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14-SM For The Complete Stress-Strain Curve For Intact Rock in Uniaxial Compression - 1999 PDF
14-SM For The Complete Stress-Strain Curve For Intact Rock in Uniaxial Compression - 1999 PDF
14-SM For The Complete Stress-Strain Curve For Intact Rock in Uniaxial Compression - 1999 PDF
CONTENTS
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
2. Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
3. Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
4. Specimen preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
5. Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
6. Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
7. Reporting of results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
8. Additional interpretative comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Co-ordinators
C.E. Fairhurst (USA), J.A. Hudson (UK)
0148-9062/99/$ - see front matter # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 4 8 - 9 0 6 2 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 0 6 - 6
C.E. Fairhurst, J.A. Hudson / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 36 (1999) 279±289 281
A Second Series of Suggested Methods is being produced by the ISRM Commission on Testing Methods from 1998 onwards.
In this Second Series, for each SM two versions are published:
A suite of the new Suggested Methods is currently being published in this Journal. These started with an Indentation
Hardness Index SM written by T. Szwedzicki and published in June 1998. Several more will be published in 1999.
5 MN/mm are commonly available and are rec- time of hydraulic commands to the loading piston (see
ommended. The stiness of the entire load train (i.e. Fig. 2).
load frame, platens, spacers, load cell, etc.) should also 3.4 The hydraulic manifold should be ®tted with in-
be maximized. Replacing an in-line load cell (which by line accumulators (see Fig. 2). Accumulators provide
design is `soft') with a steel spacer, and measuring the hydraulic ¯ow required for fast, short duration,
axial load by an alternative method such as a dieren- movement of the piston, which is frequently necessary
tial pressure transducer, will increase load train sti- to control the failure rate of brittle specimens.
ness, but may compromise force readout accuracy, 3.5 A high-speed, high-frequency response servo-
especially at relatively low loads. Moving the loading valve should be used to reduce servovalve spool open-
piston (or actuator) to the most retracted position ing time and improve system response time.
prior to testing also increases load train stiness by
reducing the hydraulic ¯uid `spring' under the piston. Spherically seated platen and specimen platen
The load frame capacity should exceed the estimate of
the strongest specimen to be tested. The calibrations of 3.6 A spherically seated upper loading platen should
the load frame transducers should be veri®ed at suit- be used, which reduces the eect of specimen non-par-
able time intervals and should comply with accepted allelism on test results. The radius of the spherical pla-
national requirements such as prescribed in either ten should be equal to or greater than the specimen
ASTM methods E4: veri®cation of testing machines or radius, and the center point of the spherical seat
British standard 1610, grade A. should coincide with the top surface of the specimen
even if an intermediate platen is used. The mating
Hydraulics spherical surfaces should not be lubricated, since the
spherical joint is intended only to accommodate initial
3.3 A close-coupled hydraulic manifold (i.e. specimen alignment, and is not expected to move or
mounted to or located as close as possible to the load- rotate during testing. (If necessary, a thin ®lm of min-
ing piston) is recommended to minimize the response eral oil is acceptable to reduce corrosion). The radial
284 C.E. Fairhurst, J.A. Hudson / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 36 (1999) 279±289
Fig. 3. Example of simultaneous mounting of one circumferential and two axial extensometers.
C.E. Fairhurst, J.A. Hudson / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 36 (1999) 279±289 285
center of the spherical surface should coincide with the specimen strain. The devices should be robust and
center of the top end of the specimen, to within 1 mm. stable, with strain sensitivity of the order of 510ÿ6.
3.7 Specimen platens in the form of discs and having 3.11 If electrical resistance strain gauges are used,
a Rockwell hardness of not less than Rc 58 should be the length of the gauges over which axial and circum-
placed at the specimen ends. The diameter of the pla- ferential strains are determined shall be at least ten
tens shall be between D and D+2 mm, where D is the grain diameters (of the rock microstructure) in magni-
diameter of the specimen. The thickness of the platens tude and the gauges should not encroach within D/2
shall be at least 15 mm or D/3 (whichever is greater). of the specimen ends, where D is the diameter of the
Surfaces of the disc platens should be ground and specimen.
their ¯atness should be better than 0.005 mm. 3.12 If LVDTs are used for measuring axial and lat-
3.8 The specimen, the platens and the spherical seat eral displacement due to loading, these devices should
shall be accurately centered with respect to one be accurate to within 0.002 mm in any 0.02 mm range
another and to the loading machine. Etched circles on and within 0.005 mm in any 0.25 mm range. It may be
the lower platen are recommended to facilitate speci- more dicult to control a complete force-displacement
men centering. Specimen platens with machined center- test on a specimen that exhibits class II behavior using
ing grooves should not be used, because the grooves conventional LVDTs, due to the inherent time delay
can restrict lateral displacement of the specimen during of LVDTs and alternating current conditioning elec-
the test. tronics, which can have a detrimental eect on the
control loop closure rate. If diculty is experienced, it
is recommended that digital transducers be used. The
Control system
LVDTs should not encroach within D/2 of the speci-
men ends.
3.9 A closed-loop, servo-hydraulic, control system,
3.13 With some strain measurement transducers, it
capable of operation in axial force, axial strain and
may be useful to surround the specimen with a ¯exible
radial strain control should be used (see Fig. 2).
membrane in order to prevent spalling chips of rock
Control systems with high loop-closure rates (1 kHz or
from interfering with the transducers. If such a mem-
greater, real-time) are recommended, as are control
brane is used, ensure that the membrane does not
systems that allow closed-loop control based on a
over-constrain the lateral expansion of the specimen.
computed feedback signal [8,9].
Also, eects of the membrane-specimen interface
should be considered.
Strain measurement transducers
Data acquisition
3.10 Measurement of axial and circumferential or
diametrical displacement by means of direct contact 3.14 A personal computer system for acquiring and
extensometers is recommended. Both axial and circum- storing data should be used. Data should be acquired
ferential strains shall be determined within an accuracy as frequently as once/second, or as a function of
of 1% of the reading and a precision of 0.2% of full change in force or change in axial or radial displace-
scale. The overall possible physical travel of the extens- ment.
ometers should exceed the maximum expected speci-
men displacements. Two axial extensometers are
recommended and should be attached to the specimen
1808 apart, and contact the specimen at approximately 4. Specimen preparation
25 and 75% of the axial dimension (see Fig. 3). The
output of the two extensometers should be acquired 4.1 Test specimens shall be right circular cylinders
separately, but averaged for the test report. If axial having a height-to-diameter ratio of between 2.0 and
measurement is made between the upper and lower 3.0 and a diameter preferably of not less than approxi-
platens, care should be taken to determine and correct mately 50 mm. The diameter of the specimen shall be
for any platen de¯ection. The circumferential or dia- at least 20 times the largest grain in the rock micro-
metrical extensometer should be located at the speci- structure.
men mid-height. Pay particular attention to data 4.2 The ends of the specimen shall be ¯at to 20.01
reduction for the circumferential transducer where the mm and shall not depart from the perpendicular to the
transducer is measuring a change in chord length longitudinal axis of the specimen by more than 0.001
rather than a direct change in circumference. Electrical rad (about 3.5 mm) or 0.05 in 50 mm.
resistance strain gauges, linear variable dierential 4.3 The sides of the specimen shall be smooth and
transformers (LVDTs), or other suitable measuring straight to within 0.3 mm over the full length of the
devices can also be used to measure axial and lateral specimen.
286 C.E. Fairhurst, J.A. Hudson / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 36 (1999) 279±289
4.4 The use of capping materials or end surface the axial strain rate to 0.001 mm/mm/s until a com-
treatments other than machining is not permitted. plete force-displacement curve is obtained. The force-
4.5 The diameter of the test specimen shall be displacement curve can be considered to be complete
measured to the nearest 0.1 mm by averaging two di- in the testing context when the load carrying capacity
ameters measured at right angles to each other close to of the specimen declines to less than approximately
the top, the mid-height and the bottom of the speci- 30±40% of peak load carrying capacity.
men. The average diameter shall be used for calculat-
ing the cross-sectional area. The height of the Specimens that generally exhibit brittle behavior
specimen shall be determined to the nearest 1.0 mm. (severe, small strain failure behavior)
4.6 Specimens shall be stored for no longer than 30
days, and in such a way as to preserve, as much as 5.5 Switch the control mode to axial strain control,
possible, the natural water content. The moisture con- and load the specimen at an axial strain rate of 0.001
dition shall be reported in accordance with ISRM SM mm/mm/s. until reaching approximately 70% of
for determination of the water content of a rock expected peak force. At 70% of peak force, switch the
sample [10]. control mode to circumferential control, at a rate of
4.7 The number of specimens tested under a speci- 0.0001 mm/mm/s, until the applied force falls to 50%
®ed set of conditions should be sucient to adequately of peak force. Then switch back to an axial strain rate
represent the rock sample, and should be a function of of 0.001 mm/mm/s until a complete force-displacement
the intrinsic variability of the rock. A minimum of ®ve curve is obtained. If the test is unsuccessful due to
specimens per set of testing conditions is rec- abrupt specimen failure, alternative control modes may
ommended. be considered, such as a computed channel feedback
loop [8,9].
5.6 Force and axial and circumferential strains or
5. Procedure displacements shall be recorded at a frequency of 1
Hz.
5.1 Personnel conducting the tests should be su-
ciently trained in the use of servo-hydraulic testing sys-
tems, closed-loop control concepts and brittle rock 6. Calculations
testing, so that testing is performed safely.
5.2 Attach the strain or displacement measurement 6.1 The force will be obtained from the built-in load
transducers to the specimen and install the assembly cell information. Axial strain and diametric strain may
onto the lower platen in the load frame. be recorded directly from strain indicating equipment
5.3 Apply a small preload to the specimen in force or may be calculated from displacement readings
control. This helps `seat' the specimen to the loading depending upon the type of instrumentation used.
platens and the upper loading platen to the spherically 6.2 The compressive stress, s, is calculated as,
seated platen. When applying preload to the specimen,
the system should be in force control (i.e. using the s P=A0 ,
output of the axial force cell as feedback). Since rock where, P is the compressive force on the specimen, and
has a relatively high modulus, applying preload in A0 is the initial cross-sectional area, and in this test
axial strain control is not recommended, because a procedure, compressive stresses and strains are con-
small amount of axial strain could correspond to an sidered positive.
axial force above the maximum load bearing capacity 6.3 Axial strain, ea, is calculated as
of the specimen. Also, it should be noted that, if using
a dierential pressure transducer in place of a load cell ea Dl=l0 ,
for force measurement and control, applying small pre-
loads is dicult due to the piston friction at low loads. where Dl is the change in measured axial length (posi-
tive for a decrease in axial length) and l0 the axial
Specimens that generally exhibit ductile behavior length of specimen prior to loading.
(gentle, large strain failure behavior) 6.4 Diametric strain is determined either by measur-
ing the changes in specimen diameter or by measuring
5.4 Switch the control mode to axial strain control, the circumferential strain. In the case of measuring the
and load the specimen at an axial strain rate of 0.001 changes in diameter, the diametric strain, ed, is calcu-
mm/mm/s. until reaching approximately 70% of lated as
expected peak force. At 70% of peak force, switch the ed Dd=d0 ,
axial strain rate to 0.000001 mm/mm/s until the
applied force falls to 50% of peak force. Then switch where Dd is the change in diameter (negative for an
C.E. Fairhurst, J.A. Hudson / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 36 (1999) 279±289 287
Fig. 4. Complete stress±strain curve for a rock specimen showing the prepeak Young's modulus, compressive strength and postpeak Young's
modulus.
increase in diameter) and d0 the diameter of the speci- calculated using any one of several methods employed
men prior to loading. in accepted engineering practice, as described below.
In the case of measuring the circumferential strain In the postpeak region, the specimen has to be
ed, the circumference is C=pd, and so the change in unloaded from any postpeak location, and then
circumference is DC=pDd. The circumferential strain, reloaded to generate a further subsidiary complete
ec, is stress±strain curve (see Fig. 4). The Young's modulus
is then the positive slope of the ascending portion of
ec DC=Co DC=pd0 ,
this new curve, and is not the slope of the original
where Co is the original specimen circumference. stress±strain curve at the postpeak location (where the
The circumferential strain, ec, is therefore equal to slope is generally negative).
the diametric strain, ed, because The most common methods of establishing the
Young's modulus value are as follows:
ec DC=pd0 pDd=pd0 Dd=d0 ed :
6.5 The Young's modulus, E, of the rock is de®ned 1. Tangent Young's modulus, Et, is measured at a
as the ratio of the change in axial stress to the change stress level which is some ®xed percentage of ulti-
in axial strain Ð as caused by the axial strain. mate strength. It is generally taken at a stress level
Young's modulus is usually associated with the pre- equal to 50% of the uniaxial compressive strength.
peak portion of the complete stress±strain curve, but it The compressive strength is the peak stress sus-
can also be determined in the postpeak region. In the tained by the specimen.
prepeak and postpeak regions, the modulus may be 2. Average Young's modulus, Eav, is determined from
288 C.E. Fairhurst, J.A. Hudson / International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 36 (1999) 279±289
the average slopes of the more-or-less straight line (j) A plot of the complete force-displacement
portion of the axial stress±axial strain curve. curve, indicating the location of the peak force.
3. Secant Young's modulus, Es, is usually measured (k) Mode of failure: axial splitting or shear
from zero stress to some ®xed percentage of the failure.
compressive strength, generally at 50%. (l) Any other observation or available physical
data such as speci®c gravity, porosity and per-
Axial Young's modulus E is expressed in units of meability, citing the method of determination for
stress, i.e. Pascal (Pa) but the most appropriate mul- each.
tiple unit is the gigapascal (GPa=109 Pa). General information
6.6 Poisson's ratio, n, is calculated as (m) Number of specimens tested.
(n) Description of testing machine type.
n ÿ
slope of axial stress ÿ strain curve=slope of (o) Method of determination of prepeak Young's
modulus and at what axial stress level or strain
diametric stress±strain curve,
level determined.
(p) Method of determination of postpeak
n ÿE=
slope of diametric curve, Young's modulus and at what axial stress level
or strain level determined.
where the slope of the diametric curve is calculated in (q) Average result (if appropriate) of prepeak
the same manner for either of the three ways discussed Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio, expressed
for Young's modulus above. Note that Poisson's ratio to three signi®cant ®gures for all specimens in
in this equation has a positive value, since the slope of the sample.
the diametric curve is negative by the conventions used
in this procedure. Should it be necessary in some instances to test spe-
6.7 The volumetric strain, ev, for a given stress level, cimens that do not comply with the above speci®ca-
is tions, these facts shall be noted in the test report.
ev ea 2ec :