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Cognitive Games and Benefits
Cognitive Games and Benefits
Cognitive Games and Benefits
Ricardo Reyes BA
Department of Psychology, University of Southern California,
Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
E.M. Zelinski, R. Reyes. Cognitive benefits of computer games for older adults.
Gerontechnology 2009; 8(4):220-235; doi: 10.4017/gt.2009.08.04.004.00 The purpose of
this paper is to develop a basis for the hypothesis that digital action games may
produce cognitive benefits for older adults. First, a discussion of the relationship
between cognitive and physical health shows the increasing weight given to the
role of declines in cognition in the development of dependency in older adult
population studies. Second, evidence that cognitive training produces ‘far trans-
fer’ in elders is presented. The key issue is that one approach, known as extended
practice training, has been successful in producing far transfer to memory and
other processes. Its principles, which are consistent with those associated with
positive brain plasticity effects, are identified. Those principles are then related
to the mechanics of digital action games, which also have the important added
feature of producing the experiences of presence, engagement, and flow, the sub-
jective elements of game play that are likely to sustain interest and emotional
investment in the skills practiced so that the play produces cognitive benefits. The
specific cognitive abilities proposed to be improved by different types of game
genres are outlined, and recent developments in game and interface design that
may affect the willingness of older adults to play are described.
Keywords: video games, cognitive transfer, cognitive skills, cognitive training
The population of adults age 65 and over continued cognitive stimulation during work
is expected to increase from 12% of the and leisure4. Recent findings suggest that
2003 US population to 20% by 2030, or participating in cognitive activities is associ-
72 million1. This increase makes solutions ated with a delay in onset of rapid memory
to reducing and delaying dependence criti- decline in those who develop dementia5.
cal. For example, estimates of the value of Thus, there is evidence that engaging in ac-
treatments that delay the impairment and tivities associated with cognition affects the
hence diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease prevalence and the onset of cognitive im-
by one year suggest that trillions of dollars pairment. It is also possible that engaging in
would be saved and that there would be 9.2 cognitive activities, including those associ-
million fewer cases of the disease in 20502. ated with digital action games, may poten-
Recent findings from the Health and Retire- tially help older adults who do not develop
ment Study, a nationally representative sur- dementia to improve or otherwise maintain
vey of Americans over age 50, indicate that cognitive abilities.
between 1993 and 2004 there was a signifi-
cant reduction in the percentage of adults Research on the relationship between cogni-
over age 70 with cognitive impairments3. tively stimulating activities and development
This reduction in prevalence is associated of cognitive impairment was key to the im-
with more years of education in the more plementation of a clinical trial of cognitive
recently assessed group, and possibly by strategy training of nearly 3000 adults over
Autumn 2009 220 Vol. 8, No 4
age 65 to determine whether training would self monitoring of learning and retrieval8,
improve cognition and eventually reduce and a multimodular program integrating
risk of dependence. The study, funded by memory training, psychosocial support, and
the USA National Institutes of Health6, was goal management training9, all improve
known as ACTIVE, (Advanced Cognitive recall. Other abilities successfully trained
Training for Independent and Vital Elderly). include complex coordination, such as or-
Its goal was to evaluate the efficacy of three ganizing a carpool10, and reasoning6. Thus
different cognitive skill interventions on test strategy training, broadly defined, improves
performance within and between the three performance on a range of different cogni-
types of skills trained as well as the tempo- tive tasks compared with control conditions
ral duration of training effects. There were where there is no training.
2832 healthy participants aged 65 to 92 in
this randomized controlled trial. The inter- Extended practice training, in contrast, is
ventions trained the use of strategies to im- a ‘bottom up’ approach and has been used
prove reasoning, memory, or visual speed for training memory, dual task performance,
of processing, and the primary outcomes in- abilities related to attention, and discrimina-
cluded measures of each of the three cogni- tion in memory. It may or may not involve
tive abilities as well as cognitively demand- suggesting a strategy for those trained; how-
ing functional abilities such as being able ever, hundreds to thousands of trials are
to use information correctly from everyday completed during the course of extended
items like medication labels. A no-contact practice training. It therefore appears that the
control group was used for comparisons of extensive repetition of the skill is the crucial
training efficacy and duration. Findings for element of this type of training. Extended
the cognitive outcomes showed that im- practice training has been used successfully
provements were observed only for the abil- to improve continuous recognition skills11, in
ity that had been trained for each group, and identifying the direction and order of sound
that these improvements persisted, especial- frequency sweeps12, and performance on a
ly with booster training (limited retraining in go/no continuous response task13, as well as
the strategies) for two years. There was no increasing efficiency by producing reduc-
improvement on the primary functional out- tions in the response time costs of switch
comes over the two year evaluation6. This tasks14, and simultaneous dual tasks15,16, as
suggested little evidence over the two year well as in reducing performance variability17
follow up period for transfer of the training and in improving the accuracy of visual se-
to other abilities or to functional outcomes. lective attention18.
However, the issue of transfer of training,
which is critical to the argument that digital Although both strategy and extended prac-
game play can improve cognition in older tice training improve performance on the
adults, is complex and is discussed next. targeted tasks, whether the trained skills pro-
duce far transfer to untrained tasks is much
Transfer of training more controversial. Several recent reviews
Two major approaches have been used argue that there is little evidence of trans-
successfully to train older adults directly fer to untrained cognitive tasks or to other
in cognitive abilities: (i) strategy training; abilities19, including memory20, though oth-
and (ii) extended practice training. Strategy ers suggest that it depends on the approach
training is a ‘top down’ approach and has used21. Zelinski22 has suggested that there is
been used for training memory, reasoning, evidence of far transfer in aging training stud-
and complex planning tasks. Strategy train- ies, based on a categorization of effects into
ing such as use of various memory training the taxonomy of transfer proposed by Bar-
techniques, including specific mnemonics7, nett and Ceci23. This taxonomy was devised
general approaches to improving memory6, to provide a basis for evaluating the exist-
Autumn 2009 221 Vol. 8, No 4
ence of transfer effects, which has long been Table 1 identifies behavioral studies pub-
contentious, in the educational psychology lished or in press by December 2008 for
literature. It organizes findings by classify- which functional far transfer was observed,
ing transfer on a continuum of near to far and classifies them in a hierarchy of near
on multiple content and context dimensions. and far transfer with temporal near and far
The content dimensions reflect what is trans- transfer at the highest level, based on the
ferred such as the generality of the skill, the idea that duration of the training effect is
type of outcome against which transfer is most important: training effects that fade
expected, and whether memory has to be shortly after training is completed are not
actively used to complete the transfer task. worth the effort. Modality transfer, with the
These dimensions affect the likelihood of skill extended to different testing contexts, is
transfer and are embedded in the context here considered to be somewhat less impor-
of transfer, that is, when and where transfer tant an aspect of far transfer than temporal
occurs. The context dimensions of transfer far transfer. The studies in Table 1 are iden-
are used to estimate the distance between tified as to whether the protocol was strat-
training and transfer and thus can be used to egy training, extended practice training, and
evaluate whether transfer is near or far. a combination. Only one strategy training
study successfully produced functional far
The dimensions of context transfer effects transfer; the remainder producing functional
observed in the aging literature include the far transfer used extended practice or com-
temporal context, the amount of time be- bined strategy with extended practice train-
tween training and transfer, with far transfer ing. Although the reasoning training arm of
increasing over time; the functional context; the ACTIVE study (the only strategy training
that is, the function for which the skill is po- study in Table 1) did produce functional far
sitioned; far transfer involves extending the transfer to a reduction in reported disabil-
functional context to one that is very differ- ity of instrumental activities of daily living
ent from that of the skill trained, for example, (IADLS), the memory strategy training arm
from handicapping horses at a racetrack to of ACTIVE did not, either immediately, af-
handicapping stocks in the stock market 24; ter 2 years6 or after 5 years25. Thus, memory
and modality, the sensory modality in which strategy training did not show far transfer, as
the transfer is tested (for instance, visual or suggested elsewhere19,20. On the other hand,
auditory), with far transfer involving different extended practice training of memory skills
sensory modalities or different test formats significantly transferred to recall of word
(for instance, recognition or recall). Rather lists and of material in working memory12,26.
than attempting to quantify the ‘distance’ of Extended practice training, as seen in Table
near or far training, Barnett and Ceci23 sug- 1, also improved supervisory abilities in rec-
gested that the types of context transfer be ognition memory, including source memo-
nested in a hierarchy, with theoretical rea- ry, which is assumed to require frontal in-
sons used to determine the relative distance volvement 21,26. Digital action games may
or importance of particular types of context also produce far transfer to specific cogni-
transfer. At each level in the hierarchy, near tive abilities because games use principles
and far transfer is operationalized as cat- of brain plasticity that closely approximate
egories in a matrix (Table 1). The distance those of extended practice training.
of transfer increases with the number of far
transfer attributes identified in the outcome Plasticity effects
measure. Studies showing more far transfer Research in brain plasticity shows that the
are at the right side of the 2 x 2 (near/far brain reorganizes resources to strengthen
temporal transfer x near/far modality trans- the fidelity of the learned stimulus or be-
fer) matrix; those with less far transfer are havior27, which is essentially a memory
closer to the left. function that affects information process-
Autumn 2009 222 Vol. 8, No 4
ing efficiency. If there is considerable ex- shown one at a time and the task was to iden-
perience in engaging in a particular activity, tify whether the presently shown item was
the area of the brain associated with that new, from a list studied earlier, or had been
activity shows enhanced function, whereas seen in a prior recognition trial. Older adults
unspecialized stimulation reduces ability were initially only able to discriminate list
to discriminate and allows for overlapping items from previously shown items with a lag
response fields for multiple stimuli, pro- of 2. However, Jennings and her colleagues
ducing negative plasticity effects28. It has systematically increased the lags between
been suggested that the negative effects of identical items and maintained task difficulty
plasticity explains cognitive decline in ag- by requiring accurate performance for sev-
ing: insufficient attention, poorer sensory eral trials before increasing lags. The adaptive
inputs, a higher noise to signal ratio, and approach was successful in that by the end of
poorer neuromodulation all lead to re- training, the older participants were accurate
duced discrimination and specialization of in the source discrimination for lags of up to
brain function27. To reduce decline, activi- 2811. Similarly, the auditory processing train-
ties that increase attention and improve the ing approach of the study by Smith et al.12
signal to noise ratio include those that in- kept performance at approximately 80-90%
crease the discrimination of information29; correct at a given level and improved dis-
to improve discrimination, activities have crimination in identification of sound sweeps
to be adaptive to the individuals’ abilities so that participants who initially required 116
so that a high level of challenge is main- ms between sounds could discriminate and
tained27. Extensive practice with discrimina- correctly order those presented at 48 ms on
tion is needed to reinforce this ability, as re- average at the end of training.
organization of the underlying brain activity
requires substantial repetition of the action. Extended practice, as seen in the Jennings
Finally, Mahncke et al.27 propose that sus- et al.26, Smith et al.12, and Buschkeuhl et
tained interest in the tasks increases and al.31 studies, may facilitate transfer to mem-
maintains attention during task perform- ory skills by reducing the difficulties that
ance, further increasing reorganization and strategy training does not address: by using
positive plasticity. gradual and adaptive increases of difficulty,
the task is relatively easy, retrieval require-
The extended practice approach uses the ments for strategies are reduced because
brain plasticity principles outlined here. The of increased discrimination between items,
approach, by definition, involves hundreds and suboptimal encoding habits can be
to thousands of repetitions of the skill to be bypassed. Thus, extended practice training
trained. For example, training in the study may require less self regulation in retrieval
by Jennings et al.26 was for approximately from memory32 than memory strategy train-
1464 trials. Smith et al.12 provided 40 hours ing21. Gradual adaptation may ensure that
of practice of a set of six systematic exer- the training remains challenging, yet not
cises, Li et al.30 45 15-minute sessions, and overwhelmingly difficult, which maintains
Buschkeuhl et al.31 24 45-minute sessions. engagement33.
The sheer repetition ensures greater fidelity
of representations, important in promoting Challenge is key to plasticity effects. Dust-
memory retrieval. man and White34 suggest that during difficult
cognitive tasks, there are dynamic effects of
Extended practice training in the aging lit- increases in oxygen or glucose to the brain:
erature additionally trains contextual and heart rate is elevated during performance
perceptual discrimination and memory12,26. of cognitive tasks, and glucose uptake in-
Jennings et al.26 trained discrimination in creases, suggesting that mechanisms within
a continuous recognition task. Items were the cardiovascular system increase deliv-
Autumn 2009 223 Vol. 8, No 4
ery of metabolic substrates. This intriguing developed for entertainment do differ from
hypothesis suggests that the physiological activities in extended practice training, how-
mechanisms induced by a sustained mental ever, because they are designed to be fun.
challenge may partially underlie the effects Klimmt and Hartmann33 suggest principles
of extended practice training. of games that produce an enjoyable experi-
ence: first, players enjoy being the central
Thus, the principles of brain plasticity of in- causal agent who affects the game environ-
creasing discrimination and memory using ment. Second, the player is uncertain about
approaches adapting to the individual’s level what will actually happen, so the suspense
of proficiency yet maintaining task difficulty created increases the emotional investment
and therefore engagement in the tasks, not in attaining success. Third, when the player
only improves performance on the train- successfully overcomes a challenge, this cre-
ing tasks, but most important, extend to ates a positive experience. Fourth, the explo-
improvements in memory and supervisory ration of characters and actions is inherently
skills on transfer tasks. interesting. For example, games provide
the opportunity for the player to play a role,
Digital action games such as being a soldier or a leader of an al-
Digital action games use general principles ien race. These principles have the poten-
similar to those of extended practice training. tial to increase the likelihood and duration
Games involve continual repetition; they are of play, as well as considerable engagement
designed to be played for many hours. For during play in the game tasks.
example, Medal of Honor published by En-
tertainment Arts in 2002, a game used in A recent approach to understanding why
research on cognitive enhancement (see be- players enjoy games is the Presence-In-
low) may involve approximately 10 hours of volvement-Flow Framework35 which con-
play to completion by an experienced gam- ceptualizes presence as incorporating
er. Other games provide even longer basic perceptual-attentive and spatial-cognitive
play experience. Starcraft published by Bliz- processes which place the user in the space
zard in 1998, for example, is designed for of game play, involvement as representing
approximately 30 hours of play. the user’s acceptance of and adaptation to
the play space and his or her role in it, and
Digital action games require sensory dis- flow as a response to the ability-challenge
crimination, leading to efficient and rapid tension that motivates the user to continue
information processing, they are adaptive, to play. These elements of enjoyment are
with increasingly difficult levels made avail- crucial to keeping players at play; low lev-
able after achieving success at lower levels els of presence, involvement, and flow are
of performance, and are challenging. Games predicted to be associated with terminating
Autumn 2009 225 Vol. 8, No 4
play. This subjective experience of play may adults show far transfer to untrained mem-
very well be a crucial element in the pos- ory tasks after extended practice training30.
sible use of games as an intervention: en- A recent study showed far transfer after ex-
tertaining interventions have potential to be tended practice in a group of adults over
more effective at creating behavior change age 8031. It is intriguing to speculate that
than those lacking an entertainment com- action games would also produce transfer
ponent36,37 because of the positive subjec- to perceptual, attentional, and memory
tive experiences they produce. This has not abilities in older adults. The literature from
been tested specifically with digital action the 1990s suggests that older people do
games; however, in an intervention study gain cognitive benefits from playing simple
described below, young men with no game video games, compared to those who do
experience continued spontaneously to play not play.
a digital action game five months after the
game intervention was discontinued38. Digital games and cognitive improvements
In the aging literature, studies using first-gen-
There is growing evidence that such games eration video games played on arcade ma-
may produce far transfer to cognitive per- chines indicated that older people had faster
formance even though they were not de- response time after 35 hours of Tetris com-
veloped to improve cognitive skills. Studies pared to a no-practice control43; with freely
with young adults show that shooter games chosen Atari games (Frogger or Ms. Pacman)
(described below) improve attentional skills compared to movie watching44, and freely
apparently because of the emphasis on dis- chosen (Pacman or Donkey Kong) arcade
crimination and rapid visual information games versus no-game controls45. Another
processing, and the need to monitor the study reported higher WAIS IQs after play-
entire screen. Green and Bavelier found in- ing Crystal Castles (Atari) compared to a no-
creased visual selective attention measured game control47. However, these early studies
by useful field of view, attentional blink, showed no game play-related improvement
and enumeration39,40 and improved target- on the Stroop task, a measure of supervisory
distractor discrimination41 with the shooter skills43 or list memory44. Thus, early games,
game Medal of Honor: Allied Assault than which were relatively simplistic, produced
with the puzzle game Tetris published by some cognitive improvements in older
Tetris Holding LLC, in 1985. A study evaluat- adults but did not transfer to a full range of
ing gender differences in the breadth of the cognitive tasks.
useful field of view and mental rotation after
naïve participants played 10 hours of Medal The only published study in aging that us-
of Honor compared to those who played 10 ing a current-generation action game, the
hours of a visuospatial puzzle game, Balance authors are aware of, is the game Rise of
published by Atari in 2004, showed that Nations published by Microsoft in 2004. A
women improved more than men, presum- simplified version of this strategy game (de-
ably because their initial performance was fined below) was played for 23 hours by
lower. In a 5-month follow up, the women healthy older adults47. It was hypothesized
maintained their improved visuospatial per- to benefit abilities associated with planning
formance. Recently, Li42 found improvements and organization, but not visual processing
in visual contrast sensitivity, long thought to skills (see below). These predictions were
be correctable only with eyeglasses, contact supported: there were improvements in
lenses, or surgery, after naïve young adults supervisory abilities, though there were no
played 50 hours of shooter games. parallel increases in visual attention. Mem-
ory was not tested. This does suggest that
However, these games have not been test- games may improve some aspects of cogni-
ed with older adults. Both young and older tion in older adults.
Autumn 2009 226 Vol. 8, No 4
Game play mechanics and cognition takes is an element of nearly every game
Digital action games use certain mechanics that encourages the player to develop and
that are likely to support far transfer to cog- remember strategies for success in play.
nitive abilities. In this section, some com-
mon mechanics of play are described to Another element of game design that is likely
explain how they may produce transfer for to transfer to cognitive abilities is backtracking,
specific abilities. In general, learning to play a requirement to return to previously visited ar-
a digital action game requires remembering eas to complete a task that was not previously
a control scheme, adapting to changes in attainable until an item or power in the game
the challenges, and making quick decisions. has been obtained in a subsequently visited
Also, in most action games, hand-eye co- environment. For example, the player may see
ordination is required. The pace at which a a switch high up on a wall that must be activat-
player operates within the game determines ed. However, he or she cannot activate it until
performance and adults who play with in- an item needed for the activation has been
tent to progress or win will also have to en- obtained in a later game level. Some games
gage in rapid processing. Although some do not initially indicate that backtracking is
games may exercise one skill more than needed until an in-game character provides
other games do (visual attention in shooter clues to indicate that forward progression re-
games, for example), rule set memorization quires completing a task from a previously vis-
is fundamental to all. Thus, memory, deci- ited environment. This suggests that the game
sion making, speed, and motor coordination requires careful attention to all surroundings,
are practiced extensively in action games48. not just the obvious paths for completion. Me-
chanics like these may promote greater use of
Most digital action games use failures (deaths attention and reasoning in working memory to
or injuries) to motivate players to improve survey the environment to predict which pos-
their performance and thereby advance to sible tasks may require eventual completion,
higher difficulty levels and/or completion of as well as the retrieval of elements seen earlier
the game. If the player’s character keeps dy- in the game from memory.
ing in a particular environment within the
game, the player has to develop alternative Genre-based potential cognitive benefits
strategies to avoid the pitfalls causing the In this section, speculations about what spe-
death. This opportunity to learn from mis- cific cognitive skills are likely to be trained
Table 2. Hypotheses about abilities improved by different game genres; x= the genre is hypothesized
to produce significant improvements in performance; a=improvement expected in platformer games of
this genre
Game genre
3rd person
Ability 1st person Massive
action- Strategy Role playing
shooter multiplayer
adventure
Eye-hand coordination X X X X X
Memory X X X
Mental rotation X X X
Reasoning X X
Response speed X X X
Supervisory X X X
Visual attention X Xa
Working memory X X X
and to transfer from digital action games in the game surroundings. Many popular
based on their genre are summarized (Ta- third-person action/adventure games may
ble 2). Shooter games are likely to improve only differ from shooter games in that the
visual attention and rapid response. Strat- player’s perspective shifts from first person
egy games are hypothesized to benefit su- to third person, that is, the player can see
pervisory skills and working memory, and the entire body of his or her character, rath-
possibly long-term memory retrieval. Role- er than just its extremities, during play. Like
playing games are likely to improve retrieval shooter games, action/adventure games re-
from long-term memory, reasoning, supervi- quire that players take full advantage of their
sory abilities, and working memory. Massive characters’ visual range, for example, scan-
multiplayer online games are hypothesized ning the environment for resources that may
to improve response speed, reasoning, su- be needed for progression. These two game
pervisory abilities, and working memory in genres encourage visual monitoring, rapid
the context of social interactions. If these responding, and accuracy.
hypotheses are supported, it is conceivable
that game genres can be prescriptively rec- A sub-genre of third-person games requires
ommended to older adults who would like jumping from one platform to another in the
to play while also improving specific abilities. environment. In these games, known as plat-
formers, the need to time precisely when and
Digital action games that appear to have where jumps are made adds to game com-
promise for cognitive interventions with plexity by requiring a player to gauge the tra-
older adults are in the categories of first- jectory of a jump needed to go through a lev-
person shooter, third-person action/adven- el. This differs from many first-person shooter
ture games, strategy games, and role-playing games where players need to be aware of
games. The specific skills that are hypothe- what is in front of them at all times, hence,
sized to be benefitted are described for each limiting the character’s ability to also look
genre. However, skills are likely to overlap down without overly complicating the range
across genres based on the particular de- of available controls (although some shooter
mands of individual games. games add platform jumping). Occasionally,
jumps are also implemented into puzzles
In first-person shooter games, the game is that require both rapid processing speed and
experienced from the point of view of the mental reasoning skills. For example, a series
player in a role. One of the principles un- of jumps onto falling platforms requires su-
derlying shooter games is known as twitch pervisory visuospatial planning, precise tim-
game play, defined as fast and precise re- ing and rapid input. The additional need to
sponses (twitches) with immediate feedback, utilize a jump button in platformer game play
while monitoring the display screen and while performing other actions may increase
moving through the environment. Continu- the transfer to dual task performance.
al monitoring of the display is also used in
item collection within shooter games. Be- Strategy games also use twitch game play
sides ‘run and gun’, that is, moving quickly but the strategic component of these games
through the game environment to evade is predominant: it involves gathering re-
enemies and shoot at them, players can sources, building bases, and increasing tech-
collect various objects in the environment. nological development to prepare for battle
Item collection may serve in part either to against an enemy. The player has a top-
develop the storyline, to unlock bonuses or down view of the battlefield, which is what
extra points during play, or to advance to a distinguishes strategy from shooter games.
new level in the game progression. The ex- Orders are given to various resource-gather-
istence of collectible items encourages play- ing, construction, or combat units under the
ers to pay close visual attention to objects leader’s (player’s) command; the player does
Autumn 2009 228 Vol. 8, No 4
not execute the orders as in shooter games. ning or fire. Understanding different enemy
There are two major subcategories of strat- weaknesses requires retrieval of both the
egy games. Turn-based strategy games stop characters’ item inventory and knowledge
the action on the enemy’s side either for a of possible offensive techniques from long-
specific amount of time or until the player term memory.
makes choices. Real-time strategy games
continue the action while the player is mak- In addition, role playing games often allow
ing decisions, creating time-pressured multi- a player to manage inventory for multiple
tasking. Both subcategories involve some of characters, several of which are used simul-
the same cognitive skills associated with vis- taneously to defeat in-game enemies, so
ual attention as shooter games, but they will multitasking with a memory load, as in dual
also involve decisions made in the context task performance, is practiced. This game
of complex rules. Strategy games may also genre is very complex in that every charac-
engage memory and reasoning processes ter’s abilities adds a new dynamic to every
as rules must be remembered and applied in-game encounter; if one character is killed
to different stimuli. For example, the order in battle, the player is forced to adapt his or
of actions used to build a structure must be her play strategy based on the abilities of the
followed as required within the game for its remaining characters. This type of in-game
successful construction. Details of the struc- adaptation combined with a sizable inven-
tures must be carefully planned so that they tory of resources should transfer to dual task
will be beneficial during combat. For exam- performance, as well as working memory
ple, doors must be placed so that combat- and memory retrieval benefits. Finally, be-
ants in the battle units can exit the building fore each enemy encounter, a player is free
quickly and efficiently. The planning and to strategize and arm his characters with
decision process suggest that strategy games whatever set of gear, equipment or spells the
may increase reasoning, and working mem- player sees fit. With these numerous possi-
ory as reported by Basak et al.47, and possi- bilities, the player may engage in complex
bly long-term memory, to store and retrieve reasoning in determining what is best for
game-related decisions and rules. each situation.
on combined button presses used to con- relational studies, it is not clear whether this
trol action on the display. Instead of having effect is due to selection or to practice54.
to control aim manually, for example, play-
ers can simply use the interface device to Simple games do not appear to involve the
point to the desired location on the display. complex cognitive demands as the digital
Other console-based game platforms have action games that are associated with brain
introduced interfaces designed to be analo- plasticity. For example, they rely on previ-
gous to the objects that they emulate, such ously learned information rather than learn-
as the microphones, guitars, and drums for ing and applying new rules, and they are less
play-along music games, or guns for shooter dynamic. The concept of battle and compe-
games. Touch screen devices are also be- tition to survive in digital action games may
ing introduced for use with game displays, contribute to their cognitive benefits, and it
though they may not yet be adequate for the is therefore possible that action games pro-
complex games that are likely to have the duce stronger experiences of presence, in-
potential to improve cognition. volvement, and flow than more static games.
On the other hand, the complexity of stimuli
The introduction of new interfaces like the and rapid processing required to play action
Wii nunchuk can enhance the experience of games may be important; in studies with
play for naïve players such as older adults. young adults, digital games that may train
These interface devices can remove an im- some aspects of the skills used in action
portant barrier for older adults who might games, such as Tetris or Balance, have not
be reticent to use traditional PS2 type game- been associated with visual or spatial im-
pads54. In turn, they may be more willing to provements perhaps because they are sim-
play with grandchildren or adult children pler and not as demanding48. On the other
because one source of difficulty in play has hand, such games may improve other cogni-
been eliminated. The possibility of social tive skills that have not been tested.
interaction with family members in game
play also has important implications for en- Conclusion
hancing cognition because of the increased There is great potential for digital action
complexity of play and also the motivation games originally developed for the enter-
to perform well. tainment of young adults to produce cog-
nitive benefits in older adults. At this time,
It is thus plausible to consider that the de- however, very little is known about the ef-
velopment of future games will continue to ficacy of digital games and whether they
make the player experience more intuitive produce improvements greater than those of
while mixing and matching cognitive-bene- other types of interventions for older adults
ficial elements from one category of games that will transfer to untrained cognitive tasks.
with others. It is critical to test different types of games to
understand what is effective and how rela-
Simple games tively effective specific genres of games are.
It is less clear from the literature whether It is also critical to determine what principles
simple games such as Sudoku, crossword support specific cognitive outcomes from
puzzles, word search, or other games, avail- games—that is, whether skills developed
able on paper, but which have been trans- indirectly with game play or directly with
lated to digital versions, are as beneficial straightforward exercises are differentially or
to cognition as the complex digital action equally effective in transferring to cognitive
games we have described here. Although task performance in older adults. A critical
there is abundant literature that playing sim- question is whether the narrative and other
ple games of this type is associated with elements of digital action games developed
better memory and cognitive ability in cor- to engage players with strong experiences
Autumn 2009 231 Vol. 8, No 4
of presence, involvement, and flow,are key concerned with ‘brain training’. They are
to cognitive improvement, along with the investing in software to improve cognitive
game mechanics. Finding that digital games function as they attempt to reduce their risk
improve memory and cognition in older of cognitive decline. Nintendo’s Brain Age 2
adults would have important implications game, which involves simple cognitive ac-
for using games as an intervention. Games tivities, has been marketed to older adults
are relatively inexpensive, without the side as a game that improves cognition and was
effects of medications. In addition, games the 16th top video game sold in 200756. A
are inherently enjoyable, and may yield report by a company advising the brain fit-
greater compliance than other kinds of ben- ness industry indicated that the brain fitness
eficial interventions because they are fun. software market reached US$265 million in
revenues in 2008, led by consumers over
Older adults already show an increasing in- age 50, senior communities, and insurance
terest in digital game play. Data from a 2008 providers57.
survey conducted by the Entertainment
Software Association show some surprising It therefore appears that there is a ‘perfect
findings. Contrary to assumptions that video storm’ of forces that can produce rapid
or online gamers are children or teenagers, gains in an entertainment-oriented technol-
49% of gamers are 18-49 years old, with an ogy that is also beneficial: more user-friendly
average age of 35. Women aged 18 and over game interfaces, the interest of older people
represent a significantly greater proportion in digital games, and their interest in games
of the gamer population than boys aged 17 marketed to improve cognition. Research in
or less; 44% of gamers are women. About the efficacy of games for older adults is rel-
26% of computer gamers are over the age of evant to the implementation of games to en-
50, compared with 1999, when the percent- courage cognitive health. Positive findings
age was 9%, suggesting a cohort-related could additionally encourage digital game
increase in older gamers55. Another survey companies to partner with cognitive scien-
indicated that 23% of respondents aged 65 tists to develop health games that enhance
and older play digital games51, and that this cognition with design principles and narra-
is likely to be a cohort-based trend as the tives that specifically engage older adults.
baby boomers grow older, with greater pro- Such games could use ‘stealth health’ prin-
portions of older adults playing. This follows ciples: they are engaging to play and pro-
a general trend. Digital games have become duce important health outcomes. Improving
so popular as a form of entertainment that or helping older adults maintain their cogni-
a market research survey released in May, tive abilities could have the effect of reduc-
2009 indicated that 63% of Americans re- ing risk for dependency because poor cog-
port having played a digital game in the past nitive performance is one of its major risk
6 months, and this exceeds the percent- factors. Delaying even one year of depend-
age of Americans who report having gone ency would have major repercussions for
to the movies during that time period56. In the economy of the USA2. It is not likely that
fact, gamers aged 65+ play more frequently many would have foreseen that a technol-
than any other age group, with 36% report- ogy developed for entertainment could have
ing play every day or nearly every day com- such a major potential impact on health and
pared to 19-20% of gamers between the dependency. Time will tell whether this is
ages of 18 and 64. It is assumed that this indeed the case.
is because gamers over age 65 have more
leisure time for play51.
In addition, older adults, the fastest growing
age segment of the USA population, are very