The Concept of the Self between Eastern and Western Philosophy

The notions “consciousness”, “self-consciousness”, “personal identity” (personality) and “self” overlap
to a particular extent, but there exist specific differences. The views in Western and Eastern philosophy are
diametrically opposite. In the West, there exists a multitude of definitions of the “self”, whereas in the
East the predominant view is that the self is rather an illusion.
Taking this is in consideration, the issue of the status of the human self requires a new linguistic-
philosophical analysis in the light of both contemporary science and philosophy. Today, in neurosciences and
neuropsychology the material substrate of the self is sought in the face of the brain. Nonetheless, the use of
unclear notions is a linguistic confusion that undermines this process.
On the one hand, in Western philosophy many philosophers and psychologists have advanced
conceptions of the self, such as René Descartes, John Locke, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, Johann Fichte,
Georg Hegel, Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, William James, Karen Horny, Erich Fromm, Burrhus
Skinner and other (Bachvarov, Draganov & Stoev, 1978; Mosig, 2006; Zhu & Han, 2008). In a closer temporal
perspective, Daniel Dennett conceived of the self as a homunculus, Patricia Churchland in the light of
eliminative materialism denies the existence of the self, whereas Charles Taylor, Marya Chechtmann and Hilde
Nelson introduced the narrative theory of self and personal identity (see Sturm, 2007; Renz, 2017;Berčić, 2017;
Dimkov, 2019a).
On the other hand, in Eastern philosophy, the most well-known conceptions of the self are
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Etymologico- philosophical analysis of the notion of “self” in Western philosophy

The notion of “self” has a derivative connotation from, perhaps, the most famous thought of the
French scientist and philosopher René Descartes (XVII century) – “Cogito, ergo sum” – which introduced the
dualism of soul (mind) and body (Dekart, 1978). Descartes identifies consciousness with thinking (Ivanov, 1985:
16). The laic notion of “soul” is considered identical with the philosophical notion of “self”. In fact, this
connoation comes from the Judeo-Christian religion (Mosig, 2006: 39; Zhu & Han, 2008: 1800). In fomer epochs
of human history, the soul was associated with the so-called animism (Ivanov, 1985: 15). The scientific notion
of “soul” is defined as “immediate experience” or “the constitutive part of the self, remaining after the
exclusion of the body (Krechmer, 1996: 5-6; translation P.R.D.). The self or the soul, in turn, is the
“act of experience”, contrasted with the “content of experience” (world or matter) (Krechmer, 1996: 7; see
Deikman, 1982).

Table 1. Basic conceptions of the self in Western philosophy (adapted from: Bachvarov, Draganov & Stoev,
1978: 16-17; Sturm, 2007; Dimkov, 2015, 2019a)

Author/ Philosophical School Conception of the Self

René Descartes (Rationalism) The “self” represents something, which belongs to
the thinking substance as an intuitive beginning of
rational cognition, emphasizing its independence.

Solipsism Solipsism represents the viewpoint of the isolated

individual and contemplation (idealistic view).

Fichte, German classical philosophy The “self” is a substance, the absolute creative
beginning, which implies not only itself, but also
everything that exists as is “not-self”.

Hegel/German classical philosophy The social essence of the human self-positioned as

an estranged force, standing above concrete
individuals, thus representing a world reason
[absolute spirit].

Henri Bergson/Irrationalism This view represents the self-confidence of the

individual in the bourgeois society, which
encounters the negation of the self.

Freud/Psychoanalysis and Metapsychology Freud conceived of the self as a submersion of the

ego in the id (the kingdom of the blind instincts)
and a distorted perception of the individual of his
societal essence as a result of the control exerted
on it by the enraged “super-ego”.
 Dialectical materialism The real battle of man for an accreditation is
conceived as a creator of societal relations and the
societal norms of life.

The biggest and freest expression in each

Patricia Churchland/Eliminative Materialism
Daniel Dennett/Cognitive Science
Marya Schechtman & Hilde Nelson/Narrative
theories for the constitution of self
individual as an active subject of his human self
becomes possible in the conditions of the all-
encompassing (total) development of the
personality.
The self is thought as a sensus communis or a
product of folk psychology and, as such, it does
not exist in reality.
The self is conceived as a homunculus or “a little
man” that controls the performance on the theater
of consciousness.
The self is constructed through an incessant process
of interpretation of the whole experiential richness of
the individual, which is arranged in a chronological
way. Some parts of this experiential richness can be
more constitutive for the self in comparison to others.

Social Constructivism A reductionist view, according to which the self is

constructed on the basis of the social interactions
among people.

Alain Morin/Inner Speech The phenomenon of “inner speech” is conceived as

constitutive for the self-due to the fact that it
represents a delimiter of the inner and the outer world
of man.

The concept of self in Eastern philosophy

In Eastern philosophy, the most well-known conceptions of the self are represented by the views of
Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism and Hinduism (Ho, 1995; Mosig, 2006).

Confucianism. The concept of self, according to Confucianism, is related to the social aspect of human
existence. The self is conceived as a “relational self” – “one which is intensely aware of the social presence of
other human beings” (Ho, 1995: 117). In this way, the individual self is dependent on all other selves. The self
is thus an obedient self, which follows the appeals of social requirements, rather than its own needs and
desires. The ideal self, according to this doctrine, can be achieved through a harmonization of one’s everyday
communication with other individuals in society at large (Ho, 1995: 118).

Taoism. Taoism accentuates the falsehood of language, way before the philosophy oflinguistic analysis and the
deconstruction of Jacques Derrida. The so-called “Tao”, the essence of life and the universe, or the Way, cannot
be described by human language. That is why paradoxes, contradictions, anecdotes, metaphors and aphorisms
are used. Tao is ineffable. According to the doctrine of Taoism, “the self is but one of the countless
manifestations of the Tao. It is an extension of the cosmos” (Ho, 1995: 120). Taoism, in its idiosyncratic style
of exposition, describes the self in the following way: “The perfect man hasno self; the spiritual man has no
achievement; the true sage has no name” (Ibid.). The ideal of Taoism, therefore, is the achievement of a lack of
self or “selflessness”.

Buddhism. Buddha advised that one should abstain from dealing with metaphysics, because this activity is futile
(Radhakrishnan, 1996: 236-261). Nonetheless, Buddhism argues that the self as such does not exist, that it is an
illusion – “The self does not exist apart from the states of consciousness […] [It] represents incessant series of
transient psychological states – this is everything, which we subsume under the term ‘self’” (Radhakrishnan,
1996: 219-220; accent in the original; cf. Hume, 1738/2003: 179-188; see Giles, 1993); there is no god, nor
matter, neither is there a phenomenal world. Thus, the doctrine of “no-self” or “no-soul” emerged (Ho, 1995:
121; see Giles, 1993). No-self is achieved through a self-negation in the state of nirvana, which is a “state of
absolute, eternal quiescence-a transcendent state of supreme equanimity beyond the comprehension of
ordinary people unawaken from the illusion of selfhood” (Ho, 1995: 121). The schools of Mahayana define this
state not as nirvana, but rather as “emptiness” (Ho, 1995: 122). Nirvana, in turn, is a very close state to what is
called mystical experience (Dimkov, 2015, 2017, 2019c). Mystical experience is defined as follows (Gellman,
2014, italics P.R.D.; Dimkov, 2017: 315-316):

A. Broad use: A (purportedly) super sense-perceptual or sub sense-perceptual experience granting

acquaintance of realities or states of affairs that are of a kind not accessible by way of sense perception,
somatosensory modalities, or standard introspection.

B. Narrow use: A (purportedly) super sense-perceptual or sub sense-perceptual unitive experience

granting acquaintance of realities or states of affairs that are a kind not accessible by way of sense-perception,
somatosensory modalities, or standard introspection.

C. Alterations in affectivity (e.g. a feeling of blessedness and peace), perception (via a spiritual sense;
subjective light) or awareness of something outside the five standard sensory modalities, acquisition or
illumination with insightful and significant information (the noetic quality), unification of opposites (e.g.
beyond good and evil), disappearance of the subject/object barrier and the time-space continuum, resulting
in a unitive experience (with a deity, a principle or a higher reality), partial or full lack of phenomenal
contents, objective character and indescribability.

Hinduism. Hinduism explains the self through a monistic philosophy (metaphysics).Like Buddhism, Hinduism
views the essence of human life as consisting in suffering and asserts that this is caused by having a fallacious
conception of the self: “The true self is permanent and unchanging, the non-true self is impermanent and
changes continually” (Ho, 1995: 124). Hinduism in the face of Vedanta postulates an essence, which
stands after the so-called transcendental unity of consciousness (Kant) or the “Self-as-Knower”, namely the
non-changeable “Self-as-Witness” (Ho, 1995: 124). This kind of self is the true self, which cannot be described,
but can be experienced (cf. the conception of the “Observing Self” of Deikman (Deikman, 1982)). The
Upanishads discuss a zone of non-thought, in which the Self-as-Knower and the Self-as-Witness unite and enter
into a trans-cognitive state, in which there is no place for any cognition (Ho, 1995: 125). This state is described
also by other authors as e. g. a substantial matrix of consciousness (Dimkov), a mold of man (Castaneda), a
trans-subjective self (Stace) and a field of consciousness (Formann) (Dimkov, 2015: 110-111; 2017: 317; 2019c:
71).

The Self as Embedded in Relationships and Through Spiritual Development in Confucian Thought-
Eastern Construct

Eastern social infrastructures are mostly seen as contrary to the Western individualistic construct.
The eastern social construct is primarily viewed as collectivist and is always grounded on nature. There were
many eastern traditions that flourished in the history of thought that were firmly based on how the self relates
to others, to the Divine Being and to nature.
Confucius or Kung Fu Zi ascertained the ancient Chinese civilization by establishing social order.
The society will be Jed by wise leaders who guaranteed peace, prosperity and harmony. Here in the
Confucian system we can immediately notice the primacy of the society over the individual person. In fact
Confucius believed that the threat to social order is only caused by the unchecked selfish desires of
individuals. The self therefore in the Confucian system is a person within the society who exhibits refinement
and compassion.
The refined and compassionate person was what Confucius envisioned as Junzi. It is the new self
formed in the right education under the virtuous teacher as the role model. Central in the educational
formation of Junzi are humanistic learning, refined personal manners and the capacity to govern the
community wisely and with compassion. In principle, the new self of Junzi – the sage King- brings to life the
virtues of the ancestors to the new order of society. The self therefore is the transmitter of the ancient virtues
to the new world.
To carry out the transmission, one must have the correct procedures and protocol. In Chinese
philosophy, religious rituals are of great importance. The world li originally means sacrifice. In time, the
principle of li is better understood as refined manner or spiritual rituals and sacrifices, and protocols honoring
the ancestors. Li is both the restraining and the refinement of oneself. The virtuous self must be able to
practice the correct customary procedures and protocols governing all of life.
Another concept in Confucian philosophy is the principle of ren. Ren is the character of the self that
sincerely shows compassion for others. The self must embody human-heartedness by prioritizing the self-
interest of others. The sage king- jenzi- is characterized by his practice of ren in putting others first before the
self.
Although Confucius was not given opportunity to become the leader of China, his principles of jenzi,
li and ren became influential all throughout China even unto many other modern civilizations of the world.
To conclude, we commonly hear the dichotomy between the east and the west. The eastern
traditions are known for their communal and spiritual construct. On the other hand, the western traditions
developed a construct of being individualistic, self-reliant, rational and scientific.
 Anthropological Concept of the Self

How does anthropology explain human nature? What is the anthropological concept of the self?

The self is both a biological and cultural entity. The traditional anthropological understanding of the
self is that the self is an animal species which underwent the process of biological evolution and has shared
characteristics with other living animals, the hominids, in particular. The self is believed to have evolved from
apes some 33 million years ago and sapiens. The self is a living animal but superior to other animals due to
certain factors, namely: a.) physical aspects (self as the only animal with a larger brain capacity making better
mobility in doing things, etc., b.) social aspects (self uses language and symbol in dynamic, complicated and yet
systematic manner allowing him/her to communicate, and preserve history, knowledge, culture, etc.; can
cooperate with others in a systematic manner in larger cooperation; and invents new things for survival)

Now, let us examine the two very important concepts in anthropology before we discuss further about
the self, the contemporary self. These concepts are culture and enculturation.

CULTURE is traditionally defined as systems of human behaviour and thought. This covers all
customs, traditions and capabilities of humans as they function in society.

CULTURE is symbolic. When our ancestors learned to use tools and symbols to originate meaning of
significant events in life and in society, those tools and symbols become an integral part of the culture.

CULTURE therefore, is learned and is very much integrated in one’s customs and beliefs. It is
engrained in the patterns and systems of one’s life. Hence, if culture considers all aspects and elements of the
self, people must be on guard that culture adaptive or maladaptive. On the one hand, community shall continue
tom assess whether the practices, rituals and customary actions are still relevant and still beneficial to the
development of the community. Adaptive culture shall continue to manifest the key central values that the
individual and community want to demonstrate. On the other hand, communities may also try to get rid of the
cultural practices that will only extinguish the identity and the goodwill of the community.

In order to do this, we have to understand the concept of enculturation. Broadly defined, enculturation
is the transmission of culture from one generation to the next. Unlike biological hereditary transmission, cultural
transmission is done through observation, use of language, adaptation to the environment, rituals, and formal
and informal education. Every member of the community will then distinguish themselves from other
communities because of the differences in the way people do things in their lives.
THE SELF AND PERSON IN CONTEMPORARY ANTHROPOLOGY

The anthropological self takes a holistic dimension of the individual person. It considers both the
biological and environmental aspects of the person. The genetic component plays a significant role in the
cultural development of an individual. Anthropologist even suggest that the genes of the person living in
a particular community are already a necessary component for the enculturation of the person. In the
same way, environment exposure is also vital component in the creation of the cultural self. Some
anthropologists claim that environmental exposures starts soon after birth. However, contemporary
anthropologists suggest that the environmental exposure starts during conception. The child inside the
mother’s womb already hears the language, tastes the food and feels the mother’s emotions. These
experiences then are solidified as soon as the child is born.

The growing years of the child is very crucial in anthropological perspective. This is the time
when the child develops the psychological construct of dependency or independency. In many western
cultures where independence is the cultural emphasis, the child is usually provided with a room and is
trained to be independent by giving less physical contact from parents or carers. On the contrary, in the
most part of Asia and Africa, children are reared in close contact with parents, especially the mother, thus
developing the sense of dependence on significant others and the immediate community (like the family).

Self-Awareness

Anthropology defines self-awareness as “that which permits one to assume responsibility for
one’s own conduct, to learn how to react to others, and to assume a variety of roles” (Haviland, 2003).

Self and Behavioral Environment

In order to strengthen the identity of the self, one must be able to grasp the different behavioral
orientations. These are concepts that will help situate the self in different behavioral conditions. The four
environmental orientations are: object orientation, spatial orientation, temporal orientation and
normative orientation.

Object orientation positions the self in relation to the surrounding objects. The self should be able
to act responsively to the cultural objects around.

Spatial orientation provides the self with personal space in relation to other people or things.

Temporal orientation endows the self with the sense of time. Time is truly relevant to cultural
communities.

The Self Embedded in Culture

When the self is able to distinguish what is acceptable behavior and what is not, it only follows
that the self is already able to recognize the differences of one’s self and the other. This ability manage the
differences between selves is what makes the self-embedded in culture. Psychological anthropologists
recognize the thin line that distinguishes the cultural self and the “actual self”. The latter includes all the
feelings, thoughts, experiences, biological and psychological constitutions, language and memory.
However, the actual self is also being shaped by all these same elements and more. Therefore what
remains in this distinction is the solid identity of the self in relation to everything else.

The claim of the self as embedded in culture can only be embraced when the self recognizes its
relation to everything else. The complexity of cultural identities of peoples, things, and events shall be
recognized and respected by the self.
The individual must remain reflexive of the similarities and unique differences of everything around it.
This shows that the self should not maintain the individualistic, independent and autonomous entity but
that the self should not be able to maintain his or her solid culturally reflexive identity in relation to
everything and everyone else.

Anthropology recognizes the movement of this understanding towards plurality and

multiplicity of thoughts, beliefs, convictions, and practices. Hence, this is exactly the contribution of
anthropology to the postmodern era.

Cultural degradation or more horribly cultural genocide means the loss of a particular culture
due to assimilation or loss of interest. Assimilation happens when a dominant culture, the Ilocano
culture for example, is overshadowing the inferior culture, meaning the culture possessed by lesser
population living within the Ilocano communities; the inferior culture will eventually lose its identity.

In a larger scale, culture is also lost through continued violence, genocide, inability to respect
traditions, religions, beliefs, and the cultural community’s sense of pride which are largely the result of
globalization. For many decades, the Moros of Mindanao, for example, are continuously striving for
the recognition of their cultural identity and self-realization.

A very obvious example of cultural degradation is that brought about by excessive exposure to
media in various form. Television for instance influences language, traditions, beliefs, knowledge and
even personalities.in judging beauty for, media proposes the following criteria:

 Face must be beautiful

 Hair must be black and silky
 Skin color must be fair and flawless
 Body must be slim and toned, etc.

“Culture is also not force or causal agent in the world, but a context in which people live out their
lives.” (Clifford Geertz, 1973)
 Social Self Theory
George Herbert Mead, a sociologist from the late 1800s, is well known for his theory of the social self, which
includes the concepts of 'self,' 'me,' and 'I.' In this lesson, we will explore Mead's theory and gain a better
understanding of what is meant by the terms 'me' and 'I.' We will also discuss the concept, derived out of Mead's
work, of the looking-glass self.
Mead's work focuses on the way in which the self is developed. Mead's theory of the social self is based on the
perspective that the self emerges from social interactions, such as observing and interacting with others,
responding to others' opinions about oneself, and internalizing external opinions and internal feelings about
oneself. The social aspect of self is an important distinction because other sociologists and psychologists of
Mead's time felt that the self was based on biological factors and inherited traits. According to Mead, the self is
not there from birth, but it is developed over time from social experiences and activities.

Development of Self
According to Mead, three activities develop the self: language, play, and games.
Language develops self by allowing individuals to respond to each other through symbols, gestures, words, and
sounds. Language conveys others' attitudes and opinions toward a subject or the person. Emotions, such as
anger, happiness, and confusion, are conveyed through language.
Play develops self by allowing individuals to take on different roles, pretend, and express expectation of others.
Play develops one's self-consciousness through role-playing. During role-play, a person is able to internalize the
perspective of others and develop an understanding of how others feel about themselves and others in a variety
of social situations.
Games develop self by allowing individuals to understand and adhere to the rules of the activity. Self is
developed by understanding that there are rules in which one must abide by in order to win the game or be
successful at an activity.

PSYCHOLOGY

Definition of Sense of Self

How do you define who you are? Do you rely on the different roles and relationships you have, such as being a
mother, a teacher, a soldier, or a son? Or, would you say your identity is more based on your thoughts, emotions,
and knowledge of the world around you? Some people believe it is neither of those, and that the sense of self is
your self-esteem. Do you like what you see when you look in the mirror? What do you think you're capable of
accomplishing? All of these questions pertain to the idea of the sense of self.
In psychology, the sense of self is defined as the way a person thinks about and views his or her traits, beliefs, and
purpose within the world. It's a truly dynamic and complicated concept because it covers both the 'inner' and 'outer'
self. This idea can be a little bit confusing, so let's break it down further. You are living and interacting with the
outside world all the time. Whether you are sitting in class, talking with a friend, or walking your dog, you're
doing things that help you define your role in this world.
Why are you interested in a particular class? Why is this person considered your friend? These questions come
from your mind, and it's always chatting away trying to help you form opinions and make decisions about your
life. When these two come together, your sense of self begins.

Development of the Sense of Self

One of the greatest aspects of the self is that it is constantly changing. Think back to when you were five years
old. Are you the same person now? Perhaps in some ways you are; maybe you have the same hobbies or interests
that have followed you through life. However, you probably can't consider yourself entirely the same. The reason
being: as you grow so does your sense of self.
So, what helps with this development of the self? Humanist psychologist Carl Rogers contributed a great deal
to this aspect of psychology. He believed that there were three contributing components to the development of
the sense of self: self-image, self-esteem, and the ideal self.

Components of Sense of Self: Self-Image

A person's self-image typically relates to how one views oneself. This includes personality traits and physical
descriptions. Are you tall or short? Are you impulsive, loyal, confident, or maybe all three? It also includes your
social roles. Perhaps you are a housewife or maybe you are a top-tier executive. No matter how many or how
few positions you have, they all contribute to your self-image. Unfortunately, a person's self-image is not always
representative of reality. A person suffering from bulimia may have the self-image that they are extremely
overweight, even though that is not the truth.

Components of Sense of Self: Self-Esteem

Self-esteem is how you view and value yourself. Do you believe in yourself and love who you are? Or, do you
wish that you were someone else? How you answer these questions is a good measure of how much you value
who you are. Perhaps you want to be prettier or smarter. If you firmly believe that your glass is half empty or
that the grass is greener in everybody else's yard, you may have a low self-esteem. If you are happy with who
you are and believe that you are contributing something positive to the world, you most likely have high self-
esteem. A person with high self-esteem feels confident and worthy, while a person with low self-esteem often
experiences feelings of uncertainty and insufficiency.

“I” and “Me”: The Self in the Context of Consciousness

James (1890) distinguished two understandings of the self, the self as “Me” and the self as “I”. This
distinction has recently regained popularity in cognitive science, especially in the context of experimental studies
on the underpinnings of the phenomenal self. The goal of this paper is to take a step back from cognitive science
and attempt to precisely distinguish between “Me” and “I” in the context of consciousness. This distinction was
originally based on the idea that the former (“Me”) corresponds to the self as an object of experience (self as
object), while the latter (“I”) reflects the self as a subject of experience (self as subject). I will argue that in most
of the cases (arguably all) this distinction maps onto the distinction between the phenomenal self (reflecting self-
related content of consciousness) and the metaphysical self (representing the problem of subjectivity of all
conscious experience), and as such these two issues should be investigated separately using fundamentally
different methodologies. Moreover, by referring to Metzinger’s (2018) theory of phenomenal self-models, I will
argue that what is usually investigated as the phenomenal-“I” [following understanding of self-as-subject
introduced by Wittgenstein (1958)] can be interpreted as object, rather than subject of experience, and as such
can be understood as an element of the hierarchical structure of the phenomenal self-model. This understanding
relates to recent predictive coding and free energy theories of the self and bodily self discussed in cognitive
neuroscience and philosophy.
Material Self- consists of things that belong to us or that we belong to. Things like family, clothes, our body,
and money are some of what make up our material selves.

Social Self- our social selves are who we are in a given social situation. For James, people change how they act
depending on the social situation that they are in. James believed that people had as many social selves as they
had social situations they participated in.

Spiritual Self- is who we are at our core. The spiritual self is more concrete or permanent than the other two
selves. The spiritual self is our subjective and most intimate self. Aspects of an individual’s spiritual self, include
things like his/her personality, core values, and conscience that do not typically change throughout a lifetime.
Physical Self
Physical Self refers to the body, this marvellous container and complex, finely tuned, machine with which we
interface with our environment and fellow beings. William James considered body as the initial source of
sensation and necessary for the origin and maintenance of personality.

Scientifically, however, this important aspect of our Self seems to have lost somewhere between the Eastern
detachment and Western narcissism, so much so that sufficient theoretical development on this issue is lacking.
However, directly or indirectly, the discussion on Physical Self has found a place in various schools of
psychology like psychoanalysis, behaviourism, humanism etc. with some of its most ardent exponents and
followers dealing with the issue in varying proportions.

William James considered body as the initial source of sensation and necessary for the origin and maintenance
of personality. However, James considered body subservient to the mind, for e.g., mental concentration can be
so tightly focused? as not only to banish ordinary sensations, but even the severest pain? (James, 1890, Vol. 1,
p.49). A simple example could be the numerous reports of soldiers in the battle or a boxer in the ring who suffer
severe wounds but do not notice them until the intensity of the fighting abates. For James the body is an
expressive tool of indwelling consciousness and good physical health is something that wells up from every part
of the body of a muscularly well trained human being, and soaks the indwelling soul in him with satisfaction. It
is an element of spiritual hygiene of supreme significance. (James, 1899. p. 103).

In Psychoanalytical school, Sigmund Freud's construction of self and personality makes the physical body the
core of human experience. Freud was of the view that the ego is first and foremost a body ego (Freud, 1937).
However, in spite of Freud's recognition of the centrality of body, his own writings on therapy rarely discuss it.
Among western theorists Wilhelm Reich seems to probably most concerned with body (Fadiman and Frager,
2002). Although, in his later works, Freud placed less emphasis on libido, Reich took Freud’s concept of libido
as his central principle. For Reich, the freeing of the blocked bioenergy is the chief task of psychotherapy. Reich
argued that mind and body are one; all psychological processes, he postulated, are a part of physical processes,
and vice versa. So for Reich, body is essential dynamic in all psychological functioning and it plays a critical
role in storing and channelling the bioenergy, which is the basis of human existence and experience.

For Erik Erikson, experience is anchored in the ground-plan of body (Erikson, 1963). According to him the role
of bodily organs is especially important in early developmental stages of a person’s life. Later in life, the
development of physical as well as intellectual skills help determine whether the individual will achieve a sense
of competence and ability to choose demanding roles in a complex society. For example, healthy children derive
a sense of competence as their bodies become larger, stronger, faster and more capable of learning complex
skills. However, as a stage theorist, Erikson is aware of the constant interaction of the body, psychological
processes and social forces. He acknowledges the classical Freudian view of fundamental biological drives but
insists that these drives are socially modifiable.

Carl Gustav Jung in his exposition to Analytical Psychology didn't deal explicitly with the role of the body and
choose to direct his efforts to analysing the psyche only. He has argued that physical processes are relevant to us
only to the extent they are represented in the psyche. The physical body and the external world can be known
only as psychological experiences: I'm chiefly concerned with the psyche itself, therefore I'm leaving out body
and spirit. The body and spirit are to me mere aspects of the reality of the psyche. Psychic experience is the only
immediate experience. Body is as metaphysical as the spirit. (Jung, 1973).

B. F. Skinner was a staunch behaviourist and for him the role of body is of primary importance. For Skinner the
terms personality and self are mere explanatory fictions and all there is, is the body. However, in spite of this,
body never truly interested the skinner. He treats human being as an unopened, but certainly not empty, box.

Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, the two most prominent figures of the Humanist tradition, have not
discussed in detail the role of body in the process of self- actualization. According to Maslow's Need-Hierarchy
theory once the physiological needs of a person are met, the individual becomes more concerned with the higher
order needs. However, he writes that the body be given its due. Asceticism, self-denial, deliberate rejection of
the demands of the organism, at least in the West, tend to produce a diminished, stunted or crippled organism,
and even in the East, brings self-actualization to only a very few, exceptionally strong individuals? (Maslow,
1968). On the other hand, Carl Rogers, in spite of some evidence that his person-centered work is focused on
the physical feelings (fernald, 2000), has not given special attention to the role of body.

In the Eastern traditions, especially the Indian, the various aspects of self, including the physical self, has received
tremendous attention. One of the most important achievement of Indian tradition, i.e. the schools of Yoga, have
regarded the body in different ways. These attitudes range from the outright rejection of the body, because it is
seen as the source of desires and attachments, to an appreciation of the body as the main vehicle spiritual growth
and self-realization. The Bhagvat Gita counsels, Yoga is a harmony. Not for him who eats too much, or for him
who eats too little; nor for him who sleeps too little, or for him who sleeps too much (VI: 16). Most Yoga
disciplines advocate a moderate approach to body, neither indulgent and not unduly ascetic.

There is entire discipline devoted to Physical Self i.e. Hath-yoga, or the Yoga of the body. The Indian tradition
views growth and enlightenment as the whole body event, which is not possible until one has a pure and strong
body. However, hath-yoga is a system of health and hygiene involving both body and mind. It aims at whole
man for his full development and self-realization. It takes into account not only proper growth, strength and
tone of the different muscles of the body but also efficiency and functions of the basic factors of the constitutional
health, namely the inner organs and the glands (Majumdar, 1964).

In Buddhist tradition the concept of Middle Path is of central importance in one's attitude towards the body. It
involves neither full indulgence of one's all desires nor extreme asceticism or self-mortification. This is because
both your life and your body deserve love and respect, for it is by their agency that Truth is practiced and the
Buddha's power manifested? (Dogen in Kennett, 1976).

Physical Self: The Sun in Darkness

The body that was to be a lamp to self,

One day worms will have a horrid feast of it.

Here is the common glory of all human flesh,

That the good and bad, high and low, all must die.

(Sir Edwin Arnold, Buddha-The light of Asia)

THE BIOLOGICAL BLUEPRINT

A crucial aspect of the self is one’s physical features including the face, bodily structure, height and weight.
However, people should also consider their physical competencies, valuation of physical worth, and perception
of beauty. AM I BEAUTIFUL? DO PEOPLE FIND ME ATTRACTIVE? WHAT CAN I DO TO ENHANCE
MY FEATURES?

However, the physical self is not only limited to what can be seen by the naked eye; underneath the skin is a
dynamic system of biological and chemical processes that contribute to one’s physical features. Body structure,
weight, height, skin colour, hair colour, and other physical characteristics do not just develop at random. These
are triggered by genetic transformations and biological development through heredity.

• HEREDITY – is defined as the transmission of traits from parents to offspring. The traits are made up of
specific information embedded within one’s gene, the basic unit of heredity.

• GENOTYPE – refers to specific information embedded within one’s genes; not all genotypes translate to an
observed physical characteristic. It can be determined by blood testing.

• PHENOTYPE – is the physical expression of a particular trait. It can be directly observed.

• Each individual carries 23 pairs of chromosomes. The 23rd pair is the sex chromosomes, determines the sex of
an individual. • MATURATION is known as the completion of growth of a genetic character within an
organism. It enables man to walk, run and talk which are evident in the adolescent stage.
Key points

• The self as impacted by the body

• The impact of culture on body image and self-esteem

• The importance of beauty

A self-image problem happens when your looks doesn't match your beauty standards. For example, if you
believed that attractive people are slim ones and if you were not slim (but not obese) then you might believe that
you are unattractive even though others might believe that you are attractive.

Self-esteem is your opinion of yourself. People with healthy self-esteem like themselves and value their
achievements. While everyone lacks confidence occasionally, people with low self-esteem feel unhappy or
unsatisfied with themselves most of the time.

Self-perception is how you see or view yourself

• The problem here is with your own beauty standards and not with your looks. In order to like your looks in
such a case you must fix your false beliefs about physical attractiveness.

• Body image, self-esteem and the influence of society. Body image is the perception that a person has of their
physical self and the thoughts and feelings that result from that perception. These feelings can be positive,
negative or both and are influenced by individual and environmental factors.

• Society shapes us in many ways, possibly more than we realize – from our interactions, to our personal
development through to others’ perception of our bodies as a reflection of self-worth.

• We are social beings. Genetically, we rely on one another for the survival of humanity. That primal connection
makes our interactions physiologically and psychologically important. So it’s not surprising that how society
perceives us affect us on many levels.

• And it’s partly how society perceives our bodies that is of concern; we’re talking body image. So what does
that involve? Body image is both internal (personal) and external (society)

This includes:

• How we perceive our bodies visually

• How we feel about our physical appearance

• How we think and talk to ourselves about our bodies

 • Our sense of how other people view our bodies How we look has possibly never held as much societal
importance or reflected so significantly on our perceived self-worth.

The media in particular, has increasingly become a platform that reinforces cultural beliefs and projects strong
views on how we should look, that we as individuals often unknowingly or knowingly validate and perpetuate.
The more we look at perfect images of others and then look to find those same idealized characteristics in
ourselves and don’t find them, the worse we feel about ourselves. It’s a cycle that breeds discontent. With such
strong societal scrutiny it’s easy to see how the focus on how we look can slide into the dark side – negative body
image.

The greater our discontent with how we measure up when compared to the societal or media supported norms,
the more negative our body image, and the greater the risk for extreme weight or body control behaviours occurs.
We’re talking… Extreme dieting, Extreme exercise compulsion, eating disorders, Extreme or unnecessary
plastic surgery, Using steroids for muscle building Who’s to blame for our body perceptions, be it good or bad?
Society gives us a number of reference points that shape our perceptions whether positive or negative. When it
comes to our bodies there are a number of sources that affect us more than others.

TODAY’S EMBEDDED IDEALS – THE PHYSICAL

• Life today sees image upon image of fashionably clad women, perfect skin, tiny waists, ample breasts,
fashionably protruding behinds (of Kardashian and Beyonce fame) all with a weight of no greater than 59kg. •
They are unrealistic images of beauty, genetically impossible for many of us to emulate. The same thing applies
to the 6- pack or ripped abs shoved in the face of men via famous sportsmen and male fitness models, which for
many is impossible to achieve without illegal steroids.

• Yet we are told that these unattainable bodies are normal, desirable, and achievable. When we don’t measure
up we develop a strong sense of dissatisfaction and the way that manifests can be ugly.

PREJUDICE – SIZE

• Intolerance of body diversity has a lot to do with prejudice of size and shape in our culture. Being thin, toned
and muscular has become associated with the hard-working, successful, popular, beautiful, strong, and the
disciplined.

• Being fat is associated with the lazy, ugly, weak, and lacking in will-power.

• With this prejudice, fat isn’t a description like tall or redhead – it’s an indication of moral character and we are
conditioned to think that fat is bad.
Factors that affect body image and self esteem

THE MEDIA

• The images of perfection we see in print, film and television project an unrealistic version of reality that we are
continually told is attainable – if we work out, eat less and lather our bodies in transformative, firming and
tightening creams.

• The media is a powerful tool that reinforces cultural beliefs and values, and while it may not be fully responsible
for determining the standards for physical attractiveness, it makes escaping the barrage of images and attitudes
almost impossible. Those closest to us – family and friends
• We learn from other people, particularly those closest to us about the things that are considered important. •
Friendships are particularly important in body image development because we place high value on them, spend
lots of time with our friends and develop shared experiences, values and beliefs.

• Classrooms, University dorms and common rooms are often filled with negative body talk: “I wish I had her
stomach” “I hate my thighs” “I feel fat.” Listening to this tends to reinforce the need to focus on appearance
and make comparisons between us and other people’s bodies. So how can we build a strong and positive body
image?

• Positive body image involves understanding that healthy attractive bodies come in many shapes and sizes, and
that physical appearance says very little about our character or value as a person.

How we get to this point of acceptance often depends on our individual development and self-acceptance. To
get to that all important point of balance there are a few steps we can take:

• Talk back to the media. All media and messages are developed or constructed and are not reflections of reality.
So shout back. Speak our dissatisfaction with the focus on appearance and lack of size acceptance

• De-emphasize numbers. Kilograms on a scale don’t tell us anything meaningful about the body as a whole or
our health. Eating habits and activity patterns are much more important

• Realize that we cannot change our body type: thin, large, short or tall, we need to appreciate the uniqueness
of what we have – and work with it

• Stop comparing ourselves to others. We are unique and we can’t get a sense of our own body’s needs and
abilities by comparing it to someone else

• We need to move and enjoy our bodies not because we have to, but because it makes us feel good. Walking,
swimming, biking, dancing – there is something for everyone

• Spend time with people who have a healthy relationship with food, activity, and their bodies

• Question the degree to which self-esteem depends on our appearance. If we base our happiness on how we
look it is likely to lead to failure and frustration, and may prevent us from finding true happiness

• Broaden our perspective about health and beauty by reading about body image, cultural variances, or media
influence. Check out a local art gallery paying particular attention to fine art collections that show a variety of
body types throughout the ages and in different cultures

• Recognize that size prejudice is a form of discrimination similar to other forms of discrimination. Shape and
size are not indicators of character, morality, intelligence, or success

• Each of us will have a positive body image when we have a realistic perception of our bodies, when we enjoy,
accept and celebrate how we are and let go of negative societal or media perpetuated conditioning. But the media
and society in general, are not all bad. As with most things, with the bad comes the potential for good and
increasingly, people the world over are waking up to the negativity and conditioning that we are bombarded
with.
Sexual self

Sexual self-concept refers to the totality of oneself as a sexual being, including positive and negative concepts
and feelings. According to theorists, sexual self-concept is described well along three dimensions (Snell & Papini,
1989): sexual self-esteem, sexual depression, and sexual preoccupation. Because attachment style moderates
one's sense-of-self in general and one's expectations about and strategies for approaching relationships, sexual
self-concept may be a good indicator of what kinds of relationships we tend to get into, and how we tend to
behave within relationships, with an emphasis on sexual satisfaction. In their recent research paper, "Sexual self-
concept, sexual satisfaction, and attachment among single and coupled individuals," authors Anticevic and
colleagues (2017) examine the less-well studied intersection of partnering status, attachment style, and sexual
self-concept (Pujols, Meston & Seal, 2010).

The authors look at a sample of single and coupled adults averaging 35 years of age, ranging from 25 to 45 years
of age. They surveyed 630 men and women, an equal number of each. Interestingly, the level of education in
this sample was higher than in the general population, limiting the results in some ways, but making them
possibly more specific for more highly educated people. Study subjects completed the following measures:

 Demographics

 Sexuality Scale, a 30-item scale with 10 items in each area of sexual self-esteem, sexual depression, and
sexual preoccupation, to measure sexual self-concept

 New Sexual Satisfaction Scale, to measure sexual satisfaction

 Modified Inventory of Close Relationships, a version of the Experiences in Close Relationships Scale,
a measure of attachment. The terms they use for attachment style included: secure, avoidant, anxious,
and fearful. People with fearful attachment both yearn for closeness and are also afraid of intimacy;
anxiously attached people tend to want intimacy but be anxious about being rejected; avoidantly
attached people tend to shy away from intimacy without feeling as strong a need for closeness.

Study findings

Overall, the researchers found that single people had lower sexual self-esteem, lower sexual satisfaction, and
higher sexual depression. These findings are in keeping with earlier data on the overall satisfaction of the
"average" single person, though there are, of course, both exceptions as well as important cultural attitudes
regarding being partnered or single that may contribute to lower self-esteem for singles as a result of stigma. On
average, couples enjoyed greater sexual satisfaction and better sexual self-concept.

For single participants, sexual self-esteem predicted sexual satisfaction for all attachment styles except anxious
attachment. Sexual depression predicted lower sexual satisfaction in anxiously attached singles. Sexual
preoccupation, for avoidantly attached individuals only, predicted sexual satisfaction, presumably because
higher preoccupation pushed them toward more sex than their avoidantly attached peers who didn't overcome
their tendency to distance themselves from intimacy. Single participants, overall, were more likely to have an
avoidant attachment style.

For coupled and single participants, higher sexual self-esteem and lower sexual depression were associated with
higher sexual satisfaction. Among coupled participants, anxiety and avoidant attachment both predicted higher
sexual depression and lower sexual self-esteem. Coupled participants, on average, had a more positive sexual
self-concept and higher levels of sexual satisfaction. For coupled participants, sexual self-esteem predicted higher
sexual satisfaction, except for those with fearful attachment. Couples with higher levels of sexual depression had
lower sexual satisfaction.

For couples, sexual preoccupation was not associated with sexual satisfaction, perhaps because of the availability
of a partner as well as the unavailability (short of infidelity) of alternatives. Table 3, which shows all the positive
and negative correlations with measures as a function of couples' status and attachment style, is included at the
end of this post for interested readers. This is an interesting study which requires further investigation but
provides insight regarding sexual self-concept and sexual satisfaction for singles and couples with different
attachment styles. For people who remain single and wish to have greater sexual satisfaction, these results
suggest looking at one's attachment style and understanding how that may affect engagement with sexual
partners as well as sexual self-esteem. Maintaining sexual self-esteem in the absence of long-term partnering
presents different challenges. This is very different for those who are single as a lifestyle choice as compared with
those who are single but wish to find long-term partners. For couples with less sexual satisfaction than they
desire, looking to individual attachment style, and how that plays out in the relationship, may shed light on ways
to address issues and achieve greater satisfaction. For example, if one partner is avoidant and the other anxious,
there may be a vicious cycle in which one partner attends to his or her own needs, driving the other's anxiety
even higher. Sitting down together and talking through such issues and coming up with constructive ways to
approach intimacy could be helpful. If both partners are avoidant, the challenges will be greater, but there may
not be a pressing need to address sexual intimacy unless they are sexually dissatisfied and/or suffering from low
sexual self-concept. Other combinations of attachment styles would tend to play out in different ways.

In general, the concept of sexual self-concept is a useful and intuitively satisfying perspective to add to self-
understanding, highlighting the importance of individual sexuality as a component of overall personality. Just
as with relationships, where relationship satisfaction and sexual satisfaction are related but distinct, sexual self-
concept and overall self-concept, and therefore, satisfaction with oneself, are likely to be connected but different
from one another. Sexual self-concept and attachment-based perspectives are also likely to be useful for those
who find non-traditional relationship patterns to be most suitable. Additional research is required to explore
sexual self-concept in relation to other important areas of self-relatedness and relationships with others. (Grant
Hilary Brenner MD, FAPA).

What Is Reproduction?
Reproduction is the process by which organisms make more organisms like themselves. But even though the
reproductive system is essential to keeping a species alive, unlike other body systems, it's not essential to keeping
an individual alive.

In the human reproductive process, two kinds of sex cells, or gametes (pronounced: GAH-meetz), are involved.
The male gamete, or sperm, and the female gamete, the egg or ovum, meet in the female's reproductive system.
When sperm fertilizes (meets) an egg, this fertilized egg is called a zygote (pronounced: ZYE-goat). The zygote
goes through a process of becoming an embryo and developing into a fetus.
The male reproductive system and the female reproductive system both are needed for reproduction.
Humans, like other organisms, pass some characteristics of themselves to the next generation. We do this
through our genes, the special carriers of human traits. The genes that parents pass along are what make their
children similar to others in their family, but also what make each child unique. These genes come from the
male's sperm and the female's egg.

The female reproductive system is designed to carry out several functions. It produces the female egg cells
necessary for reproduction, called the ova or oocytes. The system is designed to transport the ova to the site of
fertilization. Conception, the fertilization of an egg by a sperm, normally occurs in the fallopian tubes. The next
 step for the fertilized egg is to implant into the walls of the uterus, beginning the initial stages of pregnancy. If
fertilization and/or implantation does not take place, the system is designed to menstruate (the monthly
shedding of the uterine lining). In addition, the female reproductive system produces female sex hormones that
maintain the reproductive cycle.
The female reproductive anatomy includes parts inside and outside the body.

The function of the external female reproductive structures (the genitals) is twofold: To enable sperm to enter
the body and to protect the internal genital organs from infectious organisms.

What Is the Male Reproductive System?

The male has reproductive organs, or genitals, that are both inside and outside the pelvis. The male genitals
include:
 the testicles (pronounced: TESS-tih-kulz)
 the duct system, which is made up of the epididymis and the vas deferens
 the accessory glands, which include the seminal vesicles and prostate gland
 the penis
In a guy who has reached sexual maturity, the two oval-shaped testicles, or testes (pronounced: TESS-teez)
make and store millions of tiny sperm cells. The testicles are also part of the endocrine system because they
make hormones, including testosterone (pronounced: tess-TOSS-tuh-rone). Testosterone is a major part
of puberty in guys. As a guy makes his way through puberty, his testicles produce more and more of it.
Testosterone is the hormone that causes boys to develop deeper voices, bigger muscles, and body and facial hair.
It also stimulates the production of sperm. Alongside the testicles are the epididymis and the vas deferens, which
transport sperm. The epididymis (pronounced: ep-uh-DID-uh-miss) and the testicles hang in a pouch-like
structure outside the pelvis called the scrotum. This bag of skin helps to regulate the temperature of testicles,
which need to be kept cooler than body temperature to produce sperm. The scrotum changes size to maintain
the right temperature. When the body is cold, the scrotum shrinks and becomes tighter to hold in body heat.
When it's warm, it gets larger and floppier to get rid of extra heat. This happens without a guy ever having to
think about it. The brain and the nervous system give the scrotum the cue to change size. The accessory glands,
including the seminal vesicles and the prostate gland, provide fluids that lubricate the duct system and nourish
the sperm. The urethra (pronounced: yoo-REE-thruh) is the channel that carries the sperm (in fluid called semen)
to the outside of the body through the penis. The urethra is also part of the urinary system because it is also the
channel through which pee passes as it leaves the bladder and exits the body.
The penis is actually made up of two parts: the shaft and the glans. The shaft is the main part of the penis and
the glans is the tip (sometimes called the head). At the end of the glans is a small slit or opening, which is where
semen and pee exit the body through the urethra. The inside of the penis is made of a spongy tissue that can
expand and contract.

Sexual Response Cycle

The sexual response cycle refers to the sequence of physical and emotional changes that occur as a person
becomes sexually aroused and participates in sexually stimulating activities, including intercourse and
masturbation. Knowing how your body responds during each phase of the cycle can enhance your relationship
and help you pinpoint the cause of sexual dysfunction. It is not the only model of a sexual response cycle, but it
is the best known one.

The sexual response cycle has four phases: desire (libido), arousal (excitement), orgasm and resolution. Both
men and women experience these phases, although the timing usually is different. For example, it is unlikely
that both partners will reach orgasm at the same time. In addition, the intensity of the response and the time
spent in each phase varies from person to person. Many women will not go through the sexual phases in this
order. Some of these stages may be absent during some sexual encounters, or out of sequence in others. A desire
for intimacy may be a motivation for sexual activity in some individuals. Understanding these differences may
help partners better understand one another’s bodies and responses, and enhance the sexual experience. Several
physiologic changes may occur during different stages of sexual activity. Individuals may experience some, all,
or none of these changes.

Phase 1: Desire

General characteristics of this phase, which can last from a few minutes to several hours, include the following:

 Muscle tension increases.

 Heart rate quickens and breathing is accelerated.
 Skin may become flushed (blotches of redness appear on the chest and back).
 Nipples become hardened or erect.
 Blood flow to the genitals increases, resulting in swelling of the woman’s clitoris and labia minora (inner
lips), and erection of the man’s penis.
 Vaginal lubrication begins.
 The woman’s breasts become fuller and the vaginal walls begin to swell.
  The man’s testicles swell, his scrotum tightens, and he begins secreting a lubricating liquid.

Phase 2: Arousal

General characteristics of this phase, which extends to the brink of orgasm, include the following:

 The changes begun in phase 1 are intensified.

 The vagina continues to swell from increased blood flow, and the vaginal walls turn a dark purple.
 The woman’s clitoris becomes highly sensitive (may even be painful to touch) and retracts under the
clitoral hood to avoid direct stimulation from the penis.
 The man’s testicles are withdrawn up into the scrotum.
 Breathing, heart rate and blood pressure continue to increase.
 Muscle spasms may begin in the feet, face and hands.
 Tension in the muscles increases.

Phase 3: Orgasm

This phase is the climax of the sexual response cycle. It is the shortest of the phases and generally lasts only a
few seconds. General characteristics of this phase include the following:

 Involuntary muscle contractions begin.

 Blood pressure, heart rate and breathing are at their highest rates, with a rapid intake of oxygen.
 Muscles in the feet spasm.
 There is a sudden, forceful release of sexual tension.
 In women, the muscles of the vagina contract. The uterus also undergoes rhythmic contractions.
 In men, rhythmic contractions of the muscles at the base of the penis result in the ejaculation of semen.
 A rash or "sex flush" may appear over the entire body.

Phase 4: Resolution

During this phase, the body slowly returns to its normal level of functioning, and swelled and erect body parts
return to their previous size and color. This phase is marked by a general sense of well-being and, often, fatigue.
Some women are capable of a rapid return to the orgasm phase with further sexual stimulation and may
experience multiple orgasms. Men need recovery time after orgasm, called a refractory period, during which
they cannot reach orgasm again. The duration of the refractory period varies among men and changes with age.

The Five circles of sexuality

Circle #1—Sensuality Sensuality is awareness and feeling about your own body and other people's bodies,
especially the body of a sexual partner. Sensuality enables us to feel good about how our bodies look and feel
and what they can do. Sensuality also allows us to enjoy the pleasure our bodies can give us and others. This
part of our sexuality affects our behavior in several ways.

• Body image—Feeling attractive and proud of one's own body and the way it functions influences many aspects
of life. Adolescents often choose media personalities as the standard for how they should look, so they are often
disappointed by what they see in the mirror. They may be especially dissatisfied when the mainstream media
does not portray or does not positively portray physical characteristics the teens see in the mirror, such as color
of skin, type or hair, shape of eyes, height, or body shape.

• Experiencing pleasure—Sensuality allows a person to experience pleasure when certain parts of the body are
touched. People also experience sensual pleasure from taste, touch, sight, hearing, and smell as part of being
alive.

• Satisfying skin hunger—The need to be touched and held by others in loving, caring ways is often referred to
as skin hunger. Adolescents typically receive considerably less touch from their parents than do younger
children. Many teens satisfy their skin hunger through close physical contact with peers. Sexual intercourse may
sometimes result from a teen's need to be held, rather than from sexual desire.

• Feeling physical attraction for another person—The center of sensuality and attraction to others is not in the
genitals (despite all the jokes). The center of sensuality and attraction to others is in the brain, humans' most
important "sex organ." The unexplained mechanism responsible for sexual attraction rests in the brain, not in
the genitalia.
• Fantasy—The brain also gives people the capacity to have fantasies about sexual behaviors and experiences.
Adolescents often need help understanding that sexual fantasy is normal and that one does not have to act upon
sexual fantasies.

Circle #2—Sexual Intimacy Sexual intimacy is the ability to be emotionally close to another human being and
to accept closeness in return. Several aspects of intimacy include

• Sharing—Sharing intimacy is what makes personal relationships rich. While sensuality is about physical
closeness, intimacy focuses on emotional closeness.

• Caring—Caring about others means feeling their joy and their pain. It means being open to emotions that may
not be comfortable or convenient. Nevertheless, an intimate relationship is possible only when we care.

• Liking or loving another person—Having emotional attachment or connection to others is a manifestation of

intimacy.

• Emotional risk-taking—To have true intimacy with others, a person must open up and share feelings and
personal information. Sharing personal thoughts and feelings with someone else is risky, because the other
person may not feel the same way. But it is not possible to be really close with another person without being
honest and open with her/him.

• Vulnerability—To have intimacy means that we share and care, like or love, and take emotional risks. That
makes us vulnerable—the person with whom we share, about whom we care, and whom we like or love, has
the power to hurt us emotionally. Intimacy requires vulnerability, on the part of each person in the relationship.

Circle #3—Sexual Identity Sexual identity is a person's understanding of who she/he is sexually, including the
sense of being male or of being female. Sexual identity consists of three "interlocking pieces" that, together, affect
how each person sees him/herself. Each "piece" is important.

• Gender identity—Knowing whether one is male or female. Most young children determine their own gender
identity by age two. Sometime, a person's biological gender is not the same as his/her gender identity—this is
called being transgender.

• Gender role—Identifying actions and/or behaviors for each gender. Some things are determined by the way
male and female bodies are built or function. For example, only women menstruate and only men produce
sperm. Other gender roles are culturally determined. In the United States, it is considered appropriate for only
women to wear dresses to work in the business world. In other cultures, men may wear skirt-like outfits
everywhere.

• Sexual orientation—Whether a person's primary attraction is to people of the other gender (heterosexuality) or
to the same gender (homosexuality) or to both genders (bisexuality) defines his/her sexual orientation. Sexual
orientation begins to emerge by adolescence although many gay and lesbian youth say they knew they felt same
sex attraction by age 10 or 11. Between three and 10—percent of the general population is probably exclusively
homosexual in orientation. Perhaps another 10 percent of the general population feel attracted to both genders.

Heterosexual, gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth can all experience same-gender sexual attraction and/or activity
around puberty. Such behavior, including sexual play with samegender peers, crushes on same-gender adults,
or sexual fantasies about same-gender people are normal for pre-teens and young teens and are not necessarily
related to sexual orientation. Negative social messages and homophobia in the wider U.S. culture can mean that
young adolescents who are experiencing sexual attraction to and romantic feelings for someone of their own
gender need support so they can clarify their feelings and accept their sexuality.

Circle #4—Reproduction and Sexual Health These are a person's capacity to reproduce and the behaviors and
attitudes that make sexual relationships healthy and enjoyable.

• Factual information about reproduction—Is necessary so youth will understand how male and female
reproductive systems function and how conception and/or STD infection occur. Adolescents often have
inadequate information about their own and/or their partner's body. Teens need this information so they can
make informed decisions about sexual expression and protect their health. Youth need to understand anatomy
and physiology because every adolescent needs the knowledge and understanding to help him/her appreciate
the ways in which his/her body functions.

• Feelings and attitudes—Are wide-ranging when it comes to sexual expression and reproduction and to sexual
health-related topics such as STD infection, HIV and AIDS, contraceptive use, abortion, pregnancy, and
childbirth.
• Sexual intercourse—Is one of the most common behaviours among humans. Sexual intercourse is a behavior
that may produce sexual pleasure that often culminates in orgasm in females and in males. Sexual intercourse
may also result in pregnancy and/or STDs. In programs for youth, discussion of sexual intercourse is often
limited to the bare mention of male-female (penile-vaginal) intercourse. However, youth need accurate health
information about sexual intercourse—vaginal, oral, and anal.

• Reproductive and sexual anatomy—The male and female body and the ways in which they actually function
is a part of sexual health. Youth can learn to protect their reproductive and sexual health. This means that teens
need information about all the effective methods of contraception currently available, how they work, where to
obtain them, their effectiveness, and their side effects. This means that youth also need to know how to use latex
condoms to prevent STD infection. Even if youth are not currently engaging in sexual intercourse, they probably
will do so at some point in the future. They must know how to prevent pregnancy and/or disease.

• Sexual reproduction—The actual processes of conception, pregnancy, delivery, and recovery following
childbirth are important parts of sexuality. Youth need information about sexual reproduction—the process
whereby two different individuals each contribute half of the genetic material to their child. The child is,
therefore, not identical to either parent. [Asexual reproduction is a process whereby simple one-celled organisms
reproduce by splitting, creating two separate one-celled organisms identical to the original [female] organism
before it split.] Too many programs focus exclusively on sexual reproduction when providing sexuality
education and ignore all the other aspects of human sexuality.

Circle #5— Sexualisation is that aspect of sexuality in which people behave sexually to influence, manipulate,
or control other people. Often called the "shadowy" side of human sexuality, sexualisation spans behaviours
that range from the relatively harmless to the sadistically violent, cruel, and criminal. These sexual behaviours
include flirting, seduction, withholding sex from an intimate partner to punish her/him or to get something,
sexual harassment, sexual abuse, and rape. Teens need to know that no one has the right to exploit them sexually
and that they do not have the right to exploit anyone else sexually.

• Flirting—Is a relatively harmless sexualization behavior. Nevertheless, upon occasion it is an attempt to

manipulate someone else, and it can cause the person manipulated to feel hurt, humiliation, and shame.

• Seduction—Is the act of enticing someone to engage in sexual activity. The act of seduction implies
manipulation that at times may prove harmful for the one who is seduced.

• Sexual harassment—Is an illegal behavior. Sexual harassment means harassing someone else because of
her/his gender. It could mean making personal, embarrassing remarks about someone's appearance, especially
characteristics associated with sexual maturity, such as the size of a woman's breasts or of a man's testicles and
penis. It could mean unwanted touching, such as hugging a subordinate or patting someone's bottom.

• Rape—Means coercing or forcing someone else to have genital contact with another. Sexual assault can include
forced petting as well as forced sexual intercourse. Force, in the case of rape, can include use of overpowering
strength, threats, and/or implied threats that arouse fear in the person raped. Youth need to know that rape is
always illegal and always cruel. Youth should know that they are legally entitled to the protection of the criminal
justice system if they are the victims of rape and that they may be prosecuted if they force anyone else to have
genital contact with them for any reason. Refusing to accept no and forcing the other person to have sexual
intercourse always means rape.

• Incest—Means forcing sexual contact on any minor who is related to the perpetrator by birth or marriage.
Incest is always illegal and is extremely cruel because it betrays the trust that children and youth give to their
families. Moreover, because the older person knows that incest is illegal and tries to hide the crime, he/she often
blames the child/youth. The triple burden of forced sexual contact, betrayed trust, and self-blame makes incest
particularly damaging to survivors of incest.

According to a team of scientists led by Dr. Helen Fisher at Rutgers, romantic love can be broken down
into three categories: lust, attraction, and attachment. Each category is characterized by its own set of
hormones stemming from the brain
“Sexual health is a state of physical, emotional, mental and social well-being in relation to sexuality; it is not
merely the absence of disease, dysfunction or infirmity. Sexual health requires a positive and respectful approach
to sexuality and sexual relationships, as well as the possibility of having pleasurable and safe sexual experiences,
free of coercion, discrimination and violence. For sexual health to be attained and maintained, the sexual rights
of all persons must be respected, protected and fulfilled.”
There is a lot to agree with in this definition, especially in its recognition of the complex physical, emotional,
mental and social attributes of sexual health, and the anchoring of sexual health in universal sexual rights. But,
I find this definition to be quaintly admonishing and parental (“…the possibility of having pleasurable and safe
sexual experiences…”). More importantly, however, the definition is sexually vague. No matter how many times
I’ve read, used, and cited this definition, I can’t derive from it even a rudimentary vision of how sexual health
operates in people’s daily lives. I feel the same about the more recently wrought definition of the U.S. Centers
for Disease Control & Prevention, particularly because sexual rights and of sexual pleasure are absent from that
sexual health definition.

So, maybe I need to get clearer with myself about what sexual health is. And, sexual health should be more than
just the negatives: not coerced; not discriminated; not violent. The prevalence of these negatives in many people’s
lives tells us how far we are from achieving a just and equitable society. But I think that sexual health ultimately
requires much more active involvement from all of us, and it seems quite insufficient to hope that sexual health
will arise on its own if coercion, discrimination, and violence are finally conquered.

Sexual intercourse, also called coitus or copulation, reproductive act in which the male reproductive organ (in
humans and other higher animals) enters the female reproductive tract. If the reproductive act is complete, sperm
cells are passed from the male body into the female, in the process fertilizing the female’s egg and forming a new
organism. In some vertebrates, such as fish, eggs are laid outside of the body and fertilized externally.

To accomplish internal copulation, certain body and organic adaptations are necessary. In the human male, the
penis serves both excretory and reproductive functions. During intercourse, the blood flow is temporarily
increased and trapped in the penis so that it becomes enlarged and elevated, a condition known as erection.
Erection changes the normally soft and flaccid organ to one of greater size and rigidity to permit easier
penetration into the reproductive tract of the female. Sexual intercourse both culminates and terminates in
orgasm, a process in which the male expels semen—containing sperm cells, which may unite with and fertilize
the female’s egg, and a seminal plasma that contains cell nutrients, water, salts, and metabolites—into the
female’s vaginal canal. The male’s ability to produce and secrete semen, as well as to function sexually, is
dependent on the androgen hormones, which circulate in the male’s body. In the female reproductive system,
an external opening leads to the vagina, which in turn communicates with the uterus (or womb), a thick-walled
pear-shaped organ where the sperm fertilizes the egg and where the fetus develops. In human beings, a pattern
of physiological events occurs during sexual arousal and intercourse. These events may be identified as occurring
in a sequence of four stages: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. The basic pattern is similar in both
sexes, regardless of the specific sexual stimulus.

Most religions tend to disapprove of extramarital and premarital sex, and hence we might expect that religious
persons would tend to be higher in Sexual Commitment or, in other words, more restricted in sociosexual
orientation. Some investigations of the relations between religiosity and sexuality do indeed show a positive
correlation between religiosity and Sexual Commitment. However, there is an interesting difference in results
depending on whether intrinsic religiosity or extrinsic religiosity (see Chapter 12) is examined (Leak, 1993;
Rowatt & Schmitt, 2003; Wulf, Prentice, Hansum, Ferrar, & Spilka, 1984). People who report being
“intrinsically” religious—in other words, people who value religious contemplation, prayer, and scriptures for
their own sake—tend to be more sexually committed, that is, less promiscuous or less unfaithful. In contrast,
people who report being “extrinsically” religious—in other words, people who value participation in religion as
a way of gaining social status, social contacts, or even rewards from God—actually tend to be less sexually
committed, that is, more promiscuous and more unfaithful. Thus, people who are genuinely religious do tend
to be somewhat higher in Sexual Commitment, whereas people who are religious only for the purpose of
“keeping up appearances” tend to be lower in Sexual Commitment.

Sexual Beliefs, Attitudes, Skills, Motivations, and Intentions

The strongest risk and protective factors are teens' own sexual beliefs, values, attitudes, skills, and intentions.
Teens are more likely to have sex, to have sex more frequently, and to have more partners if they have permissive
attitudes toward premarital sex. They are less likely to have sex if they have taken a virginity pledge.

Sexually active teens are more likely to use condoms or other forms of contraception if they believe that teen
boys share responsibility for pregnancy prevention, that condoms do not reduce sexual pleasure, and that their
partner will appreciate their using a condom. They are also more likely to use condoms or other forms of
contraception if they have positive attitudes toward condoms and other forms of contraception, perceive more
benefits and fewer costs and barriers to using condoms, have greater confidence in their ability to demand and
use condoms or other forms of contraception, have greater motivation to use condoms or other forms of
contraception to avoid pregnancy and STI/HIV, intend to use condoms, and actually carry condoms.

All of these beliefs, attitudes, skills, motivations, and intentions can be considered ‘sexual’ factors and also
‘proximal’ factors because they are closely linked conceptually and logically to a related sexual behavior and
they influence that behavior directly. For example, values regarding sex are more closely related conceptually to
actually having sex than is the proportion of the community that is foreign born. The latter is considered ‘distal’
and ‘nonsexual’ because it influences sexual behavior indirectly.

These proximal sexual risk and protective factors are particularly important for several reasons. First, they are
well supported by a variety of social psychological theories, for example, social cognitive theory, theory of
planned behavior, the information–motivation–behavioral skills model, and the health belief model. Second,
they are more closely related conceptually to a particular sexual and contraceptive behavior than are other
factors. Third, they are more strongly related statistically to some types of sexual and contraceptive behavior
than are most of the other factors. Finally, some of these factors form the theoretical basis for many sex and
STI/HIV education programs that have reduced sexual risk-taking.

Family planning is one of the 10 great public health achievements of the 20th century. The availability of family
planning services allows individuals to achieve desired birth spacing and family size, and contributes to
improved health outcomes for infants, children, women, and families.

Family planning services include:

 Contraceptive services
 Pregnancy testing and counselling
 Pregnancy–achieving services including preconception health services
 Basic infertility services
 Sexually transmitted disease services
 Broader reproductive health services, including patient education and counselling
 Breast and pelvic examinations
 Breast and cervical cancer screening

Sexually transmitted infection (STI) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) prevention education,
counselling, testing, and referral

Abstinence from sexual activity is the only 100% effective way to avoid unintended pregnancy. For individuals
who are sexually active, correct and consistent contraceptive use is highly effective at preventing unintended
pregnancy. The most effective methods to prevent unintended pregnancy include long-acting reversible
contraceptives such as intrauterine devices (IUDs) and contraceptive implants, followed by other hormonal
contraceptives including oral contraceptives (pills), the patch, the ring, and the Depo-Provera shot (DMPA).
Condoms protect against both unintended pregnancy and STIs, and their use should be encouraged. Both men
and women should be counselled about using condoms at every act of sexual intercourse when not in a long-
term, mutually monogamous sexual relationship.

Why Is Family Planning Important?

For many women, a family planning clinic is their entry point into the health care system and one they consider
their usual source of care. In 2015, publicly funded family planning services helped prevent 1.9 million
unintended pregnancies, including 440,000 teen pregnancies. In 2010, every public dollar spent on family
planning saved the federal and state governments $7.09.

Unintended pregnancies include pregnancies that are reported by women as being mistimed or unwanted.
Almost half (45%) of the 6.1 million annual pregnancies in the United States are unintended. Unintended
pregnancies are associated with many negative health and economic consequences. The public cost of births
resulting from unintended pregnancies was estimated at $21 billion in 2010 (this figure includes costs for prenatal
care, labor and delivery, post-partum care, and 1 year of infant care).

For women, negative outcomes associated with unintended pregnancy can include:

 Delays in initiating prenatal care

 Reduced likelihood of breastfeeding
 Increased risk of maternal depression
 Increased risk of physical violence during pregnancy

Births resulting from unintended pregnancies can have negative consequences including birth defects and low
birth weight. Children from unintended pregnancies are more likely to experience poor mental and physical
health during childhood, and have lower educational attainment and more behavioral issues in their teen years.
The negative consequences associated with unintended pregnancies are greater for teen parents and their
children. Eighty-two percent of pregnancies to mothers ages 15 to 19 are unintended.7 Twenty percent of all
unintended pregnancies occur among teens.
Teen mothers:

Are less likely to graduate from high school or attain a GED by the time they reach age 30
Earn an average of approximately $3,500 less per year, when compared with those who delay childbearing
until their 20s. Receive nearly twice as much federal aid for nearly twice as long Similarly, early fatherhood is
associated with lower educational attainment and lower income. The average annual cost of teen childbearing
to U.S. taxpayers is estimated at $9.1 billion, or $1,430 for each teen mother per year. Moreover, children of
teen parents are more likely to have lower cognitive attainment and exhibit more behavior problems. Sons of
teen mothers are more likely to be incarcerated, and daughters are more likely to become adolescent mothers.
The Material / Economic Self

The material self, according to William James, pertains to the objects, places, or even people which have the
label “mine”. Such possessions are viewed as extensions of individuals ‘identities. The material self consists of
things that belong to a person or entities that a person belongs to. Thus, things like the body, family, clothes,
money, and such make up the material self. For James, the core of the material self was the body. Second to the
body, James felt a person's clothes were important to the material self. He believed a person's clothes were one
way they expressed who they felt they were; or clothes were a way to show status, thus contributing to forming
and maintaining one's self-image. Money and family are critical parts of the material self. James felt that if one
lost a family member, a part of who they are was lost also. Money figured in one's material self in a similar way.
If once a person had significant money then lost it, who they were as a person changed as well.

“For the old critics of luxury, the human self was something pure that existed apart from the material world.
For champions of the new outlook, possessions ceased to be something invasive and corrosive. On the contrary,
material things were an essential part of the human self.” - Frank Trentmann: The Self

It was this “material self” that also pushed people to acquire homes and fill them with possessions. William
James and his younger brother Henry, the novelist, wrote during a boom in home decorating and collecting. In
The Spoils of Poynton (1896) Henry followed the intimate (and ultimately destructive) power that cabinets,
chairs and other treasures had over the main character. In real life,

furniture and possessions were means for families to cultivate and demonstrate their character.

Example of Material Self

Self is judged on the way you dress, the kind of clothes you wear, the car you drive and the type of home you
prefer or own.

the way you dress

the car you drive

the type of home

Therefore, material self is associated with money.

Now, How Money Can Change People
and Affect Their Behavior

Going from rags to riches is essentially most of the Dream. Whether it happens by way of a better-paying job
or winning the lottery, some studies suggest that money can change your behavior – and not always for the
better. Of course, there are plenty of charitable, helpful, and giving wealthy people. However, results from some
studies have proven that they may be the exception, rather than the rule. Your thoughts, behavior, and actions
are all linked to your psychology, which is composed of a host of factors ranging from your genetic makeup to
the way you were raised. While money doesn’t exactly shape your belief system, it can influence the way you
think and act toward others. Gaining a better understanding of the sway that money – or the lack of it – may
have on your behavior can make you more aware of when it might be pulling your strings and, hopefully, help
you learn to stop it.

Ways Money Affects Behavior

From your relationships to the way you view yourself, cash can have a serious bearing on your beliefs. There
are numerous pieces of scientific evidence behind the idea that money truly can change people.

1. Social and Business Value

A 2004 study proved that money alters how you value your time and effort. Researchers James Heyman and
Dan Ariely created an experiment by which they could measure how motivated a person was to complete a task
based upon money. Subjects were asked to drag circles across a computer screen. One group was asked to do
this as a “favor.” Another group was asked to do it for $0.50, and the last group was offered $5. After timing the
subjects, it was actually the group asked to perform the task as a favor that did it the fastest. Next was the $5
group, and last was the $0.50 group.

Heyman and Ariely surmised that there are two motivations for completing a given task. The first is social. By
recognizing a task’s social value, we see it as a worthy investment of time and a part of our social duty, and we
are usually happy to help out. When money is offered as the motivation, however, we then start thinking less of
the social aspect and more about the business value. Therefore, we measure our time against the monetary
reward, which may be why the $0.50 group was the slowest – they simply thought their time and effort were
worth more money.

It’s clear to see that money can be a motivator when it comes to determining value. While doing something for
free as a favor has a positive connotation, that part of the brain is effectively turned off when money is introduced.
This could have serious repercussions in your work life. If you feel like you deserve more money, you may
under-perform as a result.

2. Self-Sufficiency and Service

Those who are conscious of money typically strive to be more self-sufficient than those for whom money isn’t a
priority – at least that’s what a 2009 Yale School of Management study found. The study was structured around
Monopoly money. One group of subjects entered a room that had several reminders of money, such as
Monopoly cash on the table, statements about money, and even financial conversation. The second group of
subjects entered a room where money wasn’t mentioned, and both were issued a test. When given a very difficult
and even impossible task, with instructions that help was available, it was the money-related group that seemed
the most intent on getting the job done alone, even when it was not possible to finish the task solo. The non-
money group, on the other hand, tended to ask for assistance. The study concluded that money-conscious
individuals are more self-sufficient than their peers, particularly when money is made the focus.

The Yale study continued to measure how money affected a person’s behavior by using the same groups to
illustrate compassion and service in both the money-conscious subjects and those subjects in a money-free
environment. When a seemingly uninvolved person crossed their path with an armload of folders and pencils
and then dropped them, it was the group that wasn’t reminded of money that was the most helpful. The money-
conscious group was both less likely to offer and to seek assistance with a task.

3. Self-View

The amount you earn could have an effect on how you view both yourself and others. A study published in an
August 2013 issue of the “Journal of Personality and Social Psychology” asked individuals to rate things such
as class, genetics, and even I.Q. When the results were analyzed, they were defined as an individual’s sense of
“class essentialism” – the idea that differences between classes are based upon identity and genetics, rather than
circumstance. The wealthiest respondents were those with the deepest sense of class essentialism. Poor people
tended to believe that class was not related to genes – that essentially, anyone can be rich and anyone can be
poor. Rich people, on the other hand, were more likely to believe that wealth was part of genes and identity –
that they were entitled to wealth based upon their personal circumstances and actions. Wealthy respondents also
believed that, more or less, life is fair and people mostly get what they deserve.

4. Ethics

When doing your taxes, do you report them perfectly, or do you think it’s acceptable to fudge the numbers a bit?
A 2012 study published in an issue of “Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States
of America” asked if wealth and perception of a higher class could increase an individual’s involvement in
unethical behavior.

From cutting off another vehicle at a stop sign, to cheating at a game, to taking more candy than offered, the
wealthiest subjects were those most likely to break the rules, even when a researcher indicated that taking more
candy would result in less for children. The study authors, Paul K. Piff, et al., noted that those who perceived
themselves to be in a higher class were the most likely to engage in unethical behavior, particularly when a
symbol of wealth was introduced, such as cutting off a pedestrian when in a luxury car, for example. The study
labeled the behavior “self-interest maximization,” an idea that suggests those who have the most money or
occupy higher classes are more likely to take a “what’s in it for me?” attitude. They actively work toward the
most benefit for themselves. The study points out that these individuals make excellent business leaders, since
they often work the hardest to get the most out of a contract or job.

5. Addiction

Many addictions begin because a person gets a positive response from a certain type of behavior. Whether it’s a
happy feeling you get from shopping or a thrill that comes from gambling, actively seeking out that behavior
again and again for the same outcome can trigger an addiction. This is called a “behavioral or process addiction”
– a compulsive behavior not motivated by dependency on an addictive substance, but rather by a process that
leads to a seemingly positive outcome. Earning money can be very addictive for some individuals. That high of
a big check or a well-padded savings account can become the sole purpose of a wealth-searcher’s life, as warned
by Dr. Tian Dayton, a clinical psychologist. She warns that the positive feeling that follows obtaining money
can cause a chemical reaction in the brain that feels good. In turn, it can result in a severe preoccupation with
money and put a strain on relationships outside of those that relate to earning more.

Shaping the way, we see ourselves: The roles of consumer culture on our sense of self and identity.
Possessions and the Extended Self

Russell W. Belk to understand consumer behaviour we need to understand the meanings that consumers attached
to possession. Possessions are part of ourselves.

Consumers acknowledge that the possessions they own have an intimate tie up with the concept of self.
Ownership and utilization of products help the consumers for defining and living out their own identity. For
having a better understanding regarding behaviour of customers and the identity generated by it, it is important
to acknowledge the meanings being attached by customers to possessions. Possessions are known to be
considered as one of the most important element in the concept of self (Siddiqui and Turley 2006). The concept
of extended self is an extremely important considered as it helps in defining the nature and extent of the
relationship between the concept of self and possessions. Hence, it can be stated that for understanding the
concept of extended self, possessing and consumer behaviour play a significant role.

According to the concept of self, it has been recognized that individuals’ consumer in ways maintaining
consistency with the sense of generating self- identity. This particular concept can be widened for understanding
the concept of extended self. With respect to possessions, self- extension is referred to as the contributions made
by possessions for the establishment of identity. Hence, it is important to link these concepts with possessions
(Belk 1988). According to both of these concepts, personality is viewed as being a unified whole, whereas the
other concepts of consumer behaviour consider it is as a specifically different trait. Personality is considered as
being a unified whole as it contributes in reflecting personal differences.

What is Extended Self?

Extended self is proposed and defined as a combination of objects, mainly human beings, which contributes in
the production of an individual physically and an individual considers them psychologically, and their
potentiality by which one can have a sense of their own identity (Siddiqui and Turley 2006). The concept related
to extended- self can be understood in two different directions. These directions are extension considering objects
for creation of identity with non- human beings and extension considering time that is future beings and past
beings.
Special cases of extended self

Collections (I shop, therefore I am)

For people who collect, the value of their collections are not monetary but emotional. The collections allow
people to relive their childhood, connect themselves to a period or to a time they feel strongly about. Their
collections help them ease insecurity and anxiety about losing a part of themselves and to keep the past to
continue to exist in the present. Some collect for the thrill of the hunt. For these collectors, collecting is a quest,
a lifelong pursuit which can never be completed. Collecting may provide psychological security by filling a part
of the self-one feels is missing or is void of meaning. When one collects, one experiments with arranging,
organizing, and presenting a part of the world which may serve to provide a safety zone, a place of refuge where
fears are calmed and insecurity is managed. Motives are not mutually exclusive, rather, different motives
combine for each collector for a multitude of reasons.

Psychologists have often taken a Freudian perspective when describing why people collect. They highlight the
controlling and impulsive dark side to collecting, the need for people to have "an object of desire." This desire,
and hence the innate propensity to collect, begins at birth. The infant first desires the emotional and physical
comfort of the nourishing breast, then the familiar baby blanket the child clings to for comfort and security.
Stuffed animals, favourite toys are taken to bed and provide the emotional security needed to fall asleep.

A sense of ownership and control is facilitated through possession of these items for the vulnerable child. Freud
himself took a more extreme position on the origins of collecting.

Examples of individuals and their collections:

"I love wearing high heels and

nudes because it gives the illusion
that you look taller, and it matches
everything." Heart Evangelista

Well, Rocky or Rambo is not just famous

for wearing gloves and fighting against his
opponents. In his real life, Sylvester Stallone
is a huge fan of watches. More precisely, he is
well-known as a big supporter of Panerai for
a long period of time.

Manny Pacquiao is an avid automobile collector.

Rumors say he currently has around
22 vehicles inside his garage

Boy Abunda second book features more

than 100 “Abundable thoughts,” on a wide
range of topics like management and hosting.
The “King of Talk”

This artwork is created by Barbara Kruger in 1987 and reprinted on items, such as shopping bags and other
products of consumption later on. This striking image consists of a black-and-white photo of a hand reaching
forward and the white text “I shop therefore I am” on a red rectangle box residing in the middle of the
photograph. Where the hand is reaching to is a lot lighter than the rest of image, presenting the strong desire of
getting the material possession. The image is surrounded by a red border that creates a confined space and more
visual contrast.

By conducting interesting wordplay of Descartes “I think, therefore I am,” Kruger uses the artwork questions
the meaning of being within the modern materialistic world with humor and satire. This artwork illustrates one
extreme consequence of advertising texts such as ones on the cover of Toward a Female Liberation
Movement: The existence of the self becomes embedded with the act of consuming. In the analysis of the texts,
I show that advertisements create self-doubts and guilt by comparing people in real life with the unattainable
ideal people. This could potentially destroy the foundation of people’s perception and security of self. The
unbridgeable difference between “who I am” and “who I should be” propel people to engage in consumption.
The perpetuation of this process ultimately replaces the self.

In the I shop therefore I am trend report we are looking into the world of consumer culture from different point
of views; ethical, social, political, economical and humanistical.

Pets as extended self

Pets are part of our everyday lives and part of our families. They provide us with companionship but also with
emotional support, reduce our stress levels, sense of loneliness and help us to increase our social activities and
add to a child's self-esteem and positive emotional development.

Besides personal and social aspects, the construct of extended self can be seen as symbolic and functional.
Symbolically pets are expressions of consumers' identities and functionally they are consumers' appendages
(Belk 1996, p. 128). ... By this way, pet owners indirectly label themselves by naming their pets.

Celebrities and their pets:

Body parts

“Everywhere in the world, self-starts with body. “(BAUMEISTER, 1999, p. 2, The self in social psychology,
Psychology Press). According to this statement, our own body is not only an essential requirement for the
daily interaction with the outside world, but is also included in the notion of self. In the literature there are a
lot of different models from various fields of research on how the nature of the self can be described. The
dominant view so far regarded the self as a purely mental entity. In recent history, however, many authors
started grounding the concept of the self in the physical body, thus focussing on a “bodily self”.

The body just seems to be there (JAMES, 1890; The Principles of Psychology, Harvard University Press) and
provides a stable somatosensory background for subjective experience. We normally also take it for granted
that our body builds an entity independent from other bodies and objects in the external world and we can
easily differentiate our actions from the actions of others.

But seemingly, the loss of body parts can give rise to grief for loss of body image or function, or both.

Aimee Copeland

Aimee felt like she had lost her independence,

and plunged into a depression.She struggled to
deal with the physical changes in her body and
recalls how looking in the mirror for the first time
was incredibly difficult.

Aimee Copeland lost all her limbs to a flesh-eating bug she contracted after zip-lining accident but now says that
having found love with Stephen, a 26-year-old English teacher, she is the happiest she has ever been.
Spiritual self
The spiritual self consists of all your internal thoughts and introspections about your values and moral standards.
It is the essence of who you think you are. It is a mixture of your spiritual beliefs and your sense of who you are
in relationship to other forces in the universe.

The spiritual self is the inner or psychological self. Our perception of our own psychological qualities (personal
identities).

“By the spiritual self ... I mean a man’s inner or subjective being, his psychic faculties or dispositions. ...” (James,
1890, p.296).

Two ways of thinking about the spiritual self:

Abstract Way - Isolate each mental faculty from one another

Concrete Way - Unite each mental faculty with one another

The Spirit, the Soul and the Body

Spirit, soul and body Prophesying to all the

three parts of our Human Being

Man is formed of Spirit Soul and body

Genesis 1:27 (NKJV).” 27 So God created man in His own image; in the image of God He created him; male
and female He created them.

1 Thessalonians 5:23 (NKJV)  Blessing and Admonition 23Now may the God of peace Himself sanctify you
completely; and may your whole spirit, soul, and body be preserved blameless at the coming of our Lord Jesus
Christ.

Hebrews 4:12 (NKJV) 12 For the word of God is living and powerful, and sharper than any two-edged sword,
piercing even to the division of soul and spirit, and of joints and marrow, and is a discerner of the thoughts and
intents of the heart.

Psalm 51:10 (NKJV) 10Create in me a clean heart, O God, And renew a steadfast spirit within me. 11 Do not
cast me away from Your presence, And do not take Your Holy Spirit from me.

We can prophesy to the different parts of the functions of a human being. We can prophesy about the functions
of each part that form the human being. Knowing the parts that constitute a person is very important. Lets have
a quick look into this parts and at the end of the class we’ll prophesy for each other.

Human Spirit To Contact God (John 4:24) To Receive God (John 3:6) (Ezekiel 36:26) To Contain God (2
Timothy 4:22)

Contact God through Worship and Intimacy

John 4:24 (NKJV) 24 God is Spirit, and

those who worship Him must worship in spirit

and truth.”

Receive God by New Birth Ezekiel 36:26

(NKJV) 26 I will give you a new heart and put

a new spirit within you; I will take the heart of stone out of your flesh and give you a heart of flesh John 3:6
New (NKJV) 6 That which is born of the flesh is flesh, and that which is born of the Spirit is spirit.
Contains God By Grace 2 Timothy 4:22 (NKJV) Farewell 22 The Lord Jesus Christ[a] be with your spirit. Grace
be with you. Amen.

People today are born with a dead spirit. 1 Corinthians 2:14 (NIV) 14 The person without the Spirit does not
accept the things that come from the Spirit of God but considers them foolishness, and cannot understand them
because they are discerned only through the Spirit.

 John 4:23 (NIV) 23 Yet a time is coming and has now come when the true worshipers will worship the Father
in the Spirit and in truth, for they are the kind of worshipers the Father seeks.

Soul to be an Expression and a Reflection of God

Mind: knows and remember Psalm 139:14

(NKJV) 14 I will praise You, for I am fearfully

and wonderfully made; [a] Marvellous are Your

works, and that my soul knows very well.

Lamentations 3:20 (NKJV) 20 My soul still

remembers and sinks within me.

Will: chooses and refuses  Job 7:15 (NKJV)  15 So that my soul chooses strangling And death rather than my
body.[a]  Job 6:7New King James Version (NKJV)  7 My soul refuses to touch them; They are as loathsome
food to me.

Emotions: love, hate, rejoice  Song of Songs 1:7 (NABRE)  7 W Tell me, you whom my soul loves, where
you shepherd  2 Samuel 5:8 (NKJV)  8 Now David said on that day ...the lame and the blind, who are hated
by David’s soul  Psalm 86:4 (NKJV)  4 Rejoice the soul of Your servant, For to You, O Lord, I lift up my
soul.

Ezekiel 18:4 (NKJV)  4 “Behold, all souls are Mine; The soul of the father As well as the soul of the son is
Mine; The soul who sins shall die.

Psalm 103:1-5New (NKJV)  103 Bless the LORD, O my soul; And all that is within me, bless His holy name!
2 Bless the LORD, O my soul, And forget not all His benefits: 3 Who forgives all your iniquities, Who heals all
your diseases, 4 Who redeems your life from destruction, Who crowns you with loving kindness and tender
mercies  5 Who satisfies your mouth with good things, So that your youth is renewed like the eagle’s.

Body

Presented to God as a Sacrifice

Romans 12:1 (NKJV) Living Sacrifices to God

12 I beseech you therefore, brethren, by the

mercies of God, that you present your bodies a

living sacrifice, holy, acceptable to God, which is

your reasonable service.

Used for man’s Existence  Ecclesiastes 12:7 (ESV)  7 and the dust returns to the earth as it was, and the spirit
returns to God who gave it.

The Soul According to the Ethnolinguistic Groups of the Philippines

Ifugao – ‘Linnawa’
The soul (linnawa) of a child floats around in the heavens, awaiting its entry into the human world. During
sexual intercourse the soul/spirit enters the female through the male, resulting in pregnancy. If a woman cannot
conceive, shamans conduct sacrifices to see if the couple is compatible. If they are, shamans offer other sacrifices
to enhance fertility. The soul is believed to continue in existence in the world of its ancestors. In time the soul of
the new-dead becomes one of the callading or ancestral spirits. The callading are considered man’s benefactors.
In some sources (The Soul Book) the Ifugao believe there are two souls, one in the eyes and one in the breath.
Illness is the withdrawal of the soul in the eyes. Death is the withdrawal of the soul in the breath.
Ibaloi
The Ibaloi afterlife is populated by ancestral spirits, and explains animal sacrifices. In that spiritual world, when
the soul arrives with physical treasures, it receives a great welcome. An empty-handed soul finds himself the
object of scorn. He is unwelcome and unaccepted in his new world and this feeling of insecurity may cause the
spirit to bring evil, disease and even death among his relatives. In the light of all those beliefs, relatives of the
dead person bring donation of cash or animals.

Isneg – ‘Kaduwa’
The Isneg believed that dead exist in other world, the Aglalanawan, where the earthly tasks of planting,
harvesting and communal living are functions common to them. The kaduwa, soul, is believed to cross the pond
in a ferry piloted by the spirit, Kutaw(A psychopomp). In a bid to please kutaw, who could facilitate the spirit’s
entry to aglalanawan, the appropriate customary death rituals would be the key.

Kankana-ey – ‘Ab-abiik’
Ab-Abiik is the spiritual self as oppsed to the physical self (Awak). The Ab-abiik can also apply to inanimate
objects such as mountains, trees or rivers. It can also mean ‘inspiration’ in some contexts.

Bikol
No one should miss their dinner and go to bed hungry or their spirit will roam for food. If a pot of food is covered
while the spirit is eating inside, the person who is sleeping will now wake up until the lid is lifted.

Tagalog – ‘Kaluluwa and Kakambal’

The Tagalog soul, the kaluluwa can leave the body involuntarily. The kaluluwa refers more to the soul of the
deceased. The soul of a living person is called kakambal (meaning twin or double). The kakambal may travel
around at night and some particularly bad encounters are the cause of nightmares (bangungut). The kakambal
becomes a kaluluwa after death.

Ilokano – ‘Kararua, Karkarma, Aniwaas and Araria’

The first soul of the Ilokanos is called the kararua, or the soul proper. This is the term used for the equivalent of
the Christian soul that can only leave after death.
The Ilokano have a four soul system. In addition to the kararua there are three other souls.
Karkarma is the name of the second soul. It can leave the physical body when one is frightened, or may be
stolen. If this soul fails to return the owner becomes insane, sacrificial ceremonies may be held to lure back a
lost karkarma. Karkarma stands for natural vigor, mind and reason. Aniwaas is the name of the third soul. It
can leave the body during sleep and visits places familiar to the body. If one wakes up while the aniwaas is
visiting these places, they may lose the aniwaas and become insane. Araria is the name of the fourth soul. This
is the liberated soul of the dead, the soul that visits relatives and friends in the earthworld asking them to pray
for it or perform a duty it failed to do in life. Its presence can be heralded by the howling of dogs. This soul can
make sounds and manipulate physical objects usually relating to what it did in life.

Ibanag – ‘Ikaruruwa’
The Ibanag have a distinction between body (baggi) and soul (ikaruruwa). Ikarurua means ‘a companion of the
body’. Mekararuanan (me + kararua – to be rid of the soul) is a phenomenon where the soul can leave the body
but it is without sense. The ritual Mangagaggako invites the soul to return to the body
The Ibanag believe that the soul has physical characteristics. The soul may have color and the souls of dead
babies can reach adulthood in the spirit realm. The role of the soul is to give direction and wholeness to the man,
but the body can survive without the soul, and even without the body the soul experiences material wants and
needs.

Mangyan – ‘Karaduwa’
The Hanunoo Mangyan believe in a plurality of souls. Karaduwa tawu/tawo (human soul), karaduwa
manok (Chicken soul) Karaduwa Baboy (pig soul) karaduwa kuti (cat soul) and karaduwa hipon (shrimp soul).
An individual may possess 2-5 other souls. These other souls are explanations for miraculous recoveries from
near fatal experiences, their dream life or natural reactions to startling sounds or movement.
A soul can also separate itself from the physical body. If a person is scared, his soul leaves his body causing
sickness. When a person dreams the karaduwa walks around. The dream that a person has is caused by this
walk.

Bisaya – ‘Dungan’
A soul can be captured by bad spirits (e.g. egkantu). Souls may be imprisoned in a spirit cave guarded by old Tan
Mulong whose spirit dog has one mammary gland and two genitals. Sickness is the temporary loss of the soul,
permanent loss is death. The soul can be lured back by a skillful shaman. The dungan is ethereal, something not
weighed down by the world. Before it inhabits a human body it inhabits a region above the earth with other
dungan. The dungan then takes interest in the unborn being, usually a relative which it had chosen to inhabit.
The dungan is not located in any specific part of the body and it grows proportionately with the person’s body.
Weak at birth it is vulnerable to usug or the unintentional transfer of disturbing vapors of a strong body to a
weak one by proximity. There are many rituals performed to protect and nurture the dungan. Dungan also has
a secondary meaning of willpower. A stronger dungan means that the person has a greater capacity to dominate
others to their line of thought. People living together may lead to a spiritual competition between the two dungan
leading to the weaker becoming sick.
At death the dungan leaves the body via any of the orifices and goes with the air toward the upper regions. There
it waits until it finds another body to enter.

Ilonggo – ‘Dungan’
The Ilonggo soul, the dungan is not seen by the human eye. Sometimes it goes out of the body and takes on
visible forms as insects or small animals A dungan may leave the body voluntarily while the person is sleeping.
If one sees themselves in their dreams it means their dungan has left their physical body. A slumbering person
should be waken gently to give the soul a chance to return to the body. Whatever happens to the dungan also
happens to the physical body. The dungan also withdraws from the body if said body is badly treated

Sulod – ‘Umalagad’
Dying among the Sulod is said to be like passing through a narrow door. The experience is horrible, as if the
person has to pull hard to get in the door. Once one departs they simply disappear. No trace of them is left
behind. This soul is watched over by three brother gods Mangganghaw, Manglaegas and Patag’aes.
Mangganghaw keeps track over man’s affairs immediately after marriage. He keeps track of pregnancy. He is
also the first to come to the house of a laboring mother, peeps in the house and sees the child being born, after
which he reports to Manglaegas. Manglaegas, after being reported to by Mangganghaw, enters the house to look
for the child to make sure the child was born alive, then reports to Patag’aes who waits until midnight then enters
the house to have a conversation with the infant. If Patag’aes discovers anyone eavesdropping on their
conversation, he chokes the child to death. The conversation is on how long the child wants to live and how the
child will eventually die. The child gets to choose. After the child has chosen, Patag’aes takes out his measuring
stick and computes the child’s life span, and then he departs.

Tagbanwa – ‘Kiyaraluwa’
A Tagbanwa has one ‘true soul’ the kiyaraluwa and five secondary souls. The kiyaraluwa is given to each infant
by the god Magindusa as the nose of the child emerges from the vulva. The secondary souls are located in the
extremities of both hands and feet and in the head just below the air whorl (puyo). The souls of the feet protect
one while walking and from injuries to the feet, the same functions to those in the hands. The secondary soul
located by the puyo is not fixed in young children and may cause illness if not properly aligned, some shamans
specialize in realigning the soul to its proper place. This soul is said to have a material form like a round white
stone.

Bukidnon – ‘Makatu’ and ‘Pipitu ha makatu’

The makatu, their world for soul, exists before a child’s birth but it is separate from the body. There is a ritual in
which a miniature cradle is hung over the pregnant mother in a place where the mother sleeps. The small cradle
is where the soul of the unborn baby will sleep before it joins the infant at birth. The makatu is breathed into
man at birth by Miyaw-Biyaw. If all are present in an individual, they are healthy, if one or more wanders away
from the body then Illness, irritability and sadness follow. If all makatu leave the body at the same time, the
individual dies. The Bukidnon also believe in seven souls called the ‘pipitu ha makatu’. One jumps off the cliff,
one swims in the water, one puts its hand in snake holes, one sits under a tree, one is always walking around,
one is awake in the day and one is awake at night.

Bagobo – ‘Gimokud’
There are two souls called gimokud. Right hand gimokud is the good soul that manifests as a shadow on the
right hand side of the path while the left hand gimokud is the bad soul that manifests as a shadow on the left
side of the path. The right hand is associated with life, health, activity and joy, remaining in the body throughout
life. When death causes the right hand gimokud to leave the body, it gives notice by visiting in the form of an
insect. The left hand soul is the cause of lethargy, pain and illness. The left hand soul also leaves the body at
night and risks various dangers, if it visits the sea the sleeping person feels shivers, the behavior it engages in
leaves a physical effect on the body. After death the gimokud becomes a busaw (digging up dead bodies).

Loob and Personhood

Finding and Creating meaning – Viktor Frankl

The meaning of life according to Viktor Frankl lies in finding a purpose and taking responsibility for ourselves
and other human beings. By having a clear “why” we can face all the “how” questions of life. Only by feeling
free and sure of the objective that motivates us will we be able to make the world a better place. That said, we
know there is no question as complicated as what the “meaning of life” is. Such questions sometimes have
philosophical, transcendental and moral nuances, so often we stick to classic sayings, like “be happy and make
others happy “, “be content“, “do good“.

“Man can preserve a vestige of spiritual freedom, of independence of mind, even in such terrible conditions of psychic and
physical stress”.

-Viktor Frankl-

However, many ask the question and feel a deep existential void. What is the meaning of life for me if all I do is
work, if all my days are the same and if I do not find meaning in anything around me? Faced with this very
common situation, the famous neurologist, psychiatrist and founder of logotherapy, Viktor Frankl, gave an
answer that invites constructive reflection.

Three ways of discovering the meaning of life Viktor Frankl’s Logotherapy is based on the premise that the
human person is motivated by a “will to meaning,” an inner pulls to find a meaning in life. The following list of
tenets represents basic principles of logotherapy:

•Life has meaning under all circumstances, even the most miserable ones.
•Our main motivation for living is our will to find meaning in life.
•We have freedom to find meaning in what we do, and what we experience, or at least in the stand we take
when faced with a situation of unchangeable suffering.

According to Frankl, "We can discover this meaning in life in three different ways:
(1) by creating a work or doing a deed;
(2) by experiencing something or encountering someone; and
(3) by the attitude we take toward unavoidable suffering" and that "everything can be taken from a man but one
thing: the last of the human freedoms—to choose one's attitude in any given set of circumstances".

The practice of religion

The practices of a religion may
include rituals, sermons, comme-
moration or veneration (of a deity,
gods, or goddesses), sacrifices, fes-
tivals, feasts, trances, initiations,
funerary services, matrimonial services,
meditation, prayer, religious music,
religious art, sacred dance, public service,
or other aspects.
Rituals

Ritual is a sequence of activities involving gestures, words and objects, performed in an appropriate place, and
designed to influence extraordinary beings or forces on behalf of the person’s goals and interest.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RITUALS

The rites of past and present societies have typically involved special gestures and words, recitation of fixed texts,
performance of special music, songs, or dances, processions, manipulation of certain objects, use of special
dresses, consumption of special food, drink or drugs and more.

SOME TYPES OF RITUALS

 The Seven Sacraments (Baptism,Reconciliation,Holy Communion, Confirmation, Anointing of the Sick,
Marriage and Ordination)
 Worship (such as Mass)
 Handshake (Muslims)
 Coronations
 Funerals
 Oaths of allegiance

CONVENTIONAL CHRISTIAN WEDDINGS - Seating of the family on Opposite sides of the church, Groom
entering first Bridesmaid and groomsmen Matron of honour and best man Flower girl and ring bearer Father
escorting and giving away the bride, White wedding dress, Bridal veil, Joining of right hands, Exchanging of the
rings, Pronouncement of husband and wife.

Some of the rituals observed by Filipino Folk Healers include:

 Pangalap - the aforementioned yearly search for concoction ingredients

 Halad - ritual offering of food and drink to honor the spirits of the dead
 Palínà - ritual fumigation; called tu-ob in the islands of Panay and Negros
 Pangadlip - the chopping or slicing of pangalap ingredients
 Pagpagong - burning or reducing the ingredients into charcoal or ashes
 Making of Minasa - concoctions made from the pangalap ingredients
 Rubbing with Lana - medicinal oil concocted from coconut

Magic

Magic, as opposed to magic the art of illusion and sleight of hand, is the Art Of Causation. Magic is a natural
human ability, we are all born with this innate ability to make Magick, all it takes is the desire to learn, and
practice. Magic is creating change by connecting with the energies of nature. These energies of nature exist in
all things, all solid matter is made of atoms, sub-atom particles, below this level is pure energy. At the this level
of pure energy, there is no solid matter, here everything is connected by threads of energy. Magic is the control
and manipulation of these threads of energy, this energy exists at all levels and planes, so by creating changes to
these energy threads causes effects to occur within the physical plane. Magic allows you to alter this energy
reality to bring about changes in the material reality, conversely altering your material worlds causes changes to
the energy reality. "Magic is the science of the control of the secret forces of nature." - S.L. MacGregor Mathers,
Order of the Golden Dawn. "Magic is a comprehensive knowledge of all nature." - Francis Barrett. "Magick is
the Art and Science of causing changes to occur in conformity with will." - Aleister Crowley To perform effective
magic, you will need to perfect your visualization skills and train your mind to think in a different way. Magic
is based on the principle of "As Above, So Below", this may be taken to mean that which exists on the spiritual
level also exists on the physical level.

Witchcraft
Christian views on magic vary widely among denominations and among individuals. Most Christians actively
condemn any form of magic as satanic, holding that it opens the way for demonic possession. Others simply
dismiss it as superstition. Conversely, some branches of esoteric Christianity actively engage in magical
practices.

There are several references to witchcraft in the Bible that strongly condemn such practices. For
example, Deuteronomy 18:11-12 condemns anyone who "..casts spells, or who is a medium or spiritist or who
consults the dead. Anyone who does these things is detestable to the Lord, and because of these detestable
practices the Lord your God will drive out those nations before you", and Exodus 22:18 states "Do not allow a
sorceress to live" (or in the King James Bible "thou shalt not suffer a witch to live"). It has also been suggested
that the word "witch" might be a mistranslation of "poisoner."[1]
Others point to a primitive idealist belief in a relation between bewitching and coveting, reflected in the
occasional translation of the Tenth Commandment as 'Thou shalt not bewitch'. [2] This may suggest that the
prohibition related specifically to sorcery or the casting of spells to unnaturally possess something.
Some adherents of near-east religions acted as mediums, channeling messages from the dead or from a familiar
spirit. The Bible sometimes is translated as referring to "necromancer" and "necromancy" (Deuteronomy 18:11).
However, some lexicographers, including James Strong and Spiros Zodhiates, disagree. These scholars say that
the Hebrew word kashaph, used in Exodus 22:18 and 5 other places in the Tanakh comes from a root meaning
"to whisper". Strong therefore concludes that the word means "to whisper a spell, i.e. to incant or practice
magic". The Contemporary English Version translates Deuteronomy 18:11 as referring to "any kind of magic".
At the very least, older biblical prohibitions included those against 'sorcery' to obtain something unnaturally;
'necromancy' as the practice of magic or divination through demons or the dead; and any forms of malevolent
'bewitchery'.
 The Political Self

Philippine Politics

Philippine System of Government and Politics

From the time when the Philippines declared
itself a sovereign state in 1898, the nation has
had four major constitutions: (1) the 1899cons-
titution, which established the first republic in
Asia; (2) the 1935constitution, which served as the basic law during the period of self-government while the
Philippines was still under American rule and after it became independent in 1946; (3) the 1973 constitution,
which allowed Ferdinand Marcos to continue to hold office as president; and (4) the 1987 constitution, upon
which the present government is based, which essentially restored institutions and processes dismantled by
Marcos during his regime

Pre-historic Philippine Politics

Branches of government

The Executive Branch

 As chief executive, the president has the power to execute laws.

 The president is assisted by a cabinet, which currently comprises twenty-three departments.

 Among the more important departments are Foreign Affairs, National Defense, Finance, Interior and Local
Government, Justice, and Trade and Industry.

 Both president and vice president are elected at large for a six-year term with no possibility of re-election. The
executive branch consists of the President and his Cabinet. The Senate and the House of Representatives make
up the bicameral legislature. The Supreme Court heads the systems of courts under the judicial branch.

The Legislative Branch

 The Philippine Congress is a bicameral body, the upper house being the Senate and the lower house being the
House of Representatives.

 These two houses possess equal power, although budgetary bills must originate in the lower house, while
treaty ratification rests exclusively with the upper house.

 Congress consists of a 24-member Senate and a 250-member House of Representatives. The voters of the
entire nation elect senators to six-year terms.

 Voters from different districts elect 200 of the representatives to three-year terms. The remaining 50
representatives are selected from lists drawn up by the political parties to ensure representation of women, ethnic
minorities, and certain economic and occupational groups.

 The number selected from each party's list is about one-fourth of the number of the party's elected
representatives. All Philippine citizens who are at least 18 years old may vote.

The Judiciary

Judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court and in the lower courts. Members of the judiciary are chosen by
the president from a list of nominees provided by the Judicial and Bar Council, a constitutional body composed
of representatives from the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government, the legal profession, and
the private sector. Once appointed, judges have secure tenure and can serve until the age of seventy or until they
become incapacitated.

Constitutional Commissions

The constitution also provides for independent constitutional commissions, namely, the Civil Service
Commission, the Commission on Elections, and the Commission on Audit.

Local Governments

The lowest political unit in the Philippines is the barangay (village). The barangay is administered by a council
headed by a punong barangay (chairperson). Several barangays make up a city or municipality.

Administrative subdivisions

The Philippines is divided into a hierarchy of local government units (LGUs) with the province as the primary
unit. As of 2007, there are 81 provinces in the country. International organization participation The Philippines
is a founding and active member of the UN since its inception on October 24, 1945 and is a founding member
of the ASEAN.

Islam Influence on the Political System

Islam has a great influence on the political system of the natives in the Southern Philippines. The sultan of the
Muslim community is still the sultan of Muslim provinces.

The Philippine Administrative System

The administrative system of the Republic of the Philippines is comprised of a central government and its
territorial and political subdivisions, which enjoy local autonomy: the provinces, cities, municipalities and
barangays.
Origins of Democracy in the Philippines

When the United States colonised the Philippines in 1898 it planned to gradually grant self-determination to the
country as the principles of democracy were imbibed by the population. As education was not widespread, the
elite and the educated benefitted most from the system instituted by the US, which was largely executed by
officers of the US army. Filipinos worked in the American administration and quickly came to value the concept
of self-government. By 1917, when the US decided to institute its policy of ‘Filipinisation’ , the elite was ready
to assume positions vacated by departing US military officers. Between 1917 and 1935, when the
Commonwealth came into existence, political parties were formed and most of the population was educated
into accepting the principles of democracy, which meant having a ruling party and an opposition. In this respect,
the Philippines was significantly different from many Asian countries which gained independence a few years
later. As Apter (1962:154) points out: these countries did not generally accept an opposition as a normal feature
of a democracy. The small elite who controlled the political process realised that each party would have its turn
in government. The Nacionalista and Liberal parties, which differed little ideologically, dominated politics, and
politicians switched parties to gain office. But the democratic system that developed did not represent the
majority of the population.

The Philippine Commonwealth was inaugurated in 1935 under a democratic constitution patterned after the
United States bicameral system. ‘The ideology of American ‘democracy’ which emphasised the limitation of
state power was very different from the philosophy of the French in Indo-China, the Dutch in the Indies and the
British in Malaya. It played into the hands of the elite to whom the Americans, always ambivalent colonial
rulers, proceeded to hand over political power as soon as possible’ (Overholt 1986:1136).

For most Filipinos, American-style democracy meant little more than elections every few years. Beyond this,
the colonial authorities made sure that only the candidates who represented colonial interests first and last won.
This practice did not die with colonialism. The ensuing political order, which persisted long after independence,
was one where a handful of families effectively and ruthlessly ruled a society riven by inequality. It was
democratic in form, borrowing as many American practices as it could, but autocratic in practice (World Bank
report cited in Chomsky 1991:237).

The first duty of the Commonwealth government was national security. President Manuel Quezon procured the
services of General Douglas MacArthur, who was about to retire as US Army Chief of Staff, to establish the
Philippine military. MacArthur and his US military advisory team used the Swiss army as a model for the
Philippine army. A military academy, patterned after the US military academy at West Point, was designed in
which officers were to be instructed in the techniques and skills of the military and taught that the proper role of
the military in a democracy was one of subservience to civilian government. In practice, however, these ideals
were not easily imparted to the new recruits, many of whom attained their place at the academy through political
patronage rather than merit (Selochan 1990:57). Courses at the academy were oriented towards equipping cadets
to maintain internal law and order through combat techniques. The curriculum did not address subjects in the
humanities. Maintaining law and order, more a policing than military function, required more emphasis on
domestic politics than military skills. Officers recruited from the Reserve Officers Training Course (ROTC)
conducted at the universities were more amenable to humanitarian considerations, but they did not generally
hold command positions in the military as they were seen as part-time soldiers. Yet with a liberal education they
were possibly more attuned to the democratic process than the officers trained at the Philippines Military
Academy (PMA) under an authoritarian military system.

Officers’ adherence to democratic practices also suffered under the Commission on Appointments (CA),
instituted to vet appointments under a functioning democracy. Politicians who were members of the CA sought
and gained allegiance from officers in exchange for approving their promotion. Many officers consequently
remained indebted to politicians and were unable to conform strictly to the military chain of command. While
the Philippine military was still being developed World War II abruptly interrupted the military training and
education program. To defend the islands, the fledgling Philippine military was incorporated into the United
States Armed Forces for the Far East (USAFFE) under the command of General MacArthur.

At the termination of the war, the Philippines had suffered severe damage. It also had over one million people
claiming to be guerilla fighters and thus seeking a place in the military. Reconstruction of the Philippine
economy and the reconstitution of the military became priorities of the newly-installed government under
President Osmeña. Independence was also granted during this period. But the country was inadequately
equipped to assume full sovereignty.

The 1935 constitution, which was adopted at independence on 4 July 1946, provided the framework within
which a democratic state could develop.

The Constitution was supplemented by laws enacted by legislatures at the national, provincial, and
city/municipal levels of government. A centralised court system which was headed by the Supreme Court
performed the judicial function of the state and a career national bureaucracy administered the policies of the
government. In other words, the political and institutional infrastructure of a democratic government was in
place in the Philippines at the time of independence. What was not altered was the distribution of wealth,
economic power and social status (Lapitan 1989:236).

The American-style democracy exported to the Philippines was bound to encounter problems: ‘Except in rare
instances, democracy does not work when foreign models are imposed, and many features of American
democracy are ill-suited to poor, unstable and divided countries’ (Diamond 1992:27).

So what is democracy?

 Democracy is not merely a form of government. It is also a form a state as a well society. It is closely associated
with participation, competition and civil and political liberties. It is order of society.

 Democracy is defined as a form of government in which the supreme power is vested in the people and
exercised by them directly or indirectly through a system of representation usually involving periodic free
elections.

 Democracy refers to a political system in which government is form by the people, exercised either directly or
through elected representative.

Main Points:

 People Elected government.

 There is freedom of speech.
 There is no one party government In the country.
 Right to give vote to elect their representatives.
 The common people, considered as the primary source of political power.
 The principles of social equality and respect for the individual within a community.
The Digital Self

The digital self is the persona you use when

you’re online. Some people maintain one or
more online identifies that are distinct from
their “real world” selves; others have a single
online self-that’s more or less the same as the
one they inhabit in the real world.

Why is the digital self so important for your career? The simple reason is that once you go online as your real
self, using your own name or appearance, you have an online presence that can be traced back to you in the real
world. Your online presence is hard to hide, difficult to control, and easy for recruiters and hiring managers to
find. Because of this, it’s important to manage your online identity carefully, to ensure that your public image—
your brand—is presented in the best possible light.

By doing so, you reap a number of advantages:

 You have more control over your digital identity. It’s not possible to have 100% control, but by building
your own online presence you’ll always maintain the lion’s share.
 You can build a consistent identity, and reduce the impact of problems that might put hirers or recruiters
off contacting you. Think of the damage control that celebrities do when salacious stories start
circulating—it’s this kind of approach, but on a much smaller scale.
 You have the chance to develop your own reputation as an expert or thought leader in your industry.
This can mitigate the negative effects of issues such as employment gaps or an otherwise spotty work
history.

Your online identity is like an investment. You start out with a small amount of capital, and the way you use it
over time determines how much you end up with later on. The difference is, it’s actually a lot easier to control
your online identity than it is to predict the stock or real estate markets. What goes into building your digital
self? It can and does include everything you say and do under your own name. Some elements of your digital
self-include:

Given that your online behaviour makes a huge impact on how you present your digital self, it’s important to
always use social media with care and consistency—always aware of how your personal brand can be affected
by what you say and do. Always assume that potential employers will perform an online search, so make sure
that everything they find is positive and professional.
Impact of Digital Media on Individuals, Organizations and Society
Barak et al. (2008) found that because of the online disinhibition effect, individuals are able to open up more
in online support groups. This, they argue, fosters personal empowerment, control, self-confidence, and
improved feelings.
Share
The increased use of digital media is changing people’s everyday lives and the way they connect and collaborate
in the broader societal context, at work and in civil society. Much of the impact of this heightened use is
beneficial to both individuals and society. It is enabling unprecedented levels of communication, social
interaction and community building across boundaries of time, place and social context. It is enabling
individuals and speeding up the democratization of knowledge. New learning methods are possible (as has been
evidenced by the World Economic Forum’s New Vision for Education project), as are ways of working, which are
providing better opportunities to people in under-served communities and regions.

But not all the impacts of increased use of digital media are positive. Research indicates that when humans
excessively use digital media it can negatively influence their cognitive and behavioural development and even
their mental and physical health. Hyperconnectivity, the increasing digital interconnection of people and things,
has the potential to change patterns of social interaction, as face-to-face time may be substituted by online
interaction. In addition, greater technology enablement of work (and the resulting fragmentation of jobs)
threatens the security of jobs traditionally considered as skilled in the developed world.
Clearly, it is important to understand the opportunities and the risks in increased digital media usage, so that
both industry and users can learn how best to exploit the benefits while mitigating the negative effects.
 Strategies for Effective Learning
( Learning to be a better Person)

Overview
How exciting life would have become if, like a puzzle, has gradually concluded with the fit of the last single
piece. Its pieces are the different representations and conceptualizatons of the self from various disciplinal
perspectives, that were examined of their influences, factors, and forces that shape the self, which have given
color to life. Different forces and institutions were likewise identified, and recognized for their impact in the
development of the various aspects of self and identity.

Discussion
LEARNING TO BE A BETTER PERSON
 Students are still in the process of becoming a better person in different aspects. At this stage of
development, their brain’s functioning is a work in progress.Learning to be a better person entails learning
how to handle brain and the corresponding behavioral changes that it undergoes.
 The brain acts as a dense network of fiber pathways that consists of approximately 100 billion neurons
which is responsible for all connections among the three principal parts: stem, cerebellum and cerebrum.
Learning can be owed to the cerebrum, since it is where higher order functions like memory and reasoning
occur. Its tasks become apparent in behavior as each area accomplishes its functions in hearing, speech,
touch, short term memory, language and reasoning abilities(Ford,2011).

1. HOW LEARNING HAPPENS IN THE HUMAN BRAIN

 Expounded by ford (2011), learning happens through a network of neurons where sensory information is
transmitted by synapses along the neural pathway and stored temporarily in short term memory, a volatile
region of the brain that acts like receiving center for the flood of sensory information we encounter in our
daily lives.
 As an example, when students commute or when employess get to work places, they don’t really need to
think consciously about how to arrive at their destinations. It becomes effortless because the trip had taken
many times already that the brain gets used to the usual scenario every time it happens. Memory of how
to navigate gets rooted, such that, neurons which control memory have communicated so often that they
have formed a tight bond like friends who became so overly close like “bffs”.
 Learning fundamentally requires the acquisition of new information even from the moment a person is
born. What makes the brain search for the unusual in the environment is its natural curiosity. Steven
(2014) emphasized that changes in the brain allow for faster,stronger signaling between neurons as the
brain gains new skills, but the best way to speed up those signals is to slowly introduce new information
to the head.

2. METACOGNITION
 One amazing wonder the brain is capable of doing besides learning, which is something that everyone is
expected to do, is learning to learn. College students’ state of mind may have learned component skills
that allow them to perform a task, or had completed steps toward producing a product, but they are not
actually learning and matering knowledge.
 According to the LD online Glossary (2014), metacognition is the process of thinking about thinking,”For
example, good readers use metacognition before reading when they clarify their purpose for reading and
preview the text. So in other words, metacognition is the understanding and awareness of one’s own
mental or cognitive processes.
Many metacognitive strategies are appropriate for use in the classroom including:
 Think-Alouds ( for reading comprehension and problem solving)
 Organizational Tools (such as checklists, rubrics, etc. for solving word problems)
 Explicit Teacher Modeling (for math instruction)

TYPES OF LEARNING STRATEGIES AND SUPPORTS: COGNITIVE

COGNITIVE
STRATEGIES
STRATEGY DEFINITION BENEFIT
 Rehearsal Reciting items to be learned Believed to influence the attention and coding
from a list process. It does not seem to help students connect
current information with prior knowledge.
 Elaboration Summarizing and Believed to improve a student’s ability to store
paraphrasing information into the long term memory by building
internal connections between itms to be learned and
assisting with the integration of new information with
prior kowledge
  Organization Outlining Helps learners select appropriate information and
make the connections to be learned

 Analyzing Problem-Solving Assists students with applying previous knowledge to

Critical thinking new situations in order to solve problems and/or
reach decisions.

2.1 TYPES OF LEARNING STRATEGIES AND SUPPORTS: METACOGNITIVE

These strategies would help students think about thinking. First, is monitoring their progress as they learn,
and Second, is making changes and adapting their strategies if they perceive that they are not doing as
well as you could. These are some basic metacognitiveaids or strategies:
 Connecting new information to existing knowledge
 Selecting thinking strategies deliberately
 Planning, monitoring, and evaluating thinking processes.

Metacognitive activities usually occur before or after a cognitive activity. In the relationship between
metacognition and cognitive strategies. A student who usually monitors himself/herself when reading
his/her reference books is, the student, through self-monitoring, can sense that he or she does not
comprehend what was read(metacognitive) and recognizes that he/she will understand the text better if
he/she creates an outline of metacognitive).

2.2 STUDY STRATEGIES

What shall the students do now to make learning effective? Here are popularstudy strategies and learning
techniques based on a meta study evaluated by Dunlosky et al.(2013).
 Practice over time. Practice testing refers to any form of testing for learning which a student is able to do
on his or her own.
 Questioning and explanation. Elaborative interrogation is a complex name for a simple concept- asking
one’s self why something is the way it is or a particular concept or fact is true, and providing the answer.
 Producing summaries of texts. This is likely to involve the reading and comprehension of text, as well as
the ability to identify the most important information within it and to encapsulate it briefly in one’s
words.It requires a complex set of skills that “it can be an effective learning strategy for learners who are
already skilled at summarizing.” Such as Keywords-mnemonic.
 Highlighting and underlining portion of text. This also includes rereading. Highlighting tended to work
better for students who were more adept at identifying the crucial-to-br-remembered aspects of a text.

SETTING GOALS FOR SUCCESS

 Overview
Students are bound to face multifarious tasks, overlapping with other roles they portray at different social
institutions.Enlightening them with which goals they are to track would ease their minds in possible dilemma.

DISCUSSION

1. THE IMPORTANCE OF GOALS

Ryan (1970) as cited by locke & Latham (2002), premised that conscious goals affect action, thus, a
goal is the object or aim of an action. A college students academic goal is to fulfill the course requirements
and pass all examinations to graduate on time for the length of the program he/she is taking. Goals affect
performance through four mechanisms(Locke,2002).
First, goals serve a directive function; they direct attention and effort toward goal-relevant activities and
away from goal-irrelevant activities.
Second, goals have an energizing function. High goals lead to great effort than low goals.
Third, goals affect persistence. When participants are allowed to control the time they, spend on a task,
hard goals prolong effort ( LaPorte & Nath, 1975, as cited by , Locke & Latham, 2002). Faced with a
difficult goal, it is possible to work faster and more intensely for as short period or to work more slowly
and less intensely for a long period ( Bryan & Locke, 1967b, as cited by Locke & Latham,2002).
Fourth, goals affect action indirectly by leading to the arousal, discovery, and/or use of task-relevant
knowledge and strategies. (Wood & Locke,1990, as cited by Locke & Latham.2002.)

2. ALBERT BANDURA’S SELF-EFFICACY

Students’ goals can be achieved only if they are worthy of believing these goals can be achieved. As
Ghandi perfectly understood the essential role of self-belief in the Students lives. “Your beliefs become
your thoughts, Your thoughts become your words. Your words become your actions, Your actions
become our habits, Your habits become your values, Your values become your destiny.”

FOUR (4) MAIN SOURCES OF EFFICACY BELIEFS ( BANDURA ,1997)

 MASTERY EXPERIENCE. It is also known as personal performance accomplishments; are the most
effective way to create strong sense of efficacy.
Positive examples: if an individual performed well in a previous job assignment, then they are more
likely to feel confident and have high self- efficacy in performing the task when their manager assigns
them a similar task. The individual’s self-efficacy will be high in that particular area, and since he or she
has a high self-efficacy, he or she is more likely to try harder and complete the task with much better
results.
Negative examples: if an individual experiences a failure, he/she will most likely experience a
reduction in self-efficacy. However, if these failures are later overcome by conviction, it can serve to
increase self-motivated persistence when the situation is viewed as an achievable challenge
(Bandura,1977).
 VICARIOUS EXPERIENCE. These are done through observance of social models that also influence
one’s perception of self-efficacy. The most important factor that determines the strength of influence of
an observed success or failure on one’s own self-efficacy is the degree of similarity between the observe
and the model.
Increase in self-efficacy example: Mentoring programs, where an individual is paired with someone
on a similar career path who will be successful at raising the individuals self-efficacy beliefs. This is even
further strengthened if both have a similar skill set, so a person can see first-hand what they may achieve.
Decrease in self-efficacy example: Smoking cessation program, in which individuals witnessing several
people’s failure to quit, may worry about their own chances of success, leading to low self-efficacy for
quitting;or a weight-loss program in which others do not achieve the results you are hoping for.
 VERBAL OR SOCIAL PERSUASION. It is a “way of strengthening people’s beliefs that they have
what it takes to succeed .” When it is effective in mobilizing a person to action, and their actions
lead to success, the enhanced sel-efficacy may become more permanent. It is influenced by
encouragement and discouragement pertaining to an individual’s performace or ability to
perform.

Positive example: A teacher telling a student: “You can do it. I have confidence in you.” Using
verbal persuasion in a positive light generally leads individuals to put forth more effort; therefore,
they have a greater chance at succeeding.
Negative example: A teacher saying to a student; “This is unacceptable! I thought you could handle
this

Task” ,can lead to doubts about oneself resulting in lower chances of success.

 EMOTIONAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL STATES. The state a person is in will influence how he or
she judges self-efficacy. Stress reactions or tension are interpreted as signs of vulnerability to poor
performance whereas positive emotions can boost confidence in skills. Some examples of physiological
feedback are: giving a speech in front of a large group of people, making a presentation to an important
 client, taking an exam , etc. All of these of people, making a presentation to an important client, taking
an exam, etc. All of these tasks can cause agitation, anxiety, sweaty palms, and /or a racing heart.
Although this source is the least influential of the four, it is important to note that if one is more at ease
with the task at hand he/she will feel more capable and have higher beliefs of self-efficacy.

3. CAROL DWEEK’S MINDSET

Another groundbreaking idea on beliefs comes along. Mindset is a simple idea discovered by world-
renowed Stanford University psychologist Carol Dweeks in decades of research on achievement
and success.
 FIXED MINDSET. Believe that their traits are just given. They have a certain amount of brains and
talents and nothing can change that. If they have a lot, they are all set, but if they do not..So, people in
this mindset worry about their traits and how adequate they are.Every situation calls for a confirmation
of their intelligence, personality, or character. Every situation is evaluated(Dweek,2006).
 GROWTH MINDSET. See their qualities as things that can be developed through their dedication and
effort. They are brainy and talented, but that is just the starting point. They understand that no one has
ever accomplished great things without years of passionate practice and learning.Athough people may
differ in every which way, in their initial talents and aptitudes, interests, or temperaments, everyone can
change and grow through application and experience,( Dweek,2006).
FOUR (4) SIMPLE STEPS TO BEGIN CHANGING MINDSET
 Learn to hear your fixed mindset”voice”
 Recognize that you have a choice.
 Talk back the growth mindset voice.
 Take the growth mindset action.

4. GOAL-SETTING THEORY

Goal setting is something most people recognize as necessary for their success. By understanding
this theory, students can affectively apply it to the goals they set. The best way to set goals is to look
into the pioneering research of Dr. Edwin Locke, and another researcher who studied the effect of
goal setting in the workplace,Dr. Gary Lathan. His results supported exactly what Locke Had
found, and the inseperable connection between goal setting and workplace performance.

FIVE(5) PRINCIPLES OF GOAL SETTING

 CLARIFY. Clear goals are measurable and unambiguous. When a goal is clear and specific, with a
definite time set for completion, there is less misunderstanding about what behaviors will be rewarded.
 CHALLENGE. One of the most important characteristics of goals is the level of challenge.People are
often motivated by achievement, and they’ll judge a goal based on the significance of the anticipated
accomplishment. When one knows that what he or she does will be well received, there is a natural
motivation to do a good job. When setting goals, make each goal a challenge.
 COMMITMENT. Goals must be understood and agreed upon if they are to be effective.it means that
goals should be consistent and in line with previous expectations.The harder the goal, the more
commitment is required.
 FEEDBACK. This provides opportunities to clarify expectations, adjust goal, difficulty, and gain
recognition. It is important to provide benchmark opportunities or targets, so individuals can
determine for themselves how they are doing.

 TASK COMPLEXITY. For goals or assignments that are highly complex, take special care to
ensure that the work doesn’t become too overwhelming. People who work in complicated and
demanding roles probably have a high level of motivation already. However, they can push
themselves too hard if measures are not built into the goal expectations to account for the
complexity of task. It is therefore important to do the following:
 Give the person sufficient time to meet the goal or improve performance.
 Provide enough time for the person to practice or learn what is expected and required for success.

SUMMARY
The whole idea of goal setting is to facilitate a person’s success. It has to be made sure that the surrounding
conditions inspire and allow people to accomplish their objectives.

Stress Management
(Taking Care of One’s Health)

OVERVIEW

STRESSORS AND RESPONSES

 If, in fulfilling one’s goals, obstacles get in the way and the surrounding conditions become unfavorable,
then stress is very much of an invitation. Humprey, Yow & Bowen (2000) described stress as any factor that
makes adaptation to an environment difficult for the individual to maintain a state of equilibrium between
himself and the external environment. It includes a physical and mental response to meet the demands of the
stressful event

( Richlin-Klonsky & Hoe,2003). These events or conditions that put a strain on the individual are called stressors
( Santrock,2003). In addition, stressors are situations that are experienced as perceived threat to one’s well-being
or position in life, when the challenge of dealing with which, exceeds the person’s perceived available resources
( Scott,2017).

DISCUSSION
There are two broad categories of stressors, according to the Center for Studies on Human Stress (2017).

PHYSIOLOGICAL( or physical)
 Stressors are those that put strain on the body .
 Examples: very cold/hot temperatures, injury, chronic illness, or pain.

PSYCHOLOGICAL
 Stressors are events, situations, individuals, comments, or anything we interpret as negative or
threatening.
 Examples: not being able to review your notes for the exam as you are taking care of your sick parent in
the hospital.
Moreover, scientists are now proposing that stressors can be further divided into two:
 Absolute Stressors. Those to which everyone exposed would interpret as being stressful.
 These are objective stressors that are universal , Examples: earthquakes, a tsunami, or events of
September 11th 2001.
 Relative Stressors. Are those to which only some persons exposed would interpret as being stressful.
 These are subjective stressors that cause different reactions in different people, Examples: time
pressure at work and school traffic, paying taxes or skills, writing or taking an exam.

Folk(2017) explains, “ when danger is perceived, the body’s emergency system automatically changes the
body’s balance by producing the ‘stress response’ ( also called the emergency response,’ the fear response,’ or
the ‘fight of flight response.’). This change of balance, emergency readiness, is brought about via hormones,
chemical messengers that are secreted into the bloodstream.

These hormones are powerful, that is why, they can quickly bring about the intended emergency readiness
changes. Because stress hormones travel to many target locations in the body, the stress response causes many
physiological, psychological, and emotional changes, such as: energizes the body, heightens our awareness of
and reaction to danger, elevates heart rate, changes breathing, stimulates the nervous system, heightens senses,
tightens muscles, changes stomach, and digestive function, changes brain functioning, constricts blood vessels,
and changes blood flow.

SOURCES OF COPING
As mentioned earlier, stress is a negative experience, usually accompanied by emotional, physiological,
cognitive, and behavioral adjustments. The term, coping, according to Lazarus & Folkman (1984), is the
process of attempting to manage the demands created by stressful events that are appraised as taxing or
exceeding a person’s resources. Among the coping resources to improve the ability to manage stressful events
and better health outcomes include optimism, psychological control or mastery, self-esteem, and social
support.

 OPTIMISM refers to the outcome expectations that good things rather than bad things will happen to
the self( Scheier et.al 1994).
 PERSONAL CONTROL OR MASTERY refers to wether a person feels able to control or influence
outcomes ( Thompson,1981).
 SELF- ESTEEM that is positive and high, is also protective against adverse mental and physical health
outcomes, thereby contributing to better psychological well-being. Self-esteem is often defined as an
individual’s self-perception of his/her abilities, skills, and overall qualities that guides and/or motivates
specific cognitive processes and behaviors (McCrae & Costa, 1988).
 SOCIAL SUPPORT is defined as the perception or experience that one is loved and cared for by others,
esteemed and valued, and part of a social network of mutual assistance and obligations
( Wills,1991).

THE SOCIAL AND CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF STRESS

 No one could ever expound Filipinos’ stress as Dr. Michael L. Tan, a Filipino medical anthropologists.
Below is an excerpt from Tan’s (2006) article entitled, ‘ Stress and the Filipino’. It talks about the social and
cultural dimensions of stress experienced by the Filipinos.
Stress is mediated through culture: from the very nature of the stressors, to the ways we respond to the stress.
Understanding this local context might help us develop more culturally appropriate, and therefore more
effective, ways to deal with stress.
Culture adapts to circumstances and we are only one of many countries with large dense populations that
have learned to live with the maddening crowds, complete with the noise. While we enjoy noise, we’re quite
sensitive to olfactory assaults. Filipinos will claim “some odors are so bad, they cause as stomachache”. We
sniff everything, from food to lovers, and if we find the smells good, we tend to indulge to an excess. No wonder
aromatherapy’s taken off in the Philippines, as did those terrible car fresheners and deodorizers.
Filipinos do face many sources of stress, around work and livelihood mainly. Farmers worry about drought
and typhoons; urbanites go berserk with tyrannical bosses and vicious gossipy office-mates. Rural or urban, we
all face the stresses of family; extended Filipino family can be stressful too, with all its obligations. But the scenes
of smiling and laughing Filipinos, singing and dancing ( and drinking ) away can be deceptive. Quite often, we
deal with stress by trying to be “happy” masaya, which is really more of an externalized merriment. Or what we
called also “camaraderie”, it’s making cheer and quite often we do it precisely because there have been unhappy
events, stressful events.

SUMMARY

When we see today around us magnifies the reality of Dr. Tan’s work. How Filipinos deal with stress is a
trademark of orientation they had with the social world. Dictated by the stringent cultural compliance they were
exposed to while growing up. In the end, Filipino are still proud of how unique these manners of coping are;
what makes them ultimately happy in the end is the one that matters much.

Values Formation Seminar

( Taking Care of the Self: The Need for Self and Compassion)

OVERVIEW
Generally speaking, self-care is engaging in activities and behaviors that have a positive effect on
one’s mental and physical health ( Greene,2017). She adds that there’s a bit of “reverse golden rule” aspect to
the practice; that is to treat yourself as compassionately as you treat others.
DISCUSSION
Reasons why self-care is necessary:
 It increases sense of self-love, allowing appreciation and acceptance of who a person is.
 It promotes feelings of calm and relaxation, serving as a way to refocus and come back to daily life
refreshed and ready to take on anything.
 It improves both physical and mental health by reducing the effects of prolonged stress on mind and
body.
Ways to engage in self-care:
 Physical self-care: eating well, exercising regularly, prioritizing sleep and taking care of health.
 Emotional self-care: managing anxiety,anger, sadnesss, and other emotions.
Setting boundaries with people who are not positive or supportive. Spending time alone to rest and
recharge. Maintaining a bullet journal.
 Spiritual self-care: volunteering, connecting with nature, mediatation, mindfulness.

To take care of the self is also to delve into compassion, for the self needs to seek its deeper meaning.
Everyone has had that share of loving-kindness; meaning wishing happiness for another person.

COMPASSION
 Is wishing for that person to be free from suffering ( Gemer,2009).
 Literally means “ to suffer together”. Among emotion researches, compassion is defined as the feeling
that arises when you are confronted with another’s suffering and feel motivated to relieve that suffering (
Greater Good Science Center,2017).
 Is not the same as emphaty or altruism, though the concepts are realted. While emphaty refers more
generally to our ability to take the perspective of and feel the emotions of another person.

There are various forms of compassion and why they are so important.Paul Ekman (2010) enumerates:

 Familial Compassion is the seed of compassion, planted through the caregiver-offspring bond. It raises
very interesting questions about people who were brought up without a single caregiver, or were brought
up with a parent who had a very distant attachment.
 Global Compassion was exemplified by the response to the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. People around
the world extended assistance to the strangers, or different races and skin colors. Now, that not everyone
has it, a lot of people acted, and a lot of people didn’t.How does one cultivates global compassion?
Consider the survival of children and grandchildren. Because planet earth won’t survive without global
compassion.
 Sentient compassion is when one extends feelings of compassion towards cockroaches , toward any
living being. When people got sentient, they also got global; sentient is the highest moral virtue.
 Heroic Compassion is like altruism with a risk. It has two forms: Immediate Heroic Compassion is
when, without thought, one jumps onto the MRT tracks to rescue someone. It is impulsive. Considered
Heroic Compassion isn’t done impulsively; it is done with thought, and it can be maintained for many
years.

SUMMARY

The most significant contribution of self-compassion is the attention given to the “ self ”, which is always
associated with the body, and the bodies are built for survival. Self is needed to make progress on the path of
self-compassion. People can cultivate a kind, gentle attitude, not rejecting, not overly prizing , toward the self
until it no longer suffers and has no reason to assert itself. The more compassion one gives to the suffering “self”
, the more flexible it becomes. Compassion from others or from within oneself helps him/her accept himself in
his/her discomfort (Germer,2009).

“LOVE THE LIFE GIVEN BY GOD TO YOU . BE COMPASSIONATE TO YOURSELF AND OTHERS
! MAY YOU HAVE A MEANINGFUL JOURNEY OF LIFE. GOD BLESS!”

“THE PARABLE IN 1,000 PHP BILL”

Once upon a time, there was a rich man and a poor man who meet in the street . And suddenly the rich man
accidentally tap the shoulder of the poor man and scratch the money on his face then, throw it away, and leave
the poor man in the street.
For the meanwhile, the poor man look back around the rich man. And he stay away from him. The poor man
looks so mad at him , but he refuse it instead he find some ways to look around and find the money where the
rich man throw it away but he didn’t reach out the man.

Finally, He found it. As He sees the scratch money is worth 1,000php. Bill, And he tries to fix the money in its
proper structure . Then, the poor man cries so hard as for him the value of the money is so much important to
him, even how big or small it is.

- End -