Current electricity

Magnetism
(A brief analysis )

(Syllabus of Grade-12)
 Chapter-1/ D.C. Circuits
Introduction of electric current:
Direction of current:
The direction of current in a conductor is due to the flow of free electrons in it. It was
believed that the current is caused by the motion of positive charges and therefore,
the direction of current is taken from positive terminal to negative terminal of a
battery in the circuit as shown in fig(i) below. The current I taken in this way is known
as conventional current. The modern theory, however, shows that the current in a
conductor is due to the flow of free electrons and there charges flow in a conductor
from negative terminal to the positive terminal of battery in a circuit as shown in
fig(ii).

It has two types: (i) Direct current and (ii) Alternating current

Fig(i) Direction of conventional current Fig(ii) Direction of electron flow

Current density:

Mechanism of metallic conduction : Drift Velocity

In metallic conductor there are large no. of free electrons and these free electrons are
responding only for carrying electricity through the conductor. In the absence of the
electric field the resultant velocity of the electron in a particular direction is zero and
hence the net transport of charge is also zero and the current don’t flow through the
conductor in the absence of electric field.
But if the electric field is applied then the electron starts to accelerate in the opposite
direction of the field applied so, the velocity of the electrons increase which implies
that K.E. of the electron also increases. When these electrons collide with the atoms or
ions then the velocity of electrons decrease by transformation of energy to the atoms
or ions. This process is continuous and the average acceleration of an electron is
ceased i.e. reduced to zero. Then the electron acquire a constant velocity to the
opposite direction of the field applied. This constant velocity of the electron on the
opposite direction of the field is called drift velocity of the electron.
Relation between the electric current and drift velocity:
Let us consider a conductor having length L, cross-sectional area A, containing ‘n’ no.
of electrons per unit volume, having charge e in each electron.

Fig. Electrons passing through the conductor in an applied electric field

Volume of the given conductor =AL

Total no. of free electrons in whole volume of the given conductor (N)=nAL

Total charge in the given conductor, (Q)= Ne=nALe

If the external source is connected to the conductor then charge starts to flow through
the conductor. Let Vd be the drift velocity of the electron, Q be the charge passing
through the length of conductor L in the time t. I be the current passing through the
conductor which is given by

I=Q/t =neAL/t = neAVd , where Vd = L/t (Vd is called drift velocity of electron).

This is the expression for relation between the electric current and drift velocity.

Since current density, J = I/A then we have from above expression

J=neVd
Again, J = I/A =V/(RA) = V/ρL = (1/ρ).(V/L)= σ E
[ Where, R= ρL /A, (1/ρ)= σ, (V/L)= E ]

∴ J = σ E, This is the relation between Current density (J) and Electric field(E).
Ohm’s law and its experimental verification:
It states that the electric current flowing through any conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference between the ends of the conductor, under
constant physical condition (temperature, pressure, etc.)
Let I be the electric current flowing through any conductor and V be the potential
difference between the ends the conductors. So, according to Ohm’s law, we can write:
V ∝ I.
or, V = RI
Where, R is proportionality constant called resistance of the conductor.

Experimental verification of Ohm's law:

Arrange the apparatus as per the circuit diagram. Make the connections
as shown in fig. All connections must be neat and tight. Take care to
connect the ammeter and voltmeter with their correct polarity. Adjust
the rheostat to pass a low current. Insert the key K and slide the
rheostat contact to see whether the ammeter and voltmeter are
showing deflections properly.
 Fig. Experimental circuit for Ohm’s law
Adjust the rheostat to get a small deflection in ammeter and voltmeter.
Record the readings of the ammeter and voltmeter. Take atleast six sets
of readings by adjusting the rheostat gradually.
Plot a graph with V along x-axis and I along y-axis. The graph will be a
straight line which verifies Ohm's law. Determine the slope of the V-I
graph. The reciprocal of the slope gives resistance of the wire.
 Fig. I-V graph for Ohm’s law

Non ohmic conductors:

Non ohmic conductors are said to be the conductors that do not obey
Ohm's Law. The V-I graph for them is not a straight line unlike
ideal ohamic conductors. A light bulb is a common example of a non-
ohmic conductor. Other examples of non-ohmic conductors are diodes
and transistors.
Electrical resistance and its relation with
temperature:
Resistance is an electrical quantity that measures how the device or
material reduces the electric current flow through it. The resistance is
measured in units of ohms (Ω). If we make an analogy to water flow in
pipes, the resistance is bigger when the pipe is thinner, so the water
flow is decreased.

Factors Affecting Electrical Resistance:

The electrical resistance of a conductor is dependent on the following
factors:

•The cross-sectional area of the conductor

•Length of the conductor
•The material of the conductor
•The temperature of the conducting material
The equation below is used to find the resistance of object at any
temperature when the resistance at some specific temperature is
known.
R2 = R1 [ 1 + α1 (T2 - T1)]
where
R1 = Conductors resistance at temperature T1
R2 = Conductors resistance at temperature T2
α1 = Temperature coefficient of the material
T1 = Reference temperature at which α1 is specified
T2 = Conductor present temperature

The resistance increases as the temperature of a metallic conductor

increase, so the resistance is directly proportional to the temperature.
When we increases the temperature the amplitude of vibration of
atoms increases as result of which the number of collision among the
electrons and atom increases, and hence resistances increases.
Resistivity or Specific resistance(ρ):
Resistivity, commonly symbolized by the Greek letter rho, ρ, is
quantitatively equal to the resistance R of a specimen such as a wire,
multiplied by its cross-sectional area A, and divided by its length
l; ρ = RA/l. The SI unit of resistivity is Ohm-meter.
ρ = RA/l
The value of resistivity depends also on the temperature of the material;
tabulations of resistivities usually list values at 20° C. Resistivity of
metallic conductors generally increases with a rise in temperature; but
resistivity of semiconductors, such as carbon and silicon, generally
decreases with temperature rise. The relationship of ρ with temperature
is given below.

ρ2 = ρ1 [ 1 + α1 (T2 - T1)]
This is a general formula.
Conductance(C) and Conductivity(σ):
Electrical Conductance is just the opposite of resistance while resistance
is the measure of the opposition of flow of electrons through it by a
material. The Electrical Conductance is the measure of property of a
material by which it allows the electrons or electricity to pass through it.
C=1/R

Conductivity is the inverse of resistivity. It's normally represented by σ

(the Greek small letter sigma,). The unit of conductivity is the siemens
per metre. It characterizes materials on the basis of how well electric
current flows in them. The SI unit of conductivity is mho per metre,
or ampere per volt-metre. Good electrical conductors have high
conductivities and low resistivities.
σ=1/ ρ
Series and Parallel combination of resistors:
Resistances are generally combined in two ways: (i) Series Combination
(ii)Parallel Combination

Fig. Series combination of

resistors
(ii)Parallel Combination of resistors:

Fig. Parallel combination

Galvanometer:
A galvanometer is a device used to detect feeble electric currents in a circuit. It has a coil
pivoted (or suspended) between concave pole faces of a strong laminated horse shoe
magnet. When an electric current passes through the coil, it deflects. The deflection is
proportional to the current passed. The galvanometer coil has a moderate resistance (about 100
ohms) and the galvanometer itself has a small current carrying capacity (1 mA).

Shunt:
In electronics, a shunt is a device that creates a low-resistance path for electric current, to allow
it to pass around another point in the circuit. The origin of the term is in the verb 'to shunt'
meaning to turn away or follow a different path. It is used to convert a galvanometer into an
ammeter and a voltmeter of suitable range.

Conversion of a galvanometer into an ammeter:

An ammeter (from ampere meter) is a measuring instrument used to measure the current in a
circuit. Electric currents are measured in amperes (A), hence the name. Instruments used to
measure smaller currents, in the milliampere or microampere range, are designated as
milliammeters or microammeters.

Shunt is a low resistance connected in parallel with resistance of a galvanometer while

converting galvanometer into ammeter.
Let us consider the resistance of the galvanometer is G, the maximum current measured by the
ammeter is I, and the maximum current measure by the galvanometer by passing through it is Ig,
then the current passes through the small resistance i.e. shunt S is (I-Ig) as shown in figure.

Fig. Conversion of a galvanometer into an ammeter

Since the resistance of the galvanometer and shunt are in parallel then according to the
property of parallel combination we have,

Potential difference across shunt= Potential difference across galvanometer

(I-Ig)S=IgG
 Or, S = (IgG)/ (I-Ig)……………..1

Hence equation 1 gives the value of shunt.

Since S and G resistance are in parallel then the effective resistance of ammeter (RA) is given by,

1
RA = G1 + S1 = G +S
GS

GS
or, RA =
G +S

This show the resistance of ammeter (RA) very smaller (lower) then that of shunt S. So, when it is
connected ammeter is connected in series in circuit then there is no effect the on current
passing through the circuit.
Conversion of a galvanometer into a voltmeter:
A voltmeter is a device used to measure potential difference between two points in a circuit. It
is connected across two points between which the potential difference is to be measured. By
connecting a voltmeter in a circuit must not change the current and hence the potential
difference in the circuit, a voltmeter should have very high resistance, ideally infinite resistance.
Such p.d. measuring device can be made by connecting a very high resistance in series with a
galvanometer.

Let G be the resistance of galvanometer and Ig current producing the maximum deflection in the
galvanometer. To measure the maximum voltage, V by the voltmeter, the high resistance R is
connected in series. So,
V = Ig (R + G)
 Or, IgR = V - IgG
V
Or, R = -G
Ig

This equation gives the value of resistance R, which has connected in series to the galvanometer,
and this connection converts the galvanometer into voltmeter of range u – V volts. The effective
resistance of the voltmeter RV = R + G. Since, R is high, the resistance of the voltmeter RV is high
and it will not draw much current from the circuit.

Ohmmeter:
An ohmmeter is an electrical instrument that measures electrical resistance (the opposition
offered by a substance to the flow of electric current) . Micro-ohmmeters (microhmmeter or
micro ohmmeter) make low resistance measurements. Megohmmeters (also a trademarked
device Megger) measure large values of resistance
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Numerical problems
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Joule’s law of heating & derivation for the expression of heat developed in a wire:

Thus heating of a conductor due to the flow of electric current through it is known
as Joule's law of heating.
a. When different amount of current I is passed through the conductor, heat is directly
proportional to the square of the applied current for a constant time and resistance.
i.e.
H α I2……………….( i )
b. Heat generated in conductor is directly proportional on the varying resistance ( R )
constant time and current i.e.,
H α R…………(ii)
c. Heat generated in a conductor is directly proportional on the varying time ( t) for
constant resistance and current. i.e.,
H α t……(iii)
Now from above equation ( i ), (ii ), and (iii ) we have a relation,
H α I2 R t
Here, H= I2 R t/J , where J is joule’s mechanical equivalent of heat whose value is
equal to 4.2 Jcal-1
. Let us consider the e.m.f. of the cell is E and is connected with the external resistance
R and the current passing due E of the cell through that external resistance is I.
Then the potential drop ( V) in the external resistance occurs and is given by,

V = I R…………………………………(i)

Since I is the current passing through the external resistance R , then for the certain
time t , the no. of the charge (Q) passes through the resistance is given by,

Q = It………………………………….(ii)

Work done by the cell, W= VQ………………………............(iii)

Then from equation (i) , and (ii) and (iii), We have,

W= I2R t ……………………………..(iv)

If the wire is a passive resistor, all the electrical energy is converted into the heat
energy, H.
So, W=H and we have,

H= I2R t
This is the expression for heat developed in a wire.
Experimental verification of Joule’s law of heating:

Fig. A heating coil inside a

calorimeter with water
Electric power:

Electrical energy:
Electromotive force:
The electromotive force (E) or e.m.f. is the energy provided by a cell or battery per
coulomb of charge passing through it, it is measured in volts (V). It is equal to the
potential difference across the terminals of the cell when no current is flowing.

Internal resistance of a cell:

Internal resistance refers to the opposition to the flow of current offered by the cells
and batteries themselves resulting in the generation of heat. Internal resistance is
measured in Ohms.
Internal resistance of a cell depends on the following factors:
i)The internal resistance depends on the nature of the electrolyte.
ii)The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the common area of the
electrodes dipping in the electrolyte.
iii)The internal resistance of a cell depends on the nature of the electrodes.

Terminal potential difference:

The potential difference between the two electrodes of a cell in a closed circuit i.e.
when current is being drawn from the cell is called terminal potential difference. When
cell is discharging current inside the cell is from cathode to anode. When current is
drawn from the cell potential difference is less than emf of cell.
Terminal p.d.(V)= p.d. across external resistance(R)
Relation between emf(E), terminal p.d.(V) and internal
resistance(r) of a cell:
Grouping of cells:

Consider n identical cells of emf E and

internal resistance r connected in
series across an external resistor of
resistance R as shown in fig.

Fig. Cells in series combination

Cells in parallel:

resistance R as shown in figure. Fig. Cells in parallel combination

Hence, the maximum current is obtained in parallel combination of cells
when the external resistance R is very low.
Mixed grouping of cells:
The cells are said to be in mixed grouping if a number of cells are connected in a row
and then a number of such rows are connected in parallel. Consider N identical cells
each of emf E and internal resistance r connected in a group with n cells in series and
m such rows are connected in parallel across an external resistance R as shown in fig.

Fig. Cells in mixed grouping

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