Every Building consists of two basic components:-

I) Substructure or foundation
II) Superstructure

The superstructure is usually a part of the building which is above ground .the substructure is
the lower portion of the building usually located below ground level which the load of the
superstructure to the sub soil foundation is the part of the structure which is direct conduct
with the ground which the loads are transmitted. The soil which is located immediately below
the base of the foundation is called the sub soil or foundation soil.

The basic function of foundation is to transmit the dead load super-imposed loads and wind
loads from building to the soil. When loads are transmitted to the sub soil it settles. If this
settlement is slide and uniform throughout no damage will be cost to the building. But if the
settlement, If the settlements is excessive or unequal serious damage may result in the form
of cracked walls distorted door and window openings cracked lintels walls thrown out of
plumb etc.

The foundation is most important part of a building. A foundation should be sufficiently

strong to prevent excessive settlement as well as unequal settlements. Unequal settlements or
differential settlements may be caused by.

i) Weak Sub-soil as made up ground

ii) Shrinkable and expensive soils (such as clay)

iii) Frost action

iv) Movement of ground water

v) Slow consolidation of saturated clay

vi) Slipping of strata on sloping site.

Foundation may be broadly classified under two heads:-

a) Shallow Foundation.
b) Deep Foundation.

Shallow Foundation :-
According to Terzaghi a foundation is shallow if its depth is equal to or less than its width . A
shallow foundation is also known as an open foundation, since such foundation is constructed
by open excavation. A shallow foundation is placed immediately below the lowest part of the
super structure supported by it .

TYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION :-

i) Strip Footing
ii) Spread Footing
iii) Combined Footing
iv) Strap Footing
v) Mat Footing

In our side they use shallow foundation i.e. Continuous Footing which have
1.5 m depth from ground level.
 DEEP FOUNDATION:-

In which the depth of the foundation is very large in comparison to its width. Deep
foundation are not constructed by ordinary methods of open pit excavations.

Types of Deep Foundation:-

i) Pile Foundation.
ii) Coffer Dams.
iii) Caisson.
DEFINATION:-
Foundation is the lowest part of a structure which provides a base for the super structure
proper.

Purpose of foundation:-
It is misunderstood that the foundation is provided to support the load of the structure. In fact
it is a device to transmit the loads on the structure including the dead weight of the
structure itself to the soil below. Foundation is provided for the following four main
purposes:
i) To distribute the weight of the structure over the large area so as to avoid over
loading of the soil beneath.

ii) To load the sub stratum evenly and thus prevent unequal settlement.

iii) To provide a level surface for building operations.

iv) To take the structure deep into the ground and thus increase its stability,
preventing overturning.

LOADINGS

There are three main types of load:

1. Dead loads are the static or constant weight of the structure made up from the
walls, floors, roof, etc.
 2 .Live loads (also known as imposed loads) such as furniture, goods and people,
are movable. In addition there are variable loads caused by the weather, such as
snow and rain.

3 Wind loads can be positive or negative. They are not dead or imposed and
therefore require specific consideration.

Loads can be calculated and expressed as a force (weight) that is to be transferred

onto the substrata.

TYPES OF FOUNDATION:- Foundations can be broadly classified into

two types:
SHALLOW FOUNDATION:-
When the foundation is placed immediately beneath the lowest part of the super structure, it
is termed as super structure. The object of this type of foundation is to distribute the structural
loads over a wide horizontal area at shallow depth below the ground level i.e, if B is the
width of foundation and Df is the depth of foundation then according to Terzaghi’s

Df /B ≤ 1

Footings are structural members, made of brick work, masonry or concrete, that are used to
transmit the load of the wall or column such that the load is distributed over a large area.

Types of Shallow Foundation:-

Strip Footing:-

A strip footing is provided for a load bearing wall and also for a row of columns which are so
closely spaced that there spread footings overlap or nearly touch each other. A strip footing is
also known as Continuous Footing.

In our project site (i.e. Circuit House) Continuous Footing are used.

EXCAVATION :-

Excavation was carried out both manually as well as mechanically normally1-2

earth excavators (JCB’s)where used for excavation the soil. Adequate
precautions are taken to see that the excavation operation do not damage the ad
dressing of excavation bottom. The soil present beneath surface was too clayey
so it was dumped and was not used for back filling. The filling is done in layer
not exceeding 20cm layer and than its compacted. Depth of excavation was
1.5m from ground level.
PCC (Plain Cement concrete)

After the process of excavation ,laying of plain cement concrete that is PCC is done .A layer
of 4inches was made in such a manner that it was not mixed the soil .It provides a solid base
for the raft foundation and a mix of 1:5:10 that is 1 part of cement to 5 parts of fine
aggregates and 10 parts of coarse aggregates by volume were used in it .Plain concrete is
vibrate to achieve full compaction .Concrete placed below ground should be protected from
filling earth during and after placing .Concrete placed in ground containing deleterious
substances should be kept free contact with such a ground and with water draining there from
during placing and for period of seven days When joint in a layer of concrete are unavoidable
,and end is sloped at an angle of 30 and junctions of different layers break joint in laying
upper layer of concrete .The lower surface is made rough and clean watered before upper
layer is end.
LAYING OF FOUNDATION

At our site raft foundation are used to spread the load from a structure over a large area
normally the entire area of the structure. Normally raft foundation is used when large load is
to be distributed and it is not possible to provide individual footings due to space constraints
that is they would overlap on each other. Raft foundation have the advantage of reducing
differential settlement as the concrete slab resists differential movements between loading
position. There often needed on soft of loose soil with low bearing capacity as they can
spread the loads over a larger area. In laying raft foundation of, special care is taken in the
reinforcement and construction of plinth beams and columns. Which is the main portion
ultimately whole of the structure is to cum. So a slightest error can cause huge problems and
therefore all this is checked and passed by the engineer in charge of the site.
SPREAD FOOTING:-
A spread or isolated or pad footing is provided to support an individual column . A spread
footing is circular , square or rectangular slab of uniform thickness. Sometimes it is stepped
or haunched to spread the load over a large area.
COMBINED FOOTING:-

A combined footing is the one which supports two columns. If the footing supports more than
two columns, it is known as a continuous footing. A combined footing is provided under the
following circumstances:

i) When the columns are very near to each other so that their footings overlap.
ii) When the bearing capacity of the soil is less , requiring more area under individual
footing.
iii) When the end column is near a property line so that its footing cannot spread in that
direction.

A combined footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan. The aim is to get uniform
pressure distribution under the footing.
STRAP FOOTING:-
A strap (or cantilever) footing consists of two isolated footings connected with a structural
strap or a lever. The strap connects the two footing s such that they behave as one unit. When
the allowable soil pressure is relatively high and the distance between the columns is large in
that situation we preferred strap footing instead of combined footing.
Mat or Raft footing:-
A mat or raft foundation is a large slab supporting a number of columns and walls under the
entire structure or a large part of the structure. A mat is required when the allowable soil
pressure is low or where the columns and walls are so close that individual footings would
overlap.

Raft foundation consists of thick reinforced concrete slab covering the entire area of the
bottom of the structure like a floor . The slab is reinforced
DEEP FOUNDATION:-

When the soil at or near the ground surface is not capable of supporting a structure, deep
foundation are required to transfer the loads to deeper strata. Deep foundation are ,therefore,
used when surface soil is unsuitable for shallow foundation, and a firm strata is so deep that it
cannot be reached economically by shallow foundation.

Deep foundation are those in which the depth of foundation is very large in comparison to its
width. i.e, if B is the width foundation and Df is the depth of foundation then

according to Terzaghi’s

Df /B ≥ 1
Types of Deep Foundation:-
PILE FOUNDATION:-

Pile foundation is generally used when simple spread foundation at a suitable depth is not
possible either because the stratum of required bearing capacity bearing capacity is at a
greater depth or steep slopes are encountered. In compressible soil or water-logged soil or
soil of made-up type , piles are used with advantage for providing safe foundation for any
type of structure . Piles are used for foundation for buildings , trestles, bridges of structure.
COFFER DAMS:-

A cofferdam may be defined as a temporary structure constructed in a river or a lake or any

other water-bearing surface for excluding water from a given site to enable the building the
operation to be performed on dry surface. During the construction period, a certain amount of
pumping is constantly needed because some water will leak through the coffer dam and the
foundation. A coffer dam may be made of earth materials, timber or steel sheet piling or a
combination thereof.
CAISSONS:-

The term Caisson is derived from French word caisse meaning a chest or box. A caisson may
be defined as a watertight structure made up of wood, steel or reinforcement concrete,
constructed in connection with excavation for foundation of bridges, piers, abutments in
rivers and lakes, dock structure for shore protection, break waters, lamp house etc. The
caisson remain in its position and ultimately becomes an integral part of the permanent
structure.