengthen jacket. An export module could
Fig. 14. Some views of a simulated jacket.
automatically generate a file, containing information about
the modified 3D geometric model, to be used as input for 2D
panel extraction. The generation of 2D panels was done by
means of a commercial CAD package used at Corneliani
site.
The 3D simulator could generate the particle-based grids
of the panels, which were then assembled together and
placed on a virtual mannequin thanks to the 2D/3D
mapping rules stored by the 2D/3D modeller. Once the
complete particle-based model was created in 3D, simu-
lation could be performed. Fig. 12 displays the main steps of
the jacket’s design procedure.
It is important to point out that some assumptions made for
the physics-based model of female apparel are not adequate
for men’s jackets. These can have, in fact, a very complex
structure, whose volume/shape is obtained by overlapping
different types of material layers and by resorting to
particular manufacturing processes inducing permanent
local deformation (e.g. by ironing, starching, and special
tight-loose sewings). Therefore, as described in Section 2, it
is necessary to generate a model that takes into account not
only data related to fabric properties but also information on
structural multi-layered parts (shoulder-paddings, collars,
etc.) and the effects of additional manufacturing processes.
Garment’s physical model was thus enriched according
to the following ideas:
2D panels were subdivided into regions, each corre-
sponding to a structural part of the jacket, e.g. shoulder,
facing, collar, etc. Each region was characterized by
different physical parameters, to integrate the above-
mentioned manufacturing effects.
Further parameters were introduced in order to ampli-
fy/reduce the effect of permanent material deformations
(e.g. lapel pleat) obtained by means of manufacturing
processes, such as ironing.
Fig. 13 shows the 2D panel corresponding to the right
front of the jacket and related sub-regions: (A) shoulder,
 M. Fontana et al. / Computer-Aided Design 37 (2005) 609–622
(B) pleating line of the lapel, (C) facing, and (D) bottom of
the jacket.
Fig. 14 shows several points of view of the simulated
effect of the jacket leaned on the bust of a mannequin in
static conditions.
The results of tests carried out with the end-users are
encouraging and prove the validity of our approach. We
envisage the need to execute further KES measurements on
specimens of jacket’s structural parts, e.g. fabricClining, in
order to get results that are more precise.
Moreover, the man’s jacket example was computation-
ally more expensive than woman’s models such as skirts and
dresses. This was due to a fine particle discretization,
necessary for accuracy requirements, for a complex model
composed of 12 panels, designed with multi-layered fabrics,
different materials, seams, darts and buttons. Details about
the jacket model, simulation results, and computational
aspects can be read in [43]. At present, to decrease the
computational time, we are working on the implementation
of implicit methods as suggested by [22,24], and on
optimized collision detection techniques.
8. Conclusions and future work
Physics-based models show their potential in realistically
simulating cloth shapes, as the geometrical substrate is
enriched with information derived from structural fabric
properties and dynamic laws. In this work, the physics-
based cloth shape simulation is derived from a discrete
particle-based model, embedded in constrained Newtonian
dynamics, provided with collision management. The system
includes specific algorithms for textile operations such as
sewing, button and dart insertion, etc. and has been
integrated within CAD environments for cloth design.
Applications and examples on simulated test cases for the
design of men’s and women’s garments, directly provided
by clothing companies, were shown. Work is currently in
progress to extend system’s CAD functionalities in func-
tional and aesthetic cloth design details, e.g. parametric
sewing algorithms (puffed sleeves, close-fitting sewings,
jacket rollers, etc.), multi-layered fabric modelling (linings,
paddings, etc.), and virtual emulation of manufacturing
processes inducing fabric deformations (e.g. by ironing,
etc.). To increase the efficiency of computations, we are
currently implementing implicit ODE’s time discretization
methods, as suggested by [22,24]. Further, we are
implementing a parallel version of the system.
Acknowledgements
This work has been carried out in the framework of the
Brite-Euram Project MASCOT, funded by the European
commission, and the Italian Project TA2000, funded by
MIUR. The authors would like to thank S. Di Piazza
621
designer of the 2D patterns in Fig. 2, and all colleagues that
participated to the research projects on non-rigid materials
modelling and simulation.
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