05-01-2020

Topics covered:-
1) Some Previous year’s questions
(2016)
2) Ecology
3) Ecosystem
4) Biodiversity
5) Ecotone
6) Ecological niche ecosystem
Lecture 1 – General issues on 7) Environmental degradation
8) Food chain

Environment and Ecology 9) Some Current affairs

10) Some MCQ’s

Q-1) With reference to an initiative called 'The Economics of

Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)', which of the following
statements is/are correct?

1) It is an initiative hosted by UNEP, IMF and World Economic

Forum.
2) It is a global initiative that focuses on drawing attention to

Some questions the economic benefits of biodiversity.

3) It presents an approach that can help decision-makers
recognize, demonstrate and capture the value of
from 2016 UPSC ecosystems and biodiversity
Select the correct answer using the code given below.

Prelims
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 3 only
c) 2 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
3 4

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Q-2) With reference to 'Agenda 21, sometimes seen in

the news, consider the following statements:

A-c) 1) It is a global action plan for sustainable development.

2) It originated in the World Summit on Sustainable
No role of IMF. Development held in Johannesburg in 2002.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

The TEEB office is hosted by the
a) 1 only
United Nations Environment b) 2 only
Programme (UNEP). c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2

Q-3) The term Intended Nationally Determined

Contribution is sometimes seen in the news in the
context of:

a) Pledge made by the European countries to

A-a) rehabilitate refuges from the war-affected Middle
East.
b) Plain of nation outlined by the countries of the
world to combat climate changes.
Originated in Rio 1992 c) Capital contributed by the member countries in the
establishment of Asian Infrastructure Investment
Bank.
d) Plain of action outlined by the countries of the
regarding Sustainable Developments Goals.
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Q-4) In which of the following regions of India

A-b) are you most likely to come across the 'Great
Indian Hornbill' in its natural habitat?

INDC towards the goal of a) Sand deserts of northwest India

preventing climate b) Higher Himalayas of Jammu and Kashmir
c) Salt marshes of western Gujarat
change/ sustainable
d) Western Ghats
development

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Q-5) Which of the following are the key features of

‘national ganga river basin authority (NGRBA)’?

A-d) 1) River basin is the unit of planning and management.

2) It spearheads the river conservation efforts at
national level.
3) One of the chief ministers of the state through which
the ganga flows becomes the chairman of NGRBA on
rotation basis.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
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A-a)
Chaired by PM.
HISTORY OF ECOLOGY
⪢ The roots of ecology lie in Natural History which is as old as
human civilization itself. Since early history, man has
indulged in ecology in a practical sort of way, knowingly and
unknowingly.
⪢ In primitive societies every individual was required to have an
intimate knowledge of his environment for their survival, i.e.,
about the forces of nature and of plants and animals around
him.
⪢ Our ancient Indian texts have references to ecological
principles.
⪢ The classical texts of the Vedic period such as the Vedas, the
Samhitas, the Brahmanas and the Aranyakas-Upanishads
15 contain many references to ecological concepts.
05-01-2020
ECOLOGY
Ecology – Principles and Organizations
⊷ The term ecology was derived from two Greek
words ‘Oikos’ meaning home and ‘logos’
meaning study.
⊷ Ecology is the branch of biology concerned with
the relations of organisms to one another (energy
flow and mineral cycling) and to their physical
surroundings (environment).
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⪢ The Indian treatise on medicine, the Charaka
Samhita and the surgical text Sushruta Samhita
show that people during this period had a good
understanding of plant and animal ecology.
⪢ These texts contain classification of animals on
the basis of habit and habitat, land in terms of
nature of soil, climate and vegetation; and
description of plants typical to various localities.
⪢ Caraka Samhita contains information that air, land,
water and seasons were indispensable for life and
that polluted air and water were injurious for
health.
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ENVIRONMENT

Everything that surrounds or All organisms (from The environment is defined

affects an organism during its life
time is collectively known as its
environment which comprises
both living (biotic) and nonliving
(abiotic) components.
virus to man) are as 'the sum total of living,
obligatorily dependent non-living components;
on the environment for influences and events,
food, energy, water, surrounding an organism.
oxygen, shelter and for
other needs.

Concept of environment
 The relationship and interaction between
organism and environment are highly complex. No Animals
organism can live alone without interacting with
other organisms.
Green plants
 So each organism has other organisms as a part of
its environment. Each and everything with which
we interact or which we need for our sustenance Decomposers Man
forms our environment. Parasites
 The environment is not static. Both biotic and Biotic
abiotic factors are in a flux and keeps changing
continuously. components

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Soil

Water

Temperature Fire
Air
Abiotic Let's take the environment of
components a fish in the pond.

External
environment of fish Internal
environment of fish
 Its environment consists of abiotic  It is enclosed by the outer body
components such as light, surface.
temperature, including the water in
which nutrients, oxygen, other gases  The internal environment is relatively
and organic matter are dissolved. stable as compared to the external
environment. However, it is not
absolutely constant. Injury illness or
 The biotic environment consists of
excessive stress upsets the internal
microscopic organisms called environment.
plankton as well as aquatic plants
and animals and decomposers.  For example, if a marine fish is
transferred to a fresh water
environment, it will not be able to
survive

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1
2
3 1) Individual
LEVELS OF Organism is an individual living
ORGANISATIONS 4 being that has the ability to act or
IN ECOLOGY function independently. It may be
plant, animal, bacterium, fungi,
The main levels of
organisation of ecology
5 etc. It is a body made up of
are six and are as organs, organelles, or other parts
follows:- that work together to carry out on
6 the various processes of life

2) Population
 Population is a group of organisms usually
of the same species, occupying a defined
area during a specific time.
 Population growth rate is the percentage
variation between the number of
individuals in a population at two
different times. Therefore the population
growth rate can be positive or negative.
 The main factors that make population
grow are birth and immigration. The main
factors that make population decrease
are death and emigration.
 The main limiting factors for the growth
of a population are abiotic and biotic
components. Population density is the
relation between the number of
individuals of a population and the area
they occupy
3) Community
 If we look around our self, we will notice that
population of plants and animals seldom
occur by themselves. The reason for this is
quite obvious.,
 In order to survive, individuals of any one
species depend on individuals of different
species with which they actively interact in
several ways.
 A grassland community is dominated by
grasses, though it may contain herbs, shrubs,
and trees, along with associated animals of
different species.
Types of Community
 On the basis of size and degree of relative
independence communities may be divided
into two types
 Major Community These are large-sized, well
organized and relatively independent

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 They depend only on the sun's energy from outside and are independent of the inputs and outputs
from adjacent communities. E.g: tropical ever green forest in the North-East
4) Eco-System
 It is defined as a structural and functional unit of
biosphere consisting of community of living beings
 Minor Communities These are dependent on neighbouring communities and are often called and the physical environment, both interacting and
societies. They are secondary aggregations within a major community and are not therefore exchanging materials between them.
completely independent units as far as energy and nutrient dynamics are concerned. E.g: A mat of  An Ecosystem is a complex set of relationship
lichen on a cow dung pad. among the living resources, habitats, and residents
of an area. It includes-plants, trees, animals, fish,
birds, micro-organisms water, soil, and people
Structure of a community
 When an ecosystem is healthy (i.e. sustainable) it
 In a community the number of species and size of their population vary greatly. A community may means that all the elements live in balance and are
have one or several species. The environmental factors determine the characteristic of the capable of reproducing themselves. Ecosystem can
community as well as the pattern of organisation of the members in the community. be as small as a single tree or as large as entire
forest.
 The characteristic pattern of the community is termed as structure which is reflected in the roles
played by various population, their range, the type of area they inhabit, the diversity of species in Components of Ecosystem
 The components of the ecosystem is categorised
the community and the spectrum of interactions between them.
into abiotic of non-living and biotic of living
components. Both the components of ecosystem
and environment are same.

1. Abiotic Components Temperature

Abiotic components are the inorganic and nonliving parts of the world. The
abiotic part consists of soil, water, air, and light energy etc. It also involves
a large number of chemicals like oxygen, nitrogen etc. and physical
processes including volcanoes, earthquakes, floods, forest fires, climates,
and weather conditions.
Abiotic factors
 Energy
Energy from the sun is essential for maintenance of life. In the case of
plants, the sun directly supplies the necessary energy.
 Rainfall
Water is essential for all living beings. Majority of biochemical reactions
take place in an aqueous medium
Temperature is a critical factor of the environment which greatly influences
survival of organisms.
Organisms can tolerate only a certain range of temperature and humidity.
Atmosphere
The earth's atmosphere is responsible for creating conditions suitable for
the existence of a healthy biosphere on this planet.
It is made up of 21 % oxygen, 78% nitrogen 0.038% carbon dioxide, and
other inert gases (0.93% Argon, Neon etc)
Substratum
Land is covered by soil and a wide variety of microbes, protozoa, fungi and
small animals (invertebrates) thrive in it. Roots of plants pierce through the
soil to tap water and nutrients.

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Organisms can be terrestrial or aquatic. Terrestrial animals live on land.
Aquatic plants, animals and microbes live in fresh water as well as in the
sea. Some microbes live even in hot water vents under the sea.
Materials:
(i) Organic compound such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, humic
substances are formed from inorganic compound on decomposition.
(ii) Inorganic compound such as carbon, carbon dioxide, water, sulphur,
nitrates, phosphates, and ions of various metals are essential for
organisms to survive.
Latitude and altitude
Latitude has a strong influence on an area's temperature, resulting in
change of climates such as polar tropical, and temperate. These
climates determine different natural biomes.
As the altitude increases, the air becomes colder and drier, affecting wild
life accordingly
Biotic Components
Biotic components include living organisms comprising plants, animals and
microbes and are classified according to their functional attributes into
producers and consumers.
Primary producers - Autotrophs (self nourishing)
Primary producers are basically green plants (and certain bacteria and
algae).
They synthesise carbohydrate from simple inorganic raw materials like
carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight by the process of
photosynthesis for themselves, and supply indirectly to other non-
producers.

Consumers - Heterotrophs or phagotrophs (other nourishing)

 Consumers are incapable of producing their own food (photosynthesis).
 They depend on organic food derived from plants, animals or both. 2. Micro consumers
 Consumers can be divided into two broad groups namely micro and
-Saprotrophs (decomposers or
macro consumers.
osmotrophs)
 They are bacteria and fungi which
1. Macro consumers obtain energy and nutrients by
 They feed on plants or animals or both and are categorised on the basis decomposing dead organic
of their food sources. substances (detritus) of plant and
 Herbivores are primary consumers which feed mainly on plants e.g. animal origin.
cow, rabbit.  The products of decomposition such
 Secondary consumers feed on primary consumers e.g. wolves. )- as inorganic nutrients which are
Carnivores which feed on secondary consumers are called tertiary released in the ecosystem are reused
by producers and thus recycled.
consumers e.g. lions which can eat wolves.
 Omnivores are organisms which consume both plants and animals e.g.
man.

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Goods and Services provided by ecosystems include:
 Provision of food, fuel and fibre
 Provision of shelter and building materials
 Purification of air and water
 Detoxification and decomposition of wastes
 Stabilization and moderation of the Earth's climate
 Moderation of floods, droughts, temperature extremes and
the forces of wind
 Generation and renewal of soil fertility, including nutrient
cycling.
 Pollination of plants, including many crops Control of pests
and diseases
EDGE EFFECT
 Sometimes the number of
species and the population
density of some of the species is
much greater in this zone than
either community. This is called
edge effect.
 The organisms which occur
primarily or most abundantly in
this zone are known as edge
species.
 In the terrestrial ecosystems
edge effect is especially
applicable to birds
05-01-2020
Ecotone is a zone of junction between two or more diverse ecosystems.
• For e.g. the mangrove forests represent an ecotone between marine and
terrestrial ecosystem. Other examples are - grassland, estuary and river
bank
Characteristics of Ecotone
• It may be very narrow or quite wide has conditions intermediate to the
adjacent ecosystems. Hence it is a zone of tension. It is linear as it shows
progressive increase in species composition of one in coming community
and a simultaneous decrease in species of the other out going adjoining
community.
• A well developed ecotones contain some organisms which are entirely
different from that of the adjoining communities.
Niche:-
A niche is the unique functional role or place of a species in an ecosystem. It is
a description of all the biological, physical and chemical factors that a
species needs to survive, stay healthy and reproduce. A niche is unique for
a species, which means no two species have exact identical niches. If we
have to conserve species in its native habitat we should have knowledge
about the niche requirements of the species and should ensure that all
requirements of its niche are fulfilled.
Types of Niche:-
1. Habitat niche - where it lives
2. Food niche-what is eats or decomposes & what species it competes with
3. Reproductive niche -how and when it reproduces.
4. Physical & chemical niche - temperature, land shape, land slope, humidity
& other requirement
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Biome
 The terrestrial part of the biosphere
is divisible into enormous regions
called biomes, which are
characterized, by climate,
vegetation, animal life and general

5) Biome Soil type.

 No two biomes are alike. The

climate determines the boundaries
of a biome and abundance of plants
and animals found in each one of
them. The most important climatic
factors are temperature and
precipitation.

Temperate Deciduous Forest

Tundra
 Region -Northern most region adjoining the ice bound poles
 Flora and Fauna- Devoid of trees except stunted shrubs in the
southern part of tundra biome, ground flora includes lichen,
mosses and sedges. The animals are reindeer, arctic fox, polar
bear, snowy owl
 Reptiles and amphibians are almost absent.
 Region - Extends over Central and Southern Europe, Eastern
North America, Western China, Japan, New Zealand etc.
Moderate average · temperature and abundant rainfall.
These are generally the most productive agricultural areas of
the earth
 The flora includes trees like beech, oak, maple and cherry
Most animals are the familiar vertebrates and invertebrates.

Tropical rain forest

Taiga
 Region Northern Europe, Asia and North America. Moderate
temperature than tundra Also known as boreal forest
 Flora and Fauna- The dominating vegetation is coniferous
evergreen mostly spruce, with some pine and firs .Fauna consists
of small seed eating birds, hawks, fur bearing carnivores, little
mink, elks, puma, Siberian tiger, wolverine, wolves etc.
 Region Tropical areas in the equatorial regions, which is
abound with life. Temperature and rainfall high.
 Tropical rainforest covers about 7% of the earth's surface &
40% of the world's plant and animal species. Multiple storey
of broad-leafed evergreen tree species are in abundance.
Most animals and epiphytic plants are concentrated in the
canopy or tree top zones.

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Savannah
 Tropical region: Savanna is most extensive in Africa.
Grasses with scattered trees and fire resisting thorny
shrubs
 The fauna include a great diversity of grazers and
browsers such as antelopes, buffaloes, zebras,
elephants and rhinoceros; the carnivores include lion,
cheetah, hyena; and mongoose, and many rodents.

Grassland
 Region -North America, Ukraine, etc . Dominated by
grasses. Temperate conditions with rather low rainfall.
 The fauna include large herbivores like bison, antelope,
cattle, rodents, prairie dog, wolves, and a rich and
diverse array of ground nesting bird.

Aquatic Zones
Aquatic systems are
not called biomes,
Desert however they are
divided into distinct
 Region - Continental interiors life zones, with
with very low and sporadic regions of relatively
rainfall with low humidity. distinct plant and
The days are very hot but animal life. The major
differences are due to
nights are cold. salinity, levels of Fresh water ecosystem are
dissolved nutrients; classified as lotic (moving water)
 The flora is drought water or lentic (still or stagnant water).
resistance vegetation such as temperature, Lotic water system includes
depth of freshwater streams, springs,
cactus, euphorbias, sunlight rivulets, creeks, brooks, and
sagebrush. Fauna: Reptiles, penetration rivers. Lentic water bodies include
Mammals and birds. pools, ponds, some swamps, bogs
and lakes. They vary considerably
in physical, chemical and
biological characteristics.

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Marine Ecosystem- Nearly three quarter 6) Biosphere

of earth's surface is covered by ocean with  Biosphere is absent at extremes of the
an average depth of 3,750 m and with North and South poles, the highest
salinity 35 ppt, (parts per thousand), mountains and the deepest oceans,
about 90 per cent of which is sodium since existing hostile conditions there do
chloride. not support life.

 Spores of fungi and bacteria do occur at

great height beyond 8,000 metres, but
Estuaries - Coastal bays, river mouths and
they are not metabolically active, and
tidal marshes form the estuaries. In hence represent only dormant life.
estuaries, fresh water from rivers meet
ocean water and the two are mixed by  The energy required for the life within
action of tides. Estuaries are highly the biosphere comes from the sun. The
productive as compared to the adjacent nutrients necessary for living organisms
river or sea come from air, water and soil.

 The same chemicals are recycled
over and over again for life to
continue.
 Living organisms are not uniformly
distributed throughout the
biosphere.
 Only a few organisms live in the
polar regions, while the tropical
rain forests have an exceedingly
rich diversity of plants and animals.
Biodiversity
 According to IUCN (2004), the total number of
plant and animal species described so far is
slightly more than 1.5 million.
 Estimates place the global species diversity at
several million.
 A large proportion of the species waiting to
be discovered are in the tropics.
 More than 70 per cent of all the species
recorded are animals, while plants (including
algae, fungi, bryophytes, gymnosperms and
angiosperms) comprise no more than 22
per cent of the total.

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 Among animals, insects are the most species- Species richness

rich taxonomic group, making up more than  It is the measure of the number of species
70 per cent of the total. found in a community.
 The number of fungi species in the world is
more than the combined total of the species Species evenness
of fishes, amphibians, reptiles and mammals.  Species evenness is a measure of the relative
 The largely tropical Amazonian rain forest in abundance of the different species making up
South America has the greatest biodiversity on the richness of an area.
earth.  Example: The sample forest A has 4 tigers, 5
deer and 6 rabbits and sample forest B has 1
Definitions tiger, 6 deer and 8 rabbits. Both samples have
Biodiversity the same richness (3 species – species
 Biodiversity is the variety of plant and animal richness) and the same total number of
life in the world or in a particular habitat. individuals (15). However, the sample forest A
 Biodiversity is measured by two major has more evenness than the sample forest B.
components: species richness, and species  Low evenness indicates that a few species
evenness. dominate the site.

Alpha diversity
 It refers to the diversity within a particular area
or ecosystem and is usually expressed by the number of species
(i.e., species richness) in that ecosystem.
Beta diversity
 It is a comparison of diversity between ecosystems, usually
measured as the change in the amount of species between the
ecosystems.
Gamma diversity
 It is a measure of the overall diversity for the different
ecosystems within a region.
Genetic diversity
 Genetic diversity is the total number of genetic characteristics in
the genetic makeup of a species.
 A single species might show high diversity at the genetic level
(E.g. Homo sapiens: Chinese, Indian American, African etc.).
 India has more than 50,000 genetically different strains of rice and
1,000 varieties of mango.
 Genetic diversity allows species to adapt to changing environments.
This diversity aims to ensure that some species survive drastic
changes and thus carry on desirable genes.
 Species that differ from one another in their genetic makeup do not
interbreed in nature.
 Closely-related species have in common much of their hereditary
characteristics. For instance, about 98.4 per cent of the genes of
humans and chimpanzees are the same.

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Species diversity
 It is the ratio of one species population over total number of
organisms across all species in the given biome. ‘Zero’ would
be infinite diversity, and ‘one’ represents only one species
present.
 Species diversity is a measure of the diversity within an
ecological community that incorporates both species richness
(the number of species in a community) and the evenness of
species.
 In general, species diversity decreases as we move away from
the equator towards the poles.
 With very few exceptions, tropics (latitudinal range of 23.5° N
to 23.5° S) harbour more species than temperate or polar
areas.
 It includes various biological zones, like a lake, desert, coast,
estuaries, wetlands, mangroves, coral reefs etc.
 At the ecosystem level, India, for instance, with its deserts,
rain forests, mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands, estuaries, and
alpine meadows has a greater ecosystem diversity than a
Scandinavian country like Norway.
Endemism:-
 There are more than 200000 species in India of which several
are confined to India (endemic).
 Endemism is the ecological state of a species being unique to
a defined geographic location, such as an island, nation,
country or other defined zone, or habitat type; organisms that
are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also
found elsewhere.
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Bioprospecting: nations endowed with rich biodiversity explore
molecular, genetic and species-level diversity to derive products
of economic importance.
Stable community
 A stable community means that there is not much variation in
productivity from year to year; it is either resistant
or resilient to occasional disturbances (natural or human-
made) and is resistant to invasions by alien species.
Ecological diversity
 Ecological diversity refers to different types of habitats. A
habitat is the cumulative factor of the climate, vegetation and
geography of a region.
 A particular type of animal or plant may be
endemic to a zone, a state or a country. The
extreme opposite of endemism
is cosmopolitan distribution.
Keystone species
 Keystone species is a species whose
addition to or loss from an ecosystem leads
to major changes in the occurrence of at
least one other species.
 Certain species in an ecosystem is
considered more important in determining
the presence of many other species in that
ecosystem.
 All top predators (Tiger, Lion, Crocodile,
Elephant) are considered as keystone
species because they regulate all other
animal population indirectly.
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 Hence top predators are given much
consideration in conservation.
 If keystone species is lost, it will result in
the degradation of the whole ecosystem.
 For example, certain plant species (ebony
tree, Indian-laurel) exclusively depends
upon bats for its pollination. If the bat
population is reduced, then regeneration
of particular plants becomes more
difficult.
Flagship species
 A flagship species is a species chosen to represent an environmental
cause, such as an ecosystem in need of conservation.
 These species are chosen for their vulnerability, attractiveness or
distinctiveness in order to engender support and acknowledgement from
the public at large.
 Example: Indian tiger, African elephant, giant panda of China, the
leatherback sea turtle, etc.

Foundation species
 Foundation species is a dominant primary
producer in an ecosystem both in terms of
abundance and influence. Example: kelp in
kelp forests and corals in coral reefs.

Biodiversity of India

 India is recognized as one of the mega-diverse countries, rich in India Represents

biodiversity and associated traditional knowledge.  Two ‘Realms’
 India has 23.39% of its geographical area under forest and tree  Five Biomes
cover.  Ten Bio-geographic Zones
 With just 2.4% of the land area, India accounts for nearly 7% of the  Twenty-five Bio-geographic provinces
recorded species even while supporting almost 18% of the human
population.
Realms
 In terms of species richness, India ranks seventh in
mammals, ninth in birds and fifth in reptiles.  Biogeographic realms are large spatial regions within which
 In terms of endemism of vertebrate groups, India’s position is tenth ecosystems share a broadly similar biota.
in birds with 69 species, fifth in reptiles with 156 species  A realm is a continent or sub-continent sized area with unifying
and seventh in amphibians with 110 species. features of geography and fauna & flora.
 India’s share of crops is 44% as compared to the world average of  The Indian region is composed of two realms.
11%.

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Biomes of India
They are:  The term biome means the main groups of plants and animals living in areas of certain
 the Himalayan region represented by Palearctic Realm and climate patterns.
 the rest of the sub-continent represented by Malayan Realm  It includes the way in which animals, vegetation and soil interact together. The plants
and animals of that area have adapted to that environment.
In world, Eight terrestrial biogeographic realms are typically
The five biomes of India are:
recognised. They are
 Nearctic Realm
 Palaearctic Realm
 Africotropical Realm
 Indomalayan Realm
 Ocenaia Realm Tropical Humid Forests Tropical Dry or Warm deserts Coniferous forests
Deciduous Forests and semi-deserts
 Australian Realm (including Monsoon
 Antarctic Realm Forests)
 Neotropical Realm Alpine meadows

Bio-geographic Zones
The Himalaya
 Biogeography deals with the geographical distribution of 2A: Himalaya – North West Himalaya
plants and animals. 2B: Himalaya – West Himalaya
 Biogeographic zones were used as a basis for planning 2C: Himalaya – Central Himalaya
wildlife protected areas in India. 2D: Himalaya – East Himalaya
 There are 10 biogeographic zones which are distinguished
clearly in India. They are as follows: The Indian Desert
 Trans-Himalayas 3A: Desert – Thar
 Himalayas 3B: Desert – Kutch
 Desert
 Semi-arid The Semi-Arid
 Western Ghats 4A: Semi-Arid – Punjab Plains
 Deccan Peninsul 4B: Semi-Arid – Gujarat Rajputana

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The Gangetic Plains

7A: Gangetic Plain – Upper Gangetic Plains
The Western Ghats
7B: Gangetic Plain – Lower Gangetic Plains
5A: Western Ghats – Malabar Plains
5B: Western Ghats – Western Ghats Mountains The Coasts
8A: Coasts – West Coast
The Deccan Peninsula 8B: Coasts – East Coast
6A: Deccan Peninsular – Central Highlands 8C: Coasts – Lakshadweep
6B: Deccan Peninsular – Chotta Nagpur
6C: Deccan Peninsular – Eastern Highlands Northeast India
6D: Deccan Peninsular – Central Plateau 9A: North-East – Brahmaputra Valley
9B: North-East – North East Hills
6E: Deccan Peninsular – Deccan South
Islands
10A: Islands – Andaman
10B: Islands – Nicobars

Wildlife Diversity of India:-  Fauna: Elephant, sambar, swamp deer,

cheetal, hog deer, barking deer, wild boar
Himalayan mountain system
tiger, panther, hyena, black bear, sloth
 The west Himalayas have low rainfall, bear, Great Indian one-horned rhinoceros,
heavy snowfall (temperate conditions). wild buffalo, Gangetic gharial, golden
 In the east Himalayas, there is heavy langur.
Western Himalayas (High altitude region)
rainfall, snowfall only at very high
 Flora: Natural monsoon evergreen and
altitudes. semi-evergreen forests; rhododendrons;
 Lower altitudes conditions are similar to dwarf hill bamboo and birch forests mixed
the tropical rain forests. with alpine pastures.
 Fauna: Tibetan wild ass (kiang) (Don’t
confuse this with Asiatic wild ass which in
Himalayan foothills found in Kutch region), wild goats (thar,
 Flora: Natural monsoon evergreen and ibex) and blue sheep; antelopes (Chiru and
semi-evergreen forests; dominant species Tibetan gazelle), deers (hangul of Kashmir
stag and shou or Sikkim stag, musk deer);
are sal, silk-cotton trees, giant bamboos;
golden eagle, snow cocks, snow partridges;
tall grassy meadow with savannahs in snow leopard, black and brown bears;
terai. birds like Griffon vultures.

18

Difference between the antelopes Oryx and Chiru
 Oryx is adapted to live in hot and arid areas whereas Chiru is adapted to live in
steppes and semi-desert areas of cold high mountains.
 Oryx is poached for its antlers whereas Chiru is poached for its musk.
 Oryx exists in western India only whereas Chiru exists in north-east India only.
 None of the statements a, b, and c given above is correct.
 They are both antelopes.
Peninsular India
 It is home to tropical moist deciduous to tropical dry deciduous and
scrub vegetation depending upon the variation in rainfall and
humidity.
 Flora: Sal in north and east extensions (higher rainfall) and teak in
southern plateau are dominant trees.
 West Ghats have evergreen vegetation (flora and fauna similar to
evergreen rainforests of northeastern of India. In dry areas of
Rajasthan and Aravalli hills, trees are scattered, and thorny scrub
species predominate. The forests give way to more open savannah
habit.
 Fauna: Elephant, wild boar, deers (cheetal or axis deer), hog deer
swamp deer or barasinga, sambar, muntjak or barking deer,
antelopes (four-horned antelope, Nilgiri, blackbuck, chinkara
gazelle), wild dog or dhole, tiger, leopard, cheetah, lion, wild pig,
monkey, striped hyena, jackal, gaur.
05-01-2020
Eastern Himalayas
 Flora: Oaks, magnolias, laurels and birches covered with
moss and ferns; coniferous forests of pine, fir, yew and
junipers with an undergrowth of
scrubby rhododendrons and dwarf bamboos; lichens,
mosses, orchids, and other epiphytes dominant (due to high
humidity and high rainfall).
 Fauna: Red panda, hog badgers, forest badgers, crestless
porcupines, takins etc.
 Peninsular – Indian sub-region
 It has two zones.
 peninsular India and its extension into the drainage basin of
the Ganges river system, and
 Desert region of Rajasthan-the Thar of Indian desert region.
Indian desert
 Thar desert of Rajasthan has unique flora and fauna.
 Flora: Thorny trees with reduced leaves; cacti, other
succulents are the main plants.
 Fauna: Animals are mostly burrowing ones. Among
mammals’ rodents are the largest group.
 The Indian desert gerbils are mouse-like, rodents, other
animals are, Asiatic wild ass, black buck, desert cat,
caracal, red fox; reptiles (snakes, lizards and tortoise) well
represented.
 Desert lizards include agamids and geckos. Among birds, the
most discussed is Great Indian Bustard.
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Tropical rain forest region

Andaman and Nicobar Islands
 Distributed in areas of Western Ghats and northeast India.
 Flora: Extensive grasslands interspersed with densely forested  Flora: These are home for tropical rain
gorges of evergreen vegetation known as sholas occur in the forests. Mangroves are distributed in the
Nilgiris (an offshoot of Western Ghats). Sholas also occur in coastal areas.
Annamalai and Palani hills.  Fauna: Among mammals, bats and
 The rain forests of the Western Ghats have dense and lofty trees rats; Andaman pig, crab-eating macaque,
with much species diversity. Mosses, ferns, epiphytes, orchids, palm civet and deers (spotted deer, barking
lianas and vines, herbs, shrubs make diverse habitat. Ebony trees deer, hog deer, sambar).
 Among marine mammals, there are dugong,
predominate in these forests.
false killer whale, dolphin.
 Fauna: It is very rich with all kinds of animals. There are  Among birds are rare one is Narcondum
wild elephants, gaur and other larger animals. hornbill, white-bellied sea-eagle.
 Most species are tree dwellers. The most prominent are hoolock  Salt-water crocodile, a number of marine
gibbon (only ape found in India), golden langur, capped langur or turtles, coconut crab, lizards (the largest
leaf monkey, Assam macaque and the pig-tailed macaque, lion- being water monitor), 40 species of snakes
tailed macaque, Nilgiri langur slender loris, bats, giant squirrel, including cobra, viper, voral and sea snake,
civets, flying squirrels, Nilgiri mongoose, spiny mouse. python, etc. are present.

Mangrove swamps of Sundarbans Biodiversity Hotspots

 Sunderbans are the delta of the
Ganges where both the
Brahmaputra and the Ganges join
and drain into the Bay of Bengal.
 Flora: Various species of
mangroves.
 Fauna. In the higher regions of
mangroves, there are spotted deer,
pigs, monitor lizard, monkeys. The
most interesting animal of
Sunderbans is the Royal Bengal
Tiger.
80
 Biodiversity hotspots are regions
with high species richness and
a high degree of endemism.
 The British biologist Norman
Myers coined the term “biodiversity
hotspot” in 1988 as a biogeographic
region characterized both
by exceptional levels of plant
endemism and by serious levels of
habitat loss.

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 Conservation International (CI) adopted Myers’  In 1999, CI identified 25 biodiversity hotspots in the book “Hotspots: Earth’s
hotspots and in 1996, the organization made the Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions”.
decision to undertake a reassessment of the
hotspots concept.
 According to CI, to qualify as a hotspot a region  In 2005 CI published an updated titled “Hotspots Revisited: Earth’s
must meet two strict criteria: Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions”.
 It must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular
plants (> 0.5% of the world’s total) as endemics –
which is to say, it must have a high percentage of  The 35 biodiversity hotspots cover 2.3% of the Earth’s land surface, yet
plant life found nowhere else on the planet. A more than 50% of the world’s plant species and 42% of all terrestrial
hotspot, in other words, is irreplaceable.
vertebrate species are endemic to these areas.
 It has to have lost at least 70% of its original
habitat. (It must have 30% or less of its original
natural vegetation). In other words, it must be  In 2011, the Forests of East Australia region was identified as the 35th
threatened.
biodiversity hotspot.

Biodiversity hotspots in India

 Himalaya: Includes the entire Indian

Himalayan region (and that falling in
Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, China and
Myanmar).
 Indo-Burma: Includes entire North-eastern
India, except Assam and Andaman group
of Islands (and Myanmar, Thailand,
Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and southern
China)
 Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: Includes
entire Western Ghats (and Sri Lanka).
 Sundalands: Includes Nicobar group of
Islands (and Indonesia, Malaysia,
Singapore, Brunei, Philippines

21

 Eastern Himalayas, which was originally part
of the Indo-Burma Biodiversity Hotspot and
included Bhutan, north-eastern India and
southern, central and eastern Nepal.
 In 2004, a hotspot reappraisal classified the
region as part of two hotspots: Indo-Burma
and the newly distinguished Himalaya.
 List of Biodiversity hotspots in India given in
Geography notes must be ignored. The info
given here is the most accurate.
World Heritage Sites
 World Heritage Sites means “Sites any of
various areas or objects inscribed on the
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World
Heritage List”.
Natural heritage sites are restricted to those natural
areas that
 furnish outstanding examples of the Earth’s record
of life or its geologic processes.
 provide excellent examples of ongoing ecological
and biological evolutionary processes.
 contain natural phenomena that are rare, unique,
superlative, or of outstanding beauty
 furnish habitats or rare endangered animals or
plants or are sites of exceptional biodiversity”.
 There are ten criteria for cultural heritage and
natural heritage.
 Nominated sites must be of “outstanding universal
value” and meet at least one of the criteria below.
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05-01-2020
 The sites are designated as having outstanding
universal value under the Convention concerning
the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural
Heritage.
 This Convention, which was adopted by the UNESCO
in 1972 (and enforced in 1975) provides a
framework for international cooperation in
preserving and protecting cultural treasures and
natural areas throughout the world. The first list of
World Heritage state was published in 1978.
 The convention defines the kind of sites which can
be considered for inscription of the World heritage
list (ancient monuments, museums, biodiversity and
geological heritage,), and sets out the duties of the
State Parties in identifying potential sites and their
role in protecting them.
“
International Year of Biodiversity
 The United Nations declared 2010 to
be the International Year of
Biodiversity.
 It is a celebration of life on earth and
of the value of biodiversity for our
lives.
Slogan
 “Biodiversity is variety of life on earth
 Biodiversity is life.
 Biodiversity is our life”.
88
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Man and Biosphere Programme (MAB

programme)
It was first started by UNESCO in 1971.
Later introduced in India in 1986.

Aim  Provide opportunities for education

Studying the effects of human interference
and pollution on the biotic and abiotic and training.
components of ecosystems.  Provide appropriate sustainable
Conservation the ecosystems for the present
as well as future. managements of the living resources.
The main objects of MAB programme are to:
 Promote infer national co-operation.
Conserve representative samples of
ecosystem.
Provide long term in situ conservation of
genetic diversity.
89 90

 Living Planet Report released by the World

Wildlife Fund for Nature documents the
state of the earth in terms of biodiversity
and indicates the raising demand on
natural resources and its impact on nature

“
and wildlife. The report is said to reveal
the health of the Earth.

 Since the dawn of civilization, humankind

Some Current Affairs has destroyed more than 80% of all
mammals and half of the plants on the
planet. Many scientists feel that the world
has begun its 6th mass extinction caused by
human beings. The Living Planet Report
2018 presents a picture of the impact of
human activities on worlds wildlife, forest,
oceans, and rivers. According to it, humans
91 pose a risk to the planet.

23

Concerns Raised by WWF 2018
 Earth is losing biodiversity at a rate which can only be seen
during a mass extinction.
 Humans have made many innovations to make their life
much easier but in this process, they have over-exploited the
resources and damaged the web of life.
 World’s 7.6 billion people represent only 0.01 of all living
things, yet since the inception of civilization, they have
caused the destruction of 83% mammal and half of the
plants.
 If the conservation efforts won’t come in action now, the
situation may worsen as the consumption percentage has
raised 119% in the last 3 years.
Headline:-
Delhi’s Air Pollution - Need for Amending 1981 Air Act
What is the issue?
 As Delhi’s Air Quality Index crosses 500, the national capital has
officially entered the public health emergency category.
 This highlights the dire need for amending the 1981 Air Act and making
it more compatible with contemporary India.
05-01-2020
World Wildlife Fund
The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is an
international non-governmental organization
founded in 1961, working in the field of
wilderness preservation, and the reduction of
human impact on the environment.
HQ- Switzerland
Living Planet Report
Published every two years by WWF since 1998.
It is based on a Living Planet Index and
ecological footprint calculation.
How serious is air pollution in India?
 Air pollution in India is not simply an environmental problem, but a major public health concern.
 It affects all those breathing in the polluted air - children, the elderly, women and men alike.
 The Centre for Science and Environment reported that air pollution kills an average of 8.5 out of
every 10,000 children in India before they turn five.
 Similarly, the WHO in 2016 reported that pollution has led to the deaths of over 1 lakh children
in India.
 Overall, several internationally acclaimed studies have affirmed that life expectancy in India has
declined anywhere between 2 to 3 years.
 India is in a worse situation compared to its global counterparts in this regard.
 According to Greenpeace, 22 of the world’s 30 most polluted cities are in India.
 [Delhi has yet again bagged the position of the world’s most polluted capital.]
 These are grim figures, especially when compared to India’s neighbours: Five in China, two in
Pakistan and one in Bangladesh.
 In 2018, India was placed in the bottom 5 countries on the Environmental Performance Index.
 It was ranked 177th out of 180 countries, along with Bangladesh, Burundi, Democratic Republic
of Congo, and Nepal.
24

Environment
Environmental degradation is the
1
disintegration of the earth
or deterioration of the environment
Environmental
through consumption of assets, for
example, air, water and soil; the
destruction of environments and the
eradication of wildlife.
It is characterized as any change or
2 aggravation to nature’s turf seen to
be pernicious or undesirable.
Ecological effect or degradation is
created by the consolidation of an
effectively substantial and expanding
3 human populace, constantly
expanding monetary development or
per capita fortune and the application
of asset exhausting and polluting
technology.
05-01-2020
Environment In a biological sense, environment
constitutes the physical (nutrients, water,
air) and biological factors (biomolecules,
Environment is the natural
organisms) along with their chemical
component in which biotic (living)
interactions (chemical cycles – carbon
and abiotic (non-living) factors
cycle, nitrogen cycle etc.) that affect an
interact among themselves and
organism or a group of organisms.
with each other.
These interactions shape
All organisms are dependent on the
environment to carry out their natural
the habitat and
life processes and to meet their physical
ecosystem of an requirements (food, energy, water,
organism. oxygen, shelter etc.).
 Environmental degradation is one of the
largest threats that are being looked at in
the world today.
Degradation  The United Nations International Strategy
for Disaster Reduction characterizes
environmental degradation as the
lessening of the limit of the earth to meet
social and environmental destinations,
and needs.
 Environmental degradation can happen in
a number of ways.
 At the point when environments are
wrecked or common assets are exhausted,
the environment is considered to be
corrupted and harmed.
 There are a number of different
techniques that are being used to prevent
this, including environmental resource
protection and general protection efforts.
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Environmental issues can be seen by

long term ecological effects, some of
which can demolish whole
environments.
 An environment is a unique unit and
incorporates all the living and non-living  The biggest of these results are felt by particular animal and plant groups, the
components that live inside it. vast majority of which are specific for their bio-region or need a large area in
Plants and creatures are evident parts order to make sure that their genetic lines are kept intact.
of the environment, but it also includes
the things on which they depend on, for
example, streams, lakes, and soils. Causes of Environmental Degradation
Environmental surroundings get to be  Some environmental life species require substantial areas to help provide food,
divided when technological living space, and other different assets. These creatures are called area specific.
advancement splits up areas of land.  At the point when the biome is divided, the vast patches of living space don’t exist
Some examples of this can include Some anymore.
streets which may slice through woods
or even trails which wind through important  It gets to be more troublesome for the wildlife to get the assets they need in
prairies. While it may not sound all points order to survive. The environment goes on, even though the animals and plant
terrible on the surface, there are bad life are not there to help sustain it properly.
results.

Land Disturbance:
 A more basic cause of environmental degradation is
land damage. Numerous weedy plant species, for Pollution
example, garlic mustard, are both foreign and  Pollution, in whatever form, whether it is air,
obtrusive. water, land or noise is harmful for the
 A rupture in the environmental surroundings environment.
provides for them a chance to start growing and  Air pollution pollutes the air that we breathe
spreading. which causes health issues. Water pollution
degrades the quality of water that we use for
 These plants can assume control over nature,
drinking purposes.
eliminating the local greenery.  Land pollution results in degradation of earth’s
 The result is territory with a solitary predominant surface as a result of human activities.
plant which doesn’t give satisfactory food assets to  Noise pollution can cause irreparable damage
all the environmental life. to our ears when exposed to continuous large
 Whole environments can be destroyed because of sounds like honking of vehicles on a busy road
these invasive species. or machines producing large noise in a factory
103 or a mill.

26

Overpopulation:
 Rapid population growth puts strain on
natural resources which results in
degradation of our environment.
 Mortality rate has gone down due to
better medical facilities which has
resulted in increased lifespan.
 More population simple means more
demand for food, clothes and shelter.
You need more space to grow food and
provide homes to millions of people.
 This results in deforestation which is
another factor of environmental
degradation.
 Apart from that, use of forest land for agriculture, animal grazing,
harvest for fuel wood and logging are some of the other causes of
deforestation.
 Deforestation contributes to global warming as decreased forest
size puts carbon back into the environment.
Natural Causes:
 Things like avalanches, quakes, tidal waves, storms, and wildfires
can totally crush nearby animal and plant groups to the point
where they can no longer survive in those areas.
 This can either come to fruition through physical demolition as the
result of a specific disaster, or by the long term degradation of
assets by the presentation of an obtrusive foreign species to the
environment.
05-01-2020
Landfills
 Landfills pollute the environment and destroy
the beauty of the city. Landfills come within the
city due the large amount of waste that gets
generated by households, industries, factories
and hospitals.
 Landfills pose a great risk to the health of the
environment and the people who live there.
 Landfills produce foul smell when burned and
cause huge environmental degradation.
Deforestation
Deforestation is the cutting down of
trees to make way for more homes
and industries. Rapid growth in
population and urban sprawl are two
of the major causes of deforestation.
 The latter frequently happens after tidal waves, when reptiles and
bugs are washed ashore.
 Of course, humans aren’t totally to blame for this whole thing.
Earth itself causes ecological issues, as well.
 While environmental degradation is most normally connected with
the things that people do, the truth of the matter is that the
environment is always changing. With or without the effect of
human exercises, a few biological systems degrade to the point
where they can’t help the life that is supposed to live there.
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1. Impact on Human Health: Human health might be at the receiving end as a result 4. Loss for Tourism Industry: The deterioration of environment can be a huge setback
of the environmental degradation. Areas exposed to toxic air pollutants can cause for tourism industry that rely on tourists for their daily livelihood. Environmental
respiratory problems like pneumonia and asthma. Millions of people are known to damage in the form of loss of green cover, loss of biodiversity, huge landfills,
Effects of have died of due to indirect effects of air pollution. Effects of increased air and water pollution can be a big turn off for most of the tourists.

Environmental
Degradation 2. Loss of Biodiversity: Biodiversity is important for maintaining balance of the
ecosystem in the form of combating pollution, restoring nutrients, protecting water
sources and stabilizing climate. Deforestation, global warming, overpopulation and
pollution are few of the major causes for loss of biodiversity.
3. Ozone Layer Depletion: Ozone layer is responsible for protecting earth from
harmful ultraviolet rays. The presence of chlorofluorocarbons, hydro
chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere is causing the ozone layer to deplete. As it will
Environmental 5. Economic Impact: The huge cost that a country may have to borne due to
Degradation environmental degradation can have big economic impact in terms of restoration of
green cover, cleaning up of landfills and protection of endangered species. The
economic impact can also be in terms of loss of tourism industry.
As you can see, there are a lot of things that can have an effect on the environment. If
we are not careful, we can contribute to the environmental degradation that is
occurring all around the world. We can, however, take action to stop it and take care
of the world that we live in by providing environmental education to the people which
will help them pick familiarity with their surroundings that will enable to take care
of environmental concerns thus making it more useful and protected for our children
and other future generations.

deplete, it will emit harmful radiations back to the earth.

Energy Flow Through an Ecosystem

Trophic Levels Trophic levels
 (Trophe = Nourishment)
Autotrophs Green plants (Producers)
 A trophic level is the representation
of energy flow in an ecosystem. Heterotrophs Herbivore (Primary consumers)
 The trophic level of an organism is
the position it occupies in a food Heterotrophs
Carnivores (Secondary
chain. consumers)
 Trophic level interaction deals with
Heterotrophs Carnivore (Tertiary consumers)
how the members of
an ecosystem are connected based Top carnivores (Quaternary
Heterotrophs
on nutritional needs. consumers)

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 Energy flows through the trophic levels from producers to

subsequent trophic levels is unidirectional.
 Energy level decreases from the first trophic level upwards
due to loss of energy in the form of heat at each trophic
level.
 This energy loss at each trophic level is quite significant.
Hence there are usually not more than four-five trophic
levels (beyond this the energy available is negligible to
support an organism).
The trophic level interaction involves three concepts namely Food
 Food Chain
 Food Web
 Ecological Pyramids
chain

Food Chain Grazing food chain

 Transfer of food energy from green plants  The consumers which start the food
(producers) through a series of organisms chain, utilising the plant or plant
with repeated eating and being eaten link part as their food, constitute the
is called a food chain. E.g. Grasses → grazing food chain.
Grasshopper → Frog → Snake →  For example, in a
Hawk/Eagle. terrestrial ecosystem, the grass is
 Each step in the food chain is called trophic eaten by a caterpillar, which is eaten
by lizard and lizard is eaten by a
level.
snake.
 A food chain starts with producers and  In Aquatic
ends with top carnivores. ecosystem phytoplankton (primary
 The trophic level of an organism is the producers) are eaten by
position it occupies in a food chain. zooplanktons which are eaten by
 Types of Food Chains: 1) Grazing food fishes and fishes are eaten by
chain and 2) Detritus food chain pelicans.

29

Detritus food chain
 This type of food chain starts
from organic matter of dead and
decaying animals and plant bodies
from the grazing food chain.
 Dead organic matter or detritus
feeding organisms are
called detrivores or decomposers.
 The detrivores are eaten by predators.
 In an aquatic ecosystem, the grazing
food chain is the major conduit for
energy flow.
 As against this, in a terrestrial
ecosystem, a much larger fraction of
energy flows through the detritus
food chain than through the grazing
food chain.
Food Web
 Multiple interlinked food chains
make a food web.
 Food web represents all
the possible paths of energy
flow in an ecosystem.
 If any of the intermediate food
chains is removed, the
succeeding links of the chain will
be affected largely.
 The food web provides more
than one alternative for food to
most of the organisms in an
ecosystem and therefore
increases their chance of
survival.
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 Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simpler inorganic substances.
This process is called catabolism. Humification and mineralisation occur during
decomposition in the soil.
 Humification leads to accumulation of a dark-coloured amorphous (formless)
substance called humus that is highly resistant to microbial action and undergoes
decomposition at an extremely slow rate.
 Being colloidal in nature, humus serves as a reservoir of nutrients.
 The humus is further degraded by some microbes and release of inorganic nutrients
occur by the process known as mineralisation.
 Warm and moist environment favour decomposition whereas low temperature and
anaerobiosis inhibit decomposition resulting in a buildup of organic materials (soils
become acidic like in taiga).
Types of Biotic Interactions in a Food Web
Amensalism:-
 One species is inhibited while the other species is unaffected.
 The bread mould fungi Penicillium produce penicillin an
antibiotic substance which inhibits the growth of a variety of
bacteria.
 A large tree shades a small plant, retarding the growth of the
small plant. The small plant has no effect on the large tree.
Predation:-
 One species (predator) benefits while the second species (prey) is
harmed and inhibited.
 Predators like leopards, tigers and cheetahs use speed, teeth and
claws to hunt and kill their prey.
 Predators help in maintaining species diversity in a community,
by reducing the intensity of competition among competing prey
species.
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Parasitism:-
 Beneficial to one species (parasite) and harmful to the Positive Associations
other species (host).Parasitism involves parasite living in Commensalism:-
or on another living species called the host.  One species (the commensal) benefits, while the other
 The parasite gets its nourishment and often shelter from
its host. species (the host) is neither harmed nor inhibited Suckerfish
 Tap worm, roundworm, malarial parasite, many
bacteria, fungi, and viruses are common parasites of often attaches to a shark. This helps the suckerfish get
humans. protection, a free ride as well as a meal from the leftover of
 The female mosquito is not considered a parasite,
although it needs our blood for reproduction. Why? the shark’s meal. The shark does not, however, get any
Because it doesn’t live on the host.
benefit nor is it adversely affected by this association.
Competition:-  Another example of commensalisms is the relationship
 Adversely affects both species.
 Competition occurs when two populations or species, between trees and epiphytic plants.
both need a vital resource that is in short supply.

Mutualism
 Interaction is favourable to both species Sea anemone gets Neutral Interactions
attached to the shell of hermit crabs for the benefit of
transport and obtaining new food while the anemone
provides camouflage and protection utilizing its stinging Neutralism:-
cells to the hermit crab.
 Some mutualisms are so intimate that the interacting Neither species affects the other True
species can no longer live without each other as they depend neutralism is extremely unlikely.
totally on each other to survive.
 Such close associations are called symbiosis (symbiosis is
intense mutualism – E.g. coral and zooxanthellae).

31
 05-01-2020

Q-2) Consider the following statements.

1) In all ecosystems, all the pyramids, of number, of
energy and biomass are upright.
2) Energy at a lower trophic level is always more than
at a higher level.
3) Ecological pyramids take into account the same
species belonging to two or more trophic levels.

Some MCQ’s Which of the above statements is/are incorrect?

a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

125 126

Q-2) Consider the following statements regarding Ecological

Pyramids:
A-c) a) Pyramid of biomass shows a sharp decrease in biomass at
higher trophic levels.
b) Small standing crop of phytoplankton supporting large
In most ecosystems, all the pyramids, of standing crop of zooplankton is an example for Inverted
number, of energy and biomass are upright, i.e., pyramid of biomass.
producers are more in number and biomass c) Primary producers convert only 1% of the energy in the
than the herbivores, and herbivores are more in sunlight available to them into Net Primary Productivity.
number and biomass than the carnivores. Also,
energy at a lower trophic level is always more Which of the above statements is/are correct?
than at a higher level. a) 1 and 2 only
b) 3 only
c) 2 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
128

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 05-01-2020

Q-3) Consider the following statements.

1) Sun is the only source of energy for all ecosystems on
Earth.
2) Of the incident solar radiation more than 90 per cent
of it is photosynthetically active radiation (PAR).
3) Plants capture only 2-10 per cent of the
A-d) photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and this
energy sustains the entire living world.

Which of the above statements is/are correct?

a) 1, 2
b) 1, 3
c) 3 only
d) 2, 3
130

Q-4) Consider the following statements.

A-c) 1) In nature, the energy flow is bidirectional.
Except for the deep sea hydro-thermal ecosystem,
2) No energy that is trapped into an organism
sun is the only source of energy for all ecosystems on remains in it for ever.
Earth. Of the incident solar radiation less than 50 per 3) Death of organism is the end of the detritus
cent of it is photosynthetically active radiation (PAR).
We know that plants and photosynthetic bacteria
food chain/web.
(autotrophs), fix Sun’s radiant energy to make food
from simple inorganic materials. Plants capture only Which of the above statements is/are incorrect?
2-10 per cent of the PAR and this small amount of
energy
a) 1 only
sustains the entire living world. b) 1, 2
c) 1, 3
d) 2, 3
132

33

A-c)
In an aquatic ecosystem, grazing food
chain (GFC) is the major conduit for
energy flow. As against this, in a
terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger
fraction of energy flows through the
detritus food chain than through the
grazing food chain (GFC).
134
A-c)
Unidirectional flow of energy from the
sun to producers and then to
consumers.
05-01-2020
Q-5) Consider the following statements.
1) In a terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger fraction of
energy flows through the detritus food chain than
through the grazing food chain (GFC).
2) The amount of energy decreases at successive
trophic levels in an ecosystem.
3) Organisms at each trophic level depend on those at
the lower trophic level for their energy demands.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
a) 1, 2
b) 2, 3
c) 1, 3
d) 1, 2, 3
Thank You!
Keep learning!
34

Environment & Ecology
Lecture - 1.2
 Among animals, insects are the most species-
rich taxonomic group, making up more than
70 per cent of the total.
 The number of fungi species in the world is
more than the combined total of the species
of fishes, amphibians, reptiles and mammals.
 The largely tropical Amazonian rain forest in
South America has the greatest biodiversity on
earth.
Definitions
Biodiversity
 Biodiversity is the variety of plant and animal
life in the world or in a particular habitat.
 Biodiversity is measured by two major
components: species richness, and species
evenness.
08-01-2020
Biodiversity
 According to IUCN (2004), the total number of
plant and animal species described so far is
slightly more than 1.5 million.
 Estimates place the global species diversity at
several million.
 A large proportion of the species waiting to
be discovered are in the tropics.
 More than 70 per cent of all the species
recorded are animals, while plants (including
algae, fungi, bryophytes, gymnosperms and
angiosperms) comprise no more than 22
per cent of the total.
Species richness
 It is the measure of the number of species
found in a community.
Species evenness
 Species evenness is a measure of the relative
abundance of the different species making up
the richness of an area.
 Example: The sample forest A has 4 tigers, 5
deer and 6 rabbits and sample forest B has 1
tiger, 6 deer and 8 rabbits. Both samples have
the same richness (3 species – species
richness) and the same total number of
individuals (15). However, the sample forest A
has more evenness than the sample forest B.
 Low evenness indicates that a few species
dominate the site.
1

Alpha diversity
 It refers to the diversity within a particular area
or ecosystem and is usually expressed by the number of species
(i.e., species richness) in that ecosystem.
Beta diversity
 It is a comparison of diversity between ecosystems, usually
measured as the change in the amount of species between the
ecosystems.
Gamma diversity
 It is a measure of the overall diversity for the different
ecosystems within a region.
Genetic diversity
 Genetic diversity is the total number of genetic characteristics in
the genetic makeup of a species.
Species diversity
 It is the ratio of one species population over total number of
organisms across all species in the given biome. ‘Zero’ would
be infinite diversity, and ‘one’ represents only one species
present.
 Species diversity is a measure of the diversity within an
ecological community that incorporates both species richness
(the number of species in a community) and the evenness of
species.
 In general, species diversity decreases as we move away from
the equator towards the poles.
 With very few exceptions, tropics (latitudinal range of 23.5° N
to 23.5° S) harbour more species than temperate or polar
areas.
08-01-2020
 A single species might show high diversity at the genetic level
(E.g. Homo sapiens: Chinese, Indian American, African etc.).
 India has more than 50,000 genetically different strains of rice and
1,000 varieties of mango.
 Genetic diversity allows species to adapt to changing environments.
This diversity aims to ensure that some species survive drastic
changes and thus carry on desirable genes.
 Species that differ from one another in their genetic makeup do not
interbreed in nature.
 Closely-related species have in common much of their hereditary
characteristics. For instance, about 98.4 per cent of the genes of
humans and chimpanzees are the same.
Bioprospecting: nations endowed with rich biodiversity explore
molecular, genetic and species-level diversity to derive products
of economic importance.
Stable community
 A stable community means that there is not much variation in
productivity from year to year; it is either resistant
or resilient to occasional disturbances (natural or human-
made) and is resistant to invasions by alien species.
Ecological diversity
 Ecological diversity refers to different types of habitats. A
habitat is the cumulative factor of the climate, vegetation and
geography of a region.
2
 08-01-2020

 It includes various biological zones, like a lake, desert, coast,  A particular type of animal or plant may be
estuaries, wetlands, mangroves, coral reefs etc. endemic to a zone, a state or a country. The
 At the ecosystem level, India, for instance, with its deserts, extreme opposite of endemism
is cosmopolitan distribution.
rain forests, mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands, estuaries, and
alpine meadows has a greater ecosystem diversity than a Keystone species
Scandinavian country like Norway.  Keystone species is a species whose
addition to or loss from an ecosystem leads
to major changes in the occurrence of at
Endemism:-
least one other species.
 There are more than 200000 species in India of which several  Certain species in an ecosystem is
are confined to India (endemic). considered more important in determining
 Endemism is the ecological state of a species being unique to the presence of many other species in that
ecosystem.
a defined geographic location, such as an island, nation,  All top predators (Tiger, Lion, Crocodile,
country or other defined zone, or habitat type; organisms that Elephant) are considered as keystone
are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also species because they regulate all other
found elsewhere. animal population indirectly.

Flagship species
 Hence top predators are given much  A flagship species is a species chosen to represent an environmental
consideration in conservation.
cause, such as an ecosystem in need of conservation.
 If keystone species is lost, it will result in
the degradation of the whole ecosystem.  These species are chosen for their vulnerability, attractiveness or
 For example, certain plant species (ebony distinctiveness in order to engender support and acknowledgement from
tree, Indian-laurel) exclusively depends the public at large.
upon bats for its pollination. If the bat
 Example: Indian tiger, African elephant, giant panda of China, the
population is reduced, then regeneration
of particular plants becomes more leatherback sea turtle, etc.
difficult.

Foundation species
 Foundation species is a dominant primary
producer in an ecosystem both in terms of
abundance and influence. Example: kelp in
kelp forests and corals in coral reefs.

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 08-01-2020

India Represents
Biodiversity of India  Two ‘Realms’
 Five Biomes
 India is recognized as one of the mega-diverse countries, rich in  Ten Bio-geographic Zones
biodiversity and associated traditional knowledge.  Twenty-five Bio-geographic provinces
 India has 24.56% of its geographical area under forest and tree
cover. Realms
 With just 2.4% of the land area, India accounts for nearly 7% of the
 Biogeographic realms are large spatial regions within which
recorded species even while supporting almost 18% of the human
population.
ecosystems share a broadly similar biota.
 In terms of species richness, India ranks seventh in  A realm is a continent or sub-continent sized area with unifying
mammals, ninth in birds and fifth in reptiles. features of geography and fauna & flora.
 The Indian region is composed of two realms.

Biomes of India
They are:  The term biome means the main groups of plants and animals living in areas of certain
 the Himalayan region represented by Palearctic Realm and climate patterns.
 the rest of the sub-continent represented by Malayan Realm  It includes the way in which animals, vegetation and soil interact together. The plants
and animals of that area have adapted to that environment.
In world, Eight terrestrial biogeographic realms are typically
The five biomes of India are:
recognised. They are
 Nearctic Realm
 Palaearctic Realm
 Africotropical Realm
 Indomalayan Realm
 Ocenaia Realm Tropical Humid Forests Tropical Dry or Warm deserts Coniferous forests
Deciduous Forests and semi-deserts
 Australian Realm (including Monsoon
 Antarctic Realm Forests)
 Neotropical Realm Alpine meadows

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 08-01-2020

Bio-geographic Zones
The Himalaya
 Biogeography deals with the geographical distribution of 2A: Himalaya – North West Himalaya
plants and animals. 2B: Himalaya – West Himalaya
 Biogeographic zones were used as a basis for planning 2C: Himalaya – Central Himalaya
wildlife protected areas in India. 2D: Himalaya – East Himalaya
 There are 10 biogeographic zones which are distinguished
clearly in India. They are as follows: The Indian Desert
 Trans-Himalayas  Gangetic Plains 3A: Desert – Thar
 Himalayas  Coasts 3B: Desert – Kutch
 Desert  North East
 Semi-arid  Islands The Semi-Arid
 Western Ghats 4A: Semi-Arid – Punjab Plains
 Deccan Peninsula 4B: Semi-Arid – Gujarat Rajputana

The Gangetic Plains

7A: Gangetic Plain – Upper Gangetic Plains
The Western Ghats
7B: Gangetic Plain – Lower Gangetic Plains
5A: Western Ghats – Malabar Plains
5B: Western Ghats – Western Ghats Mountains The Coasts
8A: Coasts – West Coast
The Deccan Peninsula 8B: Coasts – East Coast
6A: Deccan Peninsular – Central Highlands 8C: Coasts – Lakshadweep
6B: Deccan Peninsular – Chotta Nagpur
6C: Deccan Peninsular – Eastern Highlands Northeast India
6D: Deccan Peninsular – Central Plateau 9A: North-East – Brahmaputra Valley
9B: North-East – North East Hills
6E: Deccan Peninsular – Deccan South
Islands
10A: Islands – Andaman
10B: Islands – Nicobars

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 08-01-2020

Wildlife Diversity of India:-  Fauna: Elephant, sambar, swamp deer,

cheetal, hog deer, barking deer, wild boar
Himalayan mountain system
tiger, panther, hyena, black bear, sloth
 The west Himalayas have low rainfall, bear, Great Indian one-horned rhinoceros,
heavy snowfall (temperate conditions). wild buffalo, Gangetic gharial, golden
 In the east Himalayas, there is heavy langur.
Western Himalayas (High altitude region)
rainfall, snowfall only at very high
 Flora: Natural monsoon evergreen and
altitudes. semi-evergreen forests; rhododendrons;
 Lower altitudes conditions are similar to dwarf hill bamboo and birch forests mixed
the tropical rain forests. with alpine pastures.
 Fauna: Tibetan wild ass (kiang) (Don’t
confuse this with Asiatic wild ass which in
Himalayan foothills found in Kutch region), wild goats (thar,
 Flora: Natural monsoon evergreen and ibex) and blue sheep; antelopes (Chiru and
semi-evergreen forests; dominant species Tibetan gazelle), deers (hangul of Kashmir
stag and shou or Sikkim stag, musk deer);
are sal, silk-cotton trees, giant bamboos;
golden eagle, snow cocks, snow partridges;
tall grassy meadow with savannahs in snow leopard, black and brown bears;
terai. birds like Griffon vultures.

Eastern Himalayas
 Flora: Oaks, magnolias, laurels and birches covered with
moss and ferns; coniferous forests of pine, fir, yew and
junipers with an undergrowth of
scrubby rhododendrons and dwarf bamboos; lichens,
mosses, orchids, and other epiphytes dominant (due to high
humidity and high rainfall).
 Fauna: Red panda, hog badgers, forest badgers, crestless
porcupines, takins etc.
Difference between the antelopes Oryx and Chiru  Peninsular – Indian sub-region
 Oryx is adapted to live in hot and arid areas whereas Chiru is adapted to live in  It has two zones.
steppes and semi-desert areas of cold high mountains.  peninsular India and its extension into the drainage basin of
the Ganges river system, and
 Desert region of Rajasthan-the Thar of Indian desert region.

6

Indian desert
 Thar desert of Rajasthan has unique flora and fauna.
 Flora: Thorny trees with reduced leaves; cacti, other
succulents are the main plants.
 Fauna: Animals are mostly burrowing ones. Among
mammals’ rodents are the largest group.
 The Indian desert gerbils are mouse-like, rodents, other
animals are, Asiatic wild ass, black buck, desert cat,
caracal, red fox; reptiles (snakes, lizards and tortoise) well
represented.
 Desert lizards include agamids and geckos. Among birds, the
most discussed is Great Indian Bustard.
08-01-2020
Peninsular India
 It is home to tropical moist deciduous to tropical dry deciduous and
scrub vegetation depending upon the variation in rainfall and
humidity.
 Flora: Sal in north and east extensions (higher rainfall) and teak in
southern plateau are dominant trees.
 West Ghats have evergreen vegetation (flora and fauna similar to
evergreen rainforests of northeastern of India. In dry areas of
Rajasthan and Aravalli hills, trees are scattered, and thorny scrub
species predominate. The forests give way to more open savannah
habit.
 Fauna: Elephant, wild boar, deers (cheetal or axis deer), hog deer
swamp deer or barasinga, sambar, muntjak or barking deer,
antelopes (four-horned antelope, Nilgiri, blackbuck, chinkara
gazelle), wild dog or dhole, tiger, leopard, cheetah, lion, wild pig,
monkey, striped hyena, jackal, gaur.
Tropical rain forest region
 Distributed in areas of Western Ghats and northeast India.
 Flora: Extensive grasslands interspersed with densely forested
gorges of evergreen vegetation known as sholas occur in the
Nilgiris (an offshoot of Western Ghats). Sholas also occur in
Annamalai and Palani hills.
 The rain forests of the Western Ghats have dense and lofty trees
with much species diversity. Mosses, ferns, epiphytes, orchids,
lianas and vines, herbs, shrubs make diverse habitat. Ebony trees
predominate in these forests.
 Fauna: It is very rich with all kinds of animals. There are
wild elephants, gaur and other larger animals.
 Most species are tree dwellers. The most prominent are hoolock
gibbon (only ape found in India), golden langur, capped langur or
leaf monkey, Assam macaque and the pig-tailed macaque, lion-
tailed macaque, Nilgiri langur slender loris, bats, giant squirrel,
civets, flying squirrels, Nilgiri mongoose, spiny mouse.
7

Andaman and Nicobar Islands
 Flora: These are home for tropical rain
forests. Mangroves are distributed in the
coastal areas.
 Fauna: Among mammals, bats and
rats; Andaman pig, crab-eating macaque,
palm civet and deers (spotted deer, barking
deer, hog deer, sambar).
 Among marine mammals, there are dugong,
false killer whale, dolphin.
 Among birds are rare one is Narcondum
hornbill, white-bellied sea-eagle.
 Salt-water crocodile, a number of marine
turtles, coconut crab, lizards (the largest
being water monitor), 40 species of snakes
including cobra, viper, voral and sea snake,
python, etc. are present.
Biodiversity Hotspots
 Biodiversity hotspots are regions
with high species richness and
a high degree of endemism.
 The British biologist Norman
Myers coined the term “biodiversity
hotspot” in 1988 as a biogeographic
region characterized both
by exceptional levels of plant
endemism and by serious levels of
habitat loss.
31
08-01-2020
Mangrove swamps of Sundarbans
 Sunderbans are the delta of the
Ganges where both the
Brahmaputra and the Ganges join
and drain into the Bay of Bengal.
 Flora: Various species of
mangroves.
 Fauna. In the higher regions of
mangroves, there are spotted deer,
pigs, monitor lizard, monkeys. The
most interesting animal of
Sunderbans is the Royal Bengal
Tiger.
 Conservation International (CI) adopted Myers’
hotspots and in 1996, the organization made the
decision to undertake a reassessment of the
hotspots concept.
 According to CI, to qualify as a hotspot a region
must meet two strict criteria:
 It must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular
plants (> 0.5% of the world’s total) as endemics –
which is to say, it must have a high percentage of
plant life found nowhere else on the planet. A
hotspot, in other words, is irreplaceable.
 It has to have lost at least 70% of its original
habitat. (It must have 30% or less of its original
natural vegetation). In other words, it must be
threatened.
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 08-01-2020

 In 1999, CI identified 25 biodiversity hotspots in the book “Hotspots: Earth’s

Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Eco-regions”.

 In 2005 CI published an updated titled “Hotspots Revisited: Earth’s

Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Eco-regions”.

 The 35 biodiversity hotspots cover 2.3% of the Earth’s land surface, yet
more than 50% of the world’s plant species and 42% of all terrestrial
vertebrate species are endemic to these areas.

 In 2011, the Forests of East Australia region was identified as the 35th
biodiversity hotspot.

 Eastern Himalayas, which was originally part

Biodiversity hotspots in India
of the Indo-Burma Biodiversity Hotspot and
included Bhutan, north-eastern India and
 Himalaya: Includes the entire Indian
southern, central and eastern Nepal.
Himalayan region (and that falling in
 In 2004, a hotspot reappraisal classified the
Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, China and
region as part of two hotspots: Indo-Burma
Myanmar).
and the newly distinguished Himalaya.
 Indo-Burma: Includes entire North-eastern
India, except Assam and Andaman group
World Heritage Sites
of Islands (and Myanmar, Thailand,
Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and southern
 World Heritage Sites means “Sites any of
China)
various areas or objects inscribed on the
 Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: Includes
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and
entire Western Ghats (and Sri Lanka).
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World
 Sundalands: Includes Nicobar group of
Heritage List”.
Islands (and Indonesia, Malaysia,
Singapore, Brunei, Philippines

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 08-01-2020

 The sites are designated as having outstanding

universal value under the Convention concerning
the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural
Heritage.

 This Convention, which was adopted by the UNESCO

in 1972 (and enforced in 1975) provides a
framework for international cooperation in
preserving and protecting cultural treasures and
natural areas throughout the world. The first list of
World Heritage state was published in 1978.

 The convention defines the kind of sites which can

be considered for inscription of the World heritage
list (ancient monuments, museums, biodiversity and
geological heritage,), and sets out the duties of the
State Parties in identifying potential sites and their
role in protecting them.

“ International Year of Biodiversity

 The United Nations declared 2010 to
be the International Year of
Biodiversity.
 It is a celebration of life on earth and
of the value of biodiversity for our
lives.
Slogan
 “Biodiversity is variety of life on earth
 Biodiversity is life.
 Biodiversity is our life”.
39
Man and Biosphere Programme (MAB
programme)
It was first started by UNESCO in 1971.
Later introduced in India in 1986.
Aim
Studying the effects of human interference
and pollution on the biotic and abiotic
components of ecosystems.
Conservation the ecosystems for the present
as well as future.
40

10
 08-01-2020

The main objects of MAB programme are to:

 Conserve representative samples of
ecosystem.
 Provide long term in situ conservation of
genetic diversity.
 Provide opportunities for education and
training.
 Provide appropriate sustainable
managements of the living resources.
 Promote infer national co-operation.
41 42

 Living Planet Report released by the World

Wildlife Fund for Nature documents the
state of the earth in terms of biodiversity
and indicates the raising demand on
natural resources and its impact on nature

“
and wildlife. The report is said to reveal
the health of the Earth.

 Since the dawn of civilization, humankind

Some Current Affairs has destroyed more than 80% of all
mammals and half of the plants on the
planet. Many scientists feel that the world
has begun its 6th mass extinction caused by
human beings. The Living Planet Report
2018 presents a picture of the impact of
human activities on worlds wildlife, forest,
oceans, and rivers. According to it, humans
43 pose a risk to the planet.

11

Concerns Raised by WWF 2018
 Earth is losing biodiversity at a rate which can only be seen
during a mass extinction.
 Humans have made many innovations to make their life
much easier but in this process, they have over-exploited the
resources and damaged the web of life.
 World’s 7.6 billion people represent only 0.01 of all living
things, yet since the inception of civilization, they have
caused the destruction of 83% mammal and half of the
plants.
 If the conservation efforts won’t come in action now, the
situation may worsen as the consumption percentage has
raised 119% in the last 3 years.
Headline:-
Delhi’s Air Pollution - Need for Amending 1981 Air Act
What is the issue?
 As Delhi’s Air Quality Index crosses 500, the national capital has
officially entered the public health emergency category.
 This highlights the dire need for amending the 1981 Air Act and making
it more compatible with contemporary India.
08-01-2020
World Wildlife Fund
The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is an
international non-governmental organization
founded in 1961, working in the field of
wilderness preservation, and the reduction of
human impact on the environment.
HQ- Switzerland
Living Planet Report
Published every two years by WWF since 1998.
It is based on a Living Planet Index and
ecological footprint calculation.
How serious is air pollution in India?
 Air pollution in India is not simply an environmental problem, but a major public health concern.
 It affects all those breathing in the polluted air - children, the elderly, women and men alike.
 The Centre for Science and Environment reported that air pollution kills an average of 8.5 out of
every 10,000 children in India before they turn five.
 Similarly, the WHO in 2016 reported that pollution has led to the deaths of over 1 lakh children
in India.
 Overall, several internationally acclaimed studies have affirmed that life expectancy in India has
declined anywhere between 2 to 3 years.
 India is in a worse situation compared to its global counterparts in this regard.
 According to Greenpeace, 22 of the world’s 30 most polluted cities are in India.
 [Delhi has yet again bagged the position of the world’s most polluted capital.]
 These are grim figures, especially when compared to India’s neighbours: Five in China, two in
Pakistan and one in Bangladesh.
 In 2018, India was placed in the bottom 5 countries on the Environmental Performance Index.
 It was ranked 177th out of 180 countries, along with Bangladesh, Burundi, Democratic Republic
of Congo, and Nepal.
12
 10-01-2020

Environment & Ecology

Lecture - 1.3
Environment

Environment In a biological sense, environment 1

constitutes the physical (nutrients, water,
air) and biological factors (biomolecules,
Environment is the natural
organisms) along with their chemical
component in which biotic (living)
interactions (chemical cycles – carbon
and abiotic (non-living) factors
cycle, nitrogen cycle etc.) that affect an
interact among themselves and
organism or a group of organisms.
with each other.
Environmental degradation is the
disintegration of the earth
or deterioration of the environment
Environmental
through consumption of assets, for
example, air, water and soil; the Degradation
destruction of environments and the
eradication of wildlife.
It is characterized as any change or
2 aggravation to nature’s turf seen to
be pernicious or undesirable.

All organisms are dependent on the

These interactions shape
environment to carry out their natural Ecological effect or degradation is
the habitat and created by the consolidation of an
life processes and to meet their physical
effectively substantial and expanding
ecosystem of an
requirements (food, energy, water,
3 human populace, constantly
organism. expanding monetary development or
oxygen, shelter etc.).
per capita fortune and the
application of asset exhausting and
polluting technology.

1
 10-01-2020

 Environmental degradation is one of the

largest threats that are being looked at Land Disturbance:
in the world today.  A more basic cause of environmental degradation is
 The United Nations International land damage. Numerous weedy plant species, for
Strategy for Disaster Reduction
characterizes environmental degradation
example, garlic mustard, are both foreign and
as the lessening of the limit of the earth obtrusive.
to meet social and environmental  A rupture in the environmental surroundings
destinations, and needs. provides for them a chance to start growing and
 Environmental degradation can happen
in a number of ways.
spreading.
 At the point when environments are  These plants can assume control over nature,
wrecked or common assets are eliminating the local greenery.
exhausted, the environment is  The result is territory with a solitary predominant
considered to be corrupted and harmed.
 There are a number of different
plant which doesn’t give satisfactory food assets to
techniques that are being used to all the environmental life.
prevent this, including environmental  Whole environments can be destroyed because of
resource protection and general these invasive species.
protection efforts. 6

Overpopulation:
Pollution  Rapid population growth puts strain on
 Pollution, in whatever form, whether it is air, natural resources which results in
water, land or noise is harmful for the degradation of our environment.
environment.  Mortality rate has gone down due to
 Air pollution pollutes the air that we breathe better medical facilities which has
which causes health issues. Water pollution resulted in increased lifespan.
degrades the quality of water that we use for  More population simple means more
drinking purposes. demand for food, clothes and shelter.
 Land pollution results in degradation of earth’s You need more space to grow food and
surface as a result of human activities. provide homes to millions of people.
 Noise pollution can cause irreparable damage  This results in deforestation which is
to our ears when exposed to continuous large another factor of environmental
sounds like honking of vehicles on a busy road degradation.
or machines producing large noise in a factory
or a mill.

2

Landfills
 Landfills pollute the environment and destroy
the beauty of the city. Landfills come within the
city due the large amount of waste that gets
generated by households, industries, factories
and hospitals.
 Landfills pose a great risk to the health of the
environment and the people who live there.
 Landfills produce foul smell when burned and
cause huge environmental degradation.
Deforestation
Deforestation is the cutting down of
trees to make way for more homes
and industries. Rapid growth in
population and urban sprawl are two
of the major causes of deforestation.
 The latter frequently happens after tidal waves, when reptiles and
bugs are washed ashore.
 Of course, humans aren’t totally to blame for this whole thing.
Earth itself causes ecological issues, as well.
 While environmental degradation is most normally connected with
the things that people do, the truth of the matter is that the
environment is always changing. With or without the effect of
human exercises, a few biological systems degrade to the point
where they can’t help the life that is supposed to live there.
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 Apart from that, use of forest land for agriculture, animal grazing,
harvest for fuel wood and logging are some of the other causes of
deforestation.
 Deforestation contributes to global warming as decreased forest
size puts carbon back into the environment.
Natural Causes:
 Things like avalanches, quakes, tidal waves, storms, and wildfires
can totally crush nearby animal and plant groups to the point
where they can no longer survive in those areas.
 This can either come to fruition through physical demolition as the
result of a specific disaster, or by the long term degradation of
assets by the presentation of an obtrusive foreign species to the
environment.
1. Impact on Human Health: Human health might be at the
receiving end as a result of the environmental degradation.
Effects of Areas exposed to toxic air pollutants can cause respiratory
Environmental problems like pneumonia and asthma. Millions of people
Degradation
are known to have died of due to indirect effects of air
pollution.
3

2. Loss of Biodiversity: Biodiversity is important for
maintaining balance of the ecosystem in the form of
Effects of combating pollution, restoring nutrients, protecting water
Environmental sources and stabilizing climate. Deforestation, global
Degradation
warming, overpopulation and pollution are few of the
major causes for loss of biodiversity.
4. Loss for Tourism Industry: The deterioration of
environment can be a huge setback for tourism industry
Effects of that rely on tourists for their daily livelihood. Environmental
Environmental damage in the form of loss of green cover, loss of
Degradation
biodiversity, huge landfills, increased air and water
pollution can be a big turn off for most of the tourists.
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3. Ozone Layer Depletion: Ozone layer is responsible for
protecting earth from harmful ultraviolet rays. The
Effects of presence of chlorofluorocarbons, hydro chlorofluorocarbons
Environmental in the atmosphere is causing the ozone layer to deplete. As
Degradation
it will deplete, it will emit harmful radiations back to the
earth.
5. Economic Impact: The huge cost that a country may have
to borne due to environmental degradation can have big
Effects of economic impact in terms of restoration of green cover,
Environmental cleaning up of landfills and protection of endangered
Degradation
species. The economic impact can also be in terms of loss
of tourism industry.
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Energy Flow Through an Ecosystem

Trophic Levels
 (Trophe = Nourishment)
As you can see, there are a lot of things that can have an
Effects of effect on the environment. If we are not careful, we can  A trophic level is the representation
Environmental contribute to the environmental degradation that is of energy flow in an ecosystem.
Degradation occurring all around the world. We can, however, take  The trophic level of an organism is
action to stop it and take care of the world that we live in by the position it occupies in a food
providing environmental education to the people which will
chain.
help them pick familiarity with their surroundings that will
enable to take care of environmental concerns thus making  Trophic level interaction deals with
it more useful and protected for our children and other how the members of
future generations. an ecosystem are connected based
on nutritional needs.

Trophic levels
 Energy flows through the trophic levels from producers to
Autotrophs Green plants (Producers) subsequent trophic levels is unidirectional.
 Energy level decreases from the first trophic level upwards
Heterotrophs Herbivore (Primary consumers) due to loss of energy in the form of heat at each trophic
level.
Carnivores (Secondary  This energy loss at each trophic level is quite significant.
Heterotrophs
consumers) Hence there are usually not more than four-five trophic
levels (beyond this the energy available is negligible to
Heterotrophs Carnivore (Tertiary consumers) support an organism).
Top carnivores (Quaternary
Heterotrophs
consumers)

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“ ⪢ The trophic level interaction

involves three concepts
namely
 Food Chain
 Food Web
 Ecological Pyramids
Food
chain

Food Chain Grazing food chain

 Transfer of food energy from green plants  The consumers which start the food
(producers) through a series of organisms chain, utilising the plant or plant
with repeated eating and being eaten link part as their food, constitute the
is called a food chain. E.g. Grasses → grazing food chain.
Grasshopper → Frog → Snake →  For example, in a
Hawk/Eagle. terrestrial ecosystem, the grass is
 Each step in the food chain is called trophic eaten by a caterpillar, which is eaten
by lizard and lizard is eaten by a
level.
snake.
 A food chain starts with producers and  In Aquatic
ends with top carnivores. ecosystem phytoplankton (primary
 The trophic level of an organism is the producers) are eaten by
position it occupies in a food chain. zooplanktons which are eaten by
 Types of Food Chains: 1) Grazing food fishes and fishes are eaten by
chain and 2) Detritus food chain pelicans.

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Detritus food chain

 This type of food chain starts
from organic matter of dead and
decaying animals and plant bodies
from the grazing food chain.
 Dead organic matter or detritus
feeding organisms are
called detrivores or decomposers.
 The detrivores are eaten by predators.
 In an aquatic ecosystem, the grazing
food chain is the major conduit for
energy flow.
Food
 As against this, in a terrestrial
ecosystem, a much larger fraction of
energy flows through the detritus
web
food chain than through the grazing
food chain.

Food Web Types of Biotic Interactions in a Food Web

 Multiple interlinked food chains
make a food web.
 Food web represents all
the possible paths of energy
flow in an ecosystem.
 If any of the intermediate food
chains is removed, the
succeeding links of the chain will
be affected largely.
 The food web provides more
than one alternative for food to
most of the organisms in an
ecosystem and therefore
increases their chance of
survival.
Amensalism:-
 One species is inhibited while the other species is unaffected.
 The bread mould fungi Penicillium produce penicillin an
antibiotic substance which inhibits the growth of a variety of
bacteria.
 A large tree shades a small plant, retarding the growth of the
small plant. The small plant has no effect on the large tree.
Predation:-
 One species (predator) benefits while the second species (prey) is
harmed and inhibited.
 Predators like leopards, tigers and cheetahs use speed, teeth and
claws to hunt and kill their prey.
 Predators help in maintaining species diversity in a community,
by reducing the intensity of competition among competing prey
species.

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Parasitism:-
 Beneficial to one species (parasite) and harmful to the Positive Associations
other species (host).Parasitism involves parasite living in Commensalism:-
or on another living species called the host.  One species (the commensal) benefits, while the other
 The parasite gets its nourishment and often shelter from
its host. species (the host) is neither harmed nor inhibited Suckerfish
 Tap worm, roundworm, malarial parasite, many
bacteria, fungi, and viruses are common parasites of often attaches to a shark. This helps the suckerfish get
humans. protection, a free ride as well as a meal from the leftover of
 The female mosquito is not considered a parasite,
although it needs our blood for reproduction. Why? the shark’s meal. The shark does not, however, get any
Because it doesn’t live on the host.
benefit nor is it adversely affected by this association.
Competition:-  Another example of commensalisms is the relationship
 Adversely affects both species.
 Competition occurs when two populations or species, between trees and epiphytic plants.
both need a vital resource that is in short supply.

Mutualism
 Interaction is favourable to both species Sea anemone gets Neutral Interactions
attached to the shell of hermit crabs for the benefit of
transport and obtaining new food while the anemone
provides camouflage and protection utilizing its stinging Neutralism:-
cells to the hermit crab.
 Some mutualisms are so intimate that the interacting Neither species affects the other True
species can no longer live without each other as they depend neutralism is extremely unlikely.
totally on each other to survive.
 Such close associations are called symbiosis (symbiosis is
intense mutualism – E.g. coral and zooxanthellae).

8

A pyramid of biomass is a
graphical representation of biomass
present in a unit area of various
trophic levels. It shows the
relationship between biomass and
trophic level quantifying the biomass
available in each trophic level of an
energy community at a given time.
There are two main types of
biomass pyramid – inverted
pyramid of biomass and
the upright one.
Examples of the normal biomass
pyramid include:
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A pyramid of energy is a graphical
representation of the amount of energy at
each trophic level of a food chain
 They are expressed in units of energy
per area per time (e.g. kJ m–2 year–1)
Pyramids of energy will never appear
inverted as some of the energy stored in
one source is always lost upon transfer
Ecological
 Each level should be roughly one tenth of
the size of the preceding level (as energy
transformations are ~10% efficient)
Pyramids
 The bottom level will always represent
the producers, with subsequent levels
representing consumers (primary,
secondary, etc.)
 Mice eat grass seeds. The mice
are in turn eaten by the owl. The
grass has the greatest biomass in
this chain. Its biomass, therefore, Terrestrial Ecosystem Aquatic Ecosystem
sits at the bottom of the pyramid.
Conversely, the owl has the lowest
biomass in the chain and hence
sits on top of the pyramid.
In the case of an inverted pyramid,
the best example is the pond
ecosystem.
 The mass of the phytoplankton,
the main producer of
the ecosystem, is less than that of
the consumers, which are
generally fish and other insects.
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A pyramid of numbers is a Examples of Pyramid of Number

graphical representation that shows
the number of organisms at each 1. Clover → Snail → Thrush →
trophic level. It is an upright pyramid Hawk
in light of the fact that in an 2. Phytoplankton → Zooplankton →
ecosystem, the producers are always Small Crustaceans → Predator
more in number than other trophic Insects → Small Fish → Large
levels. Fish → Kingfisher
 The pyramid of numbers was 3. Oaktree → Caterpillars → Blue
advanced by Charles Elton in Tit → Sparrowhawk Upright Partly upright The inverted
1927. Charles pointed out the 4. Oaktree → Insects → pyramid of pyramid of pyramid of
huge difference in the number of Woodpecker number number number
organisms involved in each level 5. Grass → Rabbit → Flea
of the food chain. Types of Pyramid of Numbers

Some MCQ’s

40

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Q-2) Consider the following statements.

1) In all ecosystems, all the pyramids, of number, of
energy and biomass are upright. A-c)
2) Energy at a lower trophic level is always more than
at a higher level. In most ecosystems, all the pyramids, of
3) Ecological pyramids take into account the same number, of energy and biomass are upright, i.e.,
species belonging to two or more trophic levels. producers are more in number and biomass
than the herbivores, and herbivores are more in
Which of the above statements is/are incorrect? number and biomass than the carnivores. Also,
a) 1 and 2 only energy at a lower trophic level is always more
b) 2 and 3 only than at a higher level.
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

41

Q-2) Consider the following statements regarding Ecological

Pyramids:
a) Pyramid of biomass shows a sharp decrease in biomass at
higher trophic levels.
b) Small standing crop of phytoplankton supporting large
standing crop of zooplankton is an example for Inverted
pyramid of biomass.
c) Primary producers convert only 1% of the energy in the A-d)
sunlight available to them into Net Primary Productivity.

Which of the above statements is/are correct?

a) 1 and 2 only
b) 3 only
c) 2 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
43

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Q-3) Consider the following statements.

1) Sun is the only source of energy for all ecosystems on
Earth.
2) Of the incident solar radiation more than 90 per cent
of it is photosynthetically active radiation (PAR).
3) Plants capture only 2-10 per cent of the
photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and this
energy sustains the entire living world.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
a) 1, 2
b) 1, 3
c) 3 only
d) 2, 3
45
A-c)
Except for the deep sea hydro-thermal ecosystem,
sun is the only source of energy for all ecosystems on
Earth. Of the incident solar radiation less than 50 per
cent of it is photosynthetically active radiation (PAR).
We know that plants and photosynthetic bacteria
(autotrophs), fix Sun’s radiant energy to make food
from simple inorganic materials. Plants capture only
2-10 per cent of the PAR and this small amount of
energy
sustains the entire living world.

Q-4) Consider the following statements.

1) In nature, the energy flow is bidirectional.
2) No energy that is trapped into an organism
remains in it for ever.
3) Death of organism is the end of the detritus A-c)
food chain/web.
Unidirectional flow of energy from the
Which of the above statements is/are incorrect? sun to producers and then to
a) 1 only consumers.
b) 1, 2
c) 1, 3
d) 2, 3
47

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Q-5) Consider the following statements.

1) In a terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger fraction of
energy flows through the detritus food chain than A-c)
through the grazing food chain (GFC).
2) The amount of energy decreases at successive In an aquatic ecosystem, grazing food
trophic levels in an ecosystem.
3) Organisms at each trophic level depend on those at
chain (GFC) is the major conduit for
the lower trophic level for their energy demands. energy flow. As against this, in a
terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger
Which of the above statements is/are correct? fraction of energy flows through the
a) 1, 2 detritus food chain than through the
b) 2, 3
c) 1, 3 grazing food chain (GFC).
d) 1, 2, 3
49

Thank You!
Keep learning!

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Environment & Ecology

Lecture – 2.1

Lecture 2 – Pollution

Q-1) The FAO accords the status of 'Globally Important Agricultural

Heritage Systems (GIAHS)' to traditional agricultural systems. What is
the overall goal of this initiative?
1. To provide modern technology, training in modern farming
methods and financial support to local communities of identified
GIAHS so as to greatly enhance their agricultural productivity.
2. To identify and safeguard eco-friendly traditional farm practices
and their associated landscapes, agricultural biodiversity and

Some questions knowledge systems of the local communities.

3. To provide Geographical Indication status to all the varieties of
agricultural produce in such indentified GIAHS.
from 2016 UPSC Select the correct answer using the code given below.

Prelims
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
3 4

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Q-2) Consider the following pairs:

Terms sometimes seen in the news :: Their origin
1. Annex-l Countries : Cartagena Protocol
2. Certified Emissions Reductions: Nagoya Protocol
3. Clean Development Mechanism: Kyoto Protocol
A-b)
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Q-3) With reference to pre-packaged items in India, it is

mandatory to the manufacturer to put which of the following
A-c) information on the main label, as per the Food Safety and
Standards (Packaging and Labeling) Regulations, 2011?
1. List of ingredients including additives
 Annex 1- Kyoto 2. Nutrition information
3. Recommendations, if any made by the medical
 CER -Kyoto profession about the possibility of any allergic reactions
 CDM Kyoto 4. Vegetarian/non-vegetarian

Select the correct answer using the code given below:-

All three terms are associated a) 1, 2 and 3
with Kyoto Protocol b) 2, 3 and 4
c) 1, 2 and 4
d) 1 and 4 Only
8

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Q-4) Net metering' is sometimes seen in the

news in the context of promoting the

A-c) a) production and use of solar energy by the

households/consumers.
b) use of piped natural gas in the kitchens of
households.
c) installation of CNG kits in motor- cars.
d) installation of water meters in urban
households.
10

A-a) Q-5) ‘Gadgil committee report’ and

‘kasturirangan committee report’, sometimes
seen in the news, are related to:-
 Net metering solar
rooftop. a) Constitutional reforms
b) Ganga action plan
 Net metering is a billing c) Linking of rivers
mechanism. d) Protection of western ghats

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A-d) Pollution

 Pollution may be defined as the addition of undesirable material

into the environment as a result of human activities. The agents Types of
which cause environmental pollution are called pollutants. Pollutants
 A pollutant may be defined as a physical, chemical or biological
substance released into the environment which is directly or
indirectly harmful to humans and other living organisms.

 Pollution may be of the following types: Air pollution, Noise

pollution, Water pollution, Soil pollution, Thermal pollution and
Radiation pollution.

In order to control environmental pollution, the Government of India

has passed the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (Bhopal
disaster) to protect and improve the quality of our air, water and soil.

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Types of
Pollutants

Air Pollution

18

“
 Air pollution may be defined as the presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous
substance including noise and radioactive radiation in the atmosphere in such
concentration that may be directly and/or indirectly injurious to humans or other living
organisms, property or interferes with the normal environmental processes.

An ever-increasing use of fossil fuels in power plants, industries, transportation, mining, ◍ Types of Air Pollutants
construction of buildings, stone quarries had led to air pollution.

 Fossil fuels contain small amounts of nitrogen and sulphur.

 Burning of fossil fuels like coal (thermal power plants) and petroleum release
different oxides of nitrogen and sulphur into the atmosphere.
 These gases react with the water vapour present in the atmosphere to form sulphuric
acid and nitric acid. The acids drop down with rain, making the rain acidic. This is
called acid rain.
20

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Indoor Air Pollution

21

 Smog usually is produced through a complex set

of photochemical reactions involving volatile
organic compounds (VOC's) and nitrogen oxides
in the presence of sunlight that result in the
production of ozone.

 Smog-forming pollutants come from many

sources, such as automobile exhausts, power
plants, factories, and many consumer products,
including paints, hair spray, charcoal starter fluid,
solvents, and even plastic popcorn packaging.

Smog  Major smog occurrences often are linked to heavy

motor vehicle traffic, high temperatures, sunshine,
and calm winds.

In Delhi, smog severity is often aggravated by

stubble burning in neighbouring agricultural areas

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 Smog is made up of a combination of air pollutants

that can injure health of people with heart and lung
conditions such as emphysema, bronchitis, and
asthma and further harm the environment, and
cause property damage.
 This mixture of air pollutants may include the
following:
 Aldehydes
 Nitrogen oxides, particularly nitric oxide and
nitrogen dioxide
 Peroxyacyl nitrates
 Tropospheric ozone
 Volatile organic compounds
 Photochemical smog is the chemical reaction of
sunlight, nitrogen oxides and volatile organic
compounds in the atmosphere, which leaves
airborne particles and ground-level ozone.

Consider the following chemicals.

1. Ozone
2. Formaldehyde
3. Carbon dioxide Answer: D
4. Nitrogen oxide
(Carbon Monoxide cause Smog)
Which of the above is/are causes smog in
the area?
A) 1 and 2 only
B) 1,2 and 3 only
C) 2,3 and 4 only
D) 1,2 and 4 only

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Which of the following statement related to

photochemical smog is correct?

a) Photochemical smog is due to the high

concentration of sulfur oxides in the air.

b) It occurs in the region in which air

contains high liquid water contents.

c) Photochemical smog forms as a result of

interactions among nitrogen oxides, reactive
hydrocarbons
and sunlight.

d) None of the above

Ans: c
Exp: Sulfurous smog results from a high
concentration of sulfur oxides in the air
and is caused by the use of sulfur-bearing
fossil fuels, particularly coal.
Photochemical smog, which occurs most
prominently in urban areas that have
large numbers of automobiles, requires
neither smoke nor fog. This type of smog
has its origin in the nitrogen oxides and
hydrocarbon vapors emitted by
automobiles and other sources, which
then undergo photochemical reactions in
the lower atmosphere. Fly Ash
31 32

8

Mains Practice Question
What is fly ash? In the past few years concerns have been raised over its
environmental impact from several quarters. What are these concerns? How they
can be addressed? Examine.
Health and environmental hazards:
 Toxic heavy metals present: All the heavy metals found in fly ash nickel,
cadmium, arsenic, chromium, lead, etc—are toxic in nature. They are
minute, poisonous particles accumulate in the respiratory tract, and cause
gradual poisoning
 Radiation: For an equal amount of electricity generated, fly ash contains a
hundred times more radiation than nuclear waste secured via dry cask or
water storage.
 Water pollution: The breaching of ash dykes and consequent ash spills
occur frequently in India, polluting a large number of water bodies.
 Effects on environment: The destruction of mangroves, drastic reduction
in crop yields, and the pollution of groundwater in the Rann of Kutch from
the ash sludge of adjoining Coal power plants has been well documented.
12-01-2020
What is Fly Ash?
 Fly ash is a major source of PM 2.5 (fine, respirable pollution particles) in
summer. It becomes air borne, and gets transported to a radius of 10 to 20
kms.
 It can settle on water and other surfaces.
 Fly ash, the end product of combustion during the process of power
generation in the coal based thermal power plants, is a
proven resource material for many applications of construction
industries and currently is being utilized in manufacturing of Portland
Cement, bricks/blocks/tiles manufacturing, road embankment construction
and low-lying area development, etc.
 Conduct more research on improving the quality of fly ash, grading fly ash
generated by different technologies and types of coal, and feasible blending ratios
for the cement industry.
 The BIS must update the blending standards, which have not been revised
since 2000.
 Improve transparency and reduce the costs of fly ash disposal by Coal power
plants.
 Limit fly ash production through greater deployment of renewable energy
sources, using better coal and combustion techniques, etc, since cement-related
industries alone will not be able to absorb all the fly ash generated in the future
 The key requirements for overcoming the barriers are greater regulatory
oversight and price control, revision of cement blending standards, research in
improving fly ash quality, reducing cost of transportation, provisions for overcoming
information asymmetries, and overall sensitisation of key decision-makers on the
matter.
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Control
Measures

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“ ‘The National Air Quality Index’ (AQI) as ‘One Number-

One Colour-One Description’ for the common man to
judge the air quality within his vicinity.

The formulation of the index was a continuation of the

initiatives under Swachh Bharat Mission.

 There are six AQI categories, namely

Good, Satisfactory, Moderately polluted,
Poor, Very Poor, and Severe.

 The proposed AQI will consider eight

pollutants (PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO,
O3, NH3, and Pb) for which short-term
(up to 24-hourly averaging period)
National Ambient Air Quality Standards
are prescribed.

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National Clean Air Program

The NCAP will expand the national air quality monitoring

network, build capacity for air pollution management, and
Strengthen Public Awareness about the dangers of air
pollution. It is a time-bound, national strategy to bring
down levels of deadly particle air pollution (PM2.5 and
PM10) by 20-30% by 2024 (compared to 2017 levels).
Initially launched as a five-year action plan, the NCAP
may be further extended after a mid-term review of the
outcomes.

Pet Coke
 Petroleum coke or petcoke is a
spongy, solid residue from oil
distillation.
 It is a coal substitute and can be
burned for fuel in the same manner
as coal.
 It notably has a higher energy
content.
 Petcoke has become an attractive
raw material for power stations and
cement plants in India.

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WAYU (Wind Augmentation PurifYing

Unit) has been indigenously developed by
Council of Scientific and Industrial What is anti-smog gun?
Research – National Environmental
Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-
NEERI) as part of Technology
Anti-smog gun is a device that sprays
Development Project being funded by
atomised water into the atmosphere to
Department of Science and Technology.
reduce air pollution. Connected to a water
tank and mounted on a vehicle, the device
The device has the capacity to purify air in
could be taken across the city to spray
an area of 500 meter square.
water to settle dust and other suspended
particles.
The device consumes only half a unit of
electricity for 10 hours of running and has a
maintenance cost of only Rs. 1500 per
month.

Depletion of ozone layer causes, Which

of the following?
Which of the mentioned devices are used
for removing vapour phase/ gaseous
1. Cataract in eyes leading to blindness
pollutants?
2. Reduced productivity of forests
3. Lung infection
a) Absorption towers
b) Catalytic converters
Select the correct answer from the
c) Thermal oxidisers
following codes
d) All of the mentioned
a. Only 1
b. Only 1 and 2
c. Only 2 and 3
d. 1,2 and 3

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Environment & Ecology

Lecture – 2.1

Lecture 2 – Pollution

The pH scale Acid Rain – Acidification

 Acid rain refers to any precipitation (rain,

fog, mist, snow) that is more acidic than
normal (pH of less than 5.6. pH below 7 is
acidic).

 Acid rain is caused by atmospheric

pollution from acidic gases such
as sulphur dioxide and oxides of
nitrogen emitted from the burning of
 The pH scale is a measure of how acidic or basic (alkaline) a solution is.
fossil fuels.
 It ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral.
 It is also recognized that acidic smog, fog,
 A pH less than 7 is acidic, and a pH greater than 7 is basic.
mist, move out of the atmosphere and
 It is based on hydrogen ion concentration in an aqueous solution. settle on dust particles which in turn
accumulate on vegetation as acid
 pH values decrease as hydrogen ion levels increase.
depositions.
 A solution with pH 4 is ten times more acidic than pH 5, and a hundred times more acidic than pH 6.
 When rain falls, the acid from these
 Whilst the pH range is usually given as 0 to 14, lower and higher values are theoretically possible.
depositions leak and form acid dews.

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Gases that cause acid rain

N2O and NO are neutral in nature.

 N2O3, NO2 and N2O5 are acidic in nature.

SOx (Sulphur oxides)Fossil fuel burning, power
plants, smelting of metal sulphide ores,
industrial sources, industrial production of
sulfuric acid in metallurgical, chemical and
fertiliser industries volcanoes, seas and oceans,
decomposition of organic matter.
NOx (Nitrogen oxides – NO,
NO2 and N2O)Fossil fuel burning,
lightning, biomass burning, forest
fires, oceans, power plants.
 These acidic oxides react with water and produce
acids like HNO3 (nitric acid) and HNO2 (nitrous
acid) which causes acid rain.
(NO and N2O are  The neutral oxides are comparatively less reactive,
mentioned in NIOS and they combine with oxygen and produce
Environment) nitrogen dioxide.
 Thus, N2O and NO are indirectly involved (2NO
+O2 —>2NO2) in causing acid rain.

Effects on soil
 The exchange between hydrogen ions and the nutrient
Harmful effects of acid rain cations like potassium and magnesium in the soil
Acid precipitation affects both aquatic and terrestrial cause leaching of the nutrients, making the soil
organisms. infertile.
It also damages buildings and monuments.
 An increase in ammonia in the soil due to a decrease
Effects on humans
Bad smells, reduced visibility; irritation of the skin, eyes and the in other nutrients decrease the rate of decomposition.
respiratory tract. The nitrate level of the soil is also found to decrease.
Some direct effects include chronic bronchitis, pulmonary
emphysema and cancer.  The impact of acid rain on soil is less in India; because
Indian soils are mostly alkaline, with good buffering
ability.

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Effects on aquatic life Effect on terrestrial life

 Eggs or sperms of fish, frogs and  Acid rain damage cuticle of plant leaves and
other aquatic organisms are
reduces photosynthesis.
sensitive to pH changes.
 Acid rain kills their gametes
affecting the life cycles and  Acidic medium promotes leaching of heavy metals
productivity (ecosystem like aluminium, lead and mercury. Such metals
imbalances). when percolate into ground water affect soil micro
 Acidic lake waters may kill
flora/fauna.
microbes and turn them
unproductive.
 Acid rain can make metals  Other indirect effects of acid rain on wildlife are loss
bound on soils to be released or alteration of food and habitat resources.
into the aquatic environment.

Effects on microorganisms
 pH determines the proliferation of any microbial species.
 The optimum pH of most bacteria and protozoa is near
neutrality.
 Most fungi prefer an acidic environment.
 Most blue-green bacteria prefer an alkaline environment.
 So, microbial species in the soil and water shift from bacteria-
bound to fungi-bound.
 This causes a delay in the decomposition of soil organic
material.
Effect on buildings, monuments and materials
 Many old, historical, ancient buildings and works of
art/textile etc. are adversely affected by acid rain.
 Limestone and marble are destroyed by acid rain.
Smoke and soot cover such objects. They slowly
dissolve/flake away from the surfaces because of
acid fumes in the air.

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Many buildings/monuments such as Taj Mahal in Agra have suffered  Buffering: the practice of adding a neutralising
from acid rain (Marble Cancer).
agent to the acidified water to increase the pH.
Acid Rain Areas Usually, lime in the form of calcium oxide and
 They are concentrated in the industrialised belt of the northern calcium carbonate is used.
hemisphere.
 Scandinavia, Canada, the Northeast United States and North- Smog: Photochemical smog & Sulfurous smog
western Europe.
Smog = smoke + fog (smoky fog) caused by the
In India burning of large amounts of coal, vehicular
 In India, the first report of acid rain came from Bombay in 1974.
 Instances of acid rain are being reported from metropolitan cities.
emission and industrial fumes (Primary pollutants).
 Lowering of soil pH is reported from north-eastern India, coastal  Smog contains soot particulates like smoke,
Karnataka and Kerala, parts of Orissa, West Bengal and Bihar. sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and other
components.
Acid Rain Control  At least two distinct types of smog are
 Use of low sulphur fuel or natural gas or washed coal (chemical recognized: sulfurous smog and photochemical
washing of pulverised coal) in thermal plants can reduce incidences smog.
of acid rain.
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Primary and secondary pollutants

 A primary pollutant is an air pollutant emitted directly from a Sulfurous smog

source.
 A secondary pollutant is not directly emitted as such, but forms
when other pollutants (primary pollutants) react in the
atmosphere.
 Examples of a secondary pollutant include ozone, which is
formed when
 hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) combine in the
presence of sunlight;
 NO combines with oxygen in the air; and
 acid rain, which is formed when sulphur dioxide or nitrogen
oxides react with water.
 Sulfurous smog is also called “London smog,” (first formed in
London).
 Sulfurous smog results from a high concentration of SULFUR
OXIDES in the air and is caused by the use of sulfur-bearing
fossil fuels, particularly coal (Coal was the mains source of
power in London during nineteenth century. The effects of coal
burning were observed in early twentieth century).
 This type of smog is aggravated by dampness and a high
concentration of suspended particulate matter in the air.

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 Photochemical (summer smog) forms when pollutants such

Photochemical smog
as nitrogen oxides (primary pollutant) and organic

Photochemical smog is also known as “Los compounds (primary pollutants) react together in the presence

Angeles smog”. of SUNLIGHT. A gas called OZONE (Secondary pollutant) is

Photochemical smog occurs most prominently
in urban areas that have large numbers of
automobiles (Nitrogen oxides are the primary
emissions).
formed.
 Nitrogen Dioxide + Sunlight + Hydrocarbons = Ozone
(Ozone in stratosphere it is beneficial, but near the earth’s
surface it results in global warming as it is a greenhouse gas)

Effects of Smog
 The resulting smog causes a light brownish
 The atmospheric pollution levels of Los Angeles, Beijing, Delhi,
coloration of the atmosphere, reduced visibility,
Mexico City and other cities are increased by inversion that
plant damage, irritation of the eyes, and respiratory
traps pollution close to the ground.
distress.
 Temperature inversions are accentuated and precipitation is
Haze
reduced.
 Haze is traditionally an atmospheric phenomenon
where dust, smoke and other dry particles obscure
the clarity of the sky (No condensation. Smog is
similar to haze but there is condensation in smog).

 Sources for haze particles include farming

(ploughing in dry weather), traffic, industry, and
wildfires.

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Greenhouse effect and Global Warming
 A greenhouse is a structure whose roof and walls are
made chiefly of transparent material, such as glass,
in which plants requiring regulated climatic
conditions are grown.
 In a greenhouse, the incident solar radiation (the
visible and adjacent portions of the infrared and
ultraviolet ranges of the spectrum) passes through
the glass roof and walls and is absorbed by the floor,
earth, and contents, which become warmer and re-
emit the energy as longer-wavelength infrared
radiation (heat radiation).
Importance of Natural Greenhouse Effect
 The green-house effect is a natural phenomenon and has been
occurring for millions of years on the earth.
 Life on the earth has been possible because of this natural
greenhouse effect which is due to water vapour and small
particles of water present in the atmosphere.
 Together, these produce more than 95 percent of total
greenhouse warming.
 Average global temperatures are maintained at about 15°C
due to natural greenhouse effect.
 Without this phenomenon, average global temperatures might
have been around –17°C and at such low temperature life
would not be able to exist.
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Greenhouse effect and Global Warming
 Glass and other materials used for greenhouse
walls do not transmit infrared radiation, so
the infrared cannot escape via radiative
transfer.
 As the structure is not open to the atmosphere,
heat also cannot escape via convection, so the
temperature inside the greenhouse rises. This is
known as the ‘greenhouse effect’.
Greenhouse Gases (GHGs)
 Atmospheric gases like carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide (N2O), water vapour, and
chlorofluorocarbons are capable of trapping the
out-going infrared radiation from the earth’s
surface thereby causing greenhouse effect.
 Hence these gases are known as greenhouse
gases and the heating effect is known
as greenhouse effect.
 Oxides of Nitrogen with general formula NOx – NO,
NO2 – Nitrogen oxide, Nitrogen dioxide etc.
are global cooling gasses while Nitrous oxide
(N2O) is a greenhouse gas.
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 Cryosphere: The cryosphere is the frozen

water part of the Earth water system.
Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) Polar regions, snow caps of high

 If greenhouse gases are not checked, by the turn of mountain ranges are all part of
the century the temperature may rise by 5°C. cryosphere.

 Scientists believe that this rise in temperature will

lead to deleterious changes in the environment and
resulting in odd climatic changes (e.g. increased
incidence of El Nino), thus leading to increased
melting of polar ice caps as well as of other places
like the Himalayan snow caps.
 Over many years, this will result in a rise
in sea level that can submerge many
coastal areas and lead to loss of coastal
areas and ecosystems like swamps and
marshes (most important ecosystems
from the point of ecological services), etc.

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Carbon dioxide
 Burning of fossil fuels, deforestation  Carbon dioxide is meteorologically a very important gas as
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)Refrigeration, it is transparent to the incoming solar
solvents, insulation foams, aero radiation but opaque to the outgoing terrestrial
propellants, industrial and commercial radiation.
uses
 Methane (CH4)Growing paddy, excreta of  It absorbs a part of terrestrial radiation and reflects back
cattle and other livestock, termites, some part of it towards the earth’s surface. It is largely
burning of fossil fuel, wood, landfills,
responsible for the greenhouse effect.
wetlands, fertilizer factories.
 Nitrogen oxides (N2O)Burning of fossil
fuels, fertilizers; burning of wood and crop  Its concentration is greater close to the earth’s surface as
residue. it is denser than air.
 Carbon Monoxide (CO)Iron ore smelting,
burning of fossil fuels, burning e-waste.

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Ozone
 Ozone is another important greenhouse gas. But
it is in very small proportions at the surface.
 Most of it is confined to the stratosphere where
it absorbs the harmful UV radiation.
 At ground level, pollutants like NO2 react with
volatile organic compounds in the presence of
sunlight to produce ozone (tropospheric ozone).
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Methane
 Methane is the most important greenhouse gas after carbon
dioxide.
 It is produced from decomposition of animal wastes and
biological matter.
 The emission of this gas can be restricted by using animal
wastes and biological matter to produce gobar gas (methane).
Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
 N2O or Nitrous Oxide is a greenhouse gas.
 NO and NO2 (nitric oxide or nitrogen oxide and nitrogen
dioxide) emissions cause global cooling through the formation
of (OH) radicals that destroy methane molecules, countering
the effect of GHGs.
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Water vapour
 Water vapour is also a variable gas in the atmosphere, which
decreases with altitude.
 Water vapour also decreases from the equator towards the poles.
 In the warm and wet tropics, it may account for four per cent of
the air by volume, while in the dry and cold areas of desert and
polar regions, it may be less than one per cent of the air.
 One unique feature about this greenhouse gas is that
it absorbs both incoming (a part of incoming) and outgoing
solar radiation.
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Carbon Monoxide
 Carbon monoxide is a short-lived greenhouse gas (it is less
dense than air).
 It has an indirect radiative forcing effect by elevating
concentrations of methane and tropospheric ozone through
chemical reactions with other atmospheric constituents (e.g.,
the hydroxyl radical, OH.) that would otherwise destroy them.
 Through natural processes in the atmosphere, it is
eventually oxidized to carbon dioxide.
Fluorinated gases
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
 CFCs were phased out via the Montreal Protocol due to their
part in ozone depletion.
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 This anthropogenic compound is also a greenhouse gas, with
a much higher potential to enhance the greenhouse effect than CO2.
Hydrofluorocarbons
 Hydrofluorocarbons are used as refrigerants, aerosol propellants,
solvents, and fire retardants.
 These chemicals were developed as a replacement for
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
 Unfortunately, HFCs are potent greenhouse gases with long
atmospheric lifetimes.
Perfluorocarbons
 Perfluorocarbons are compounds produced as a by-product in
aluminium production and the manufacturing of semiconductors.
 Like HFCs, PFCs generally have long atmospheric lifetimes and high
global warming potential.
Black Carbon or Soot
 Black carbon (BC) is a solid particle or aerosol (though not a gas)
that contributes to warming of the atmosphere. Black carbon,
commonly known as soot.
 Soot is a form of particulate air pollutant, produced
from incomplete combustion.
 Black carbon warms the earth by absorbing heat in the
atmosphere and by reducing albedo (the ability to reflect
sunlight) when deposited on snow and ice.
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Sulphur hexafluoride
 Sulphur hexafluoride is also a greenhouse gas.
 Sulphur hexafluoride is used in magnesium
processing and semiconductor manufacturing,
as well as a tracer gas for leak detection.
 Sulphur hexafluoride is used in electrical
transmission equipment, including circuit
breakers.
 BC is the strongest absorber of sunlight and heats the air directly.
 In addition, it darkens snow packs and glaciers through deposition and
leads to melting of ice and snow.
 Regionally, BC disrupts cloudiness and monsoon rainfall.
 Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks.
 Thus, the effects of BC on the atmospheric warming and glacier retreat
disappear within months of reducing emissions.
Brown Carbon
 Brown carbon is a ubiquitous and unidentified component of organic
aerosol.
 Biomass burning (possibly domestic wood burning) is shown to be a
major source of brown carbon
 Brown carbon is generally referred for greenhouse gases and black
carbon for particles resulting from impure combustion, such as soot
and dust.
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GHG Protocol
Ozone Hole [Ozone Depletion at South
 GHG Protocol is developing standards, tools and online Pole]
training that helps countries, cities and companies track
progress towards their climate goals.  Polar vortex and ozone depletion are
two distinct but related phenomena.
 GHG Protocol establishes frameworks to measure and
manage greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from private and  There is a steady decline of
public sector operations, value chains and mitigation actions. about 4% in the total volume of
 GHG Protocol arose when World Resources Institute (WRI) and ozone in Earth’s stratosphere.
World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD)
recognized the need for an international standard  Much larger decrease in stratospheric
for corporate GHG accounting and reporting in the late ozone is observed around Earth’s
1990s. polar regions.

 Halogen atoms like chlorine destroy ozone

Ozone Hole [Ozone Depletion at South
Pole]  Photodissociation (under the influence of sunlight) of ozone-depleting
substances (ODS) like halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, propellants, and foam-
 Depletion of ozone is due to increase blowing agents (CFCs, HCFCs, carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethane, freons,
in halocarbons in the atmosphere. halons) creates free chlorine atoms that destroy ozone.

 Halocarbon = a compound in which  Polar Stratospheric Clouds or nacreous clouds contain water, nitric acid and/or
the hydrogen of a hydrocarbon is
sulfuric acid.
replaced by halogens like chlorine,
bromine, iodine etc.
 Halogen = group of reactive non-  They are formed mainly during the event of polar vertex in winter; more
metallic elements like fluorine, intense at south pole.
chlorine, bromine, iodine, and  The Cl-catalyzed ozone depletion is dramatically enhanced in the presence of
astatine. polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) [Finally this how polar vortex leads to ozone
depletion]

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 Polar Stratospheric Clouds  Ethyl bromide (was used as fumigant. Fumigation is a method of pest control by
convert “reservoir” compounds suffocating pests with poison)
into reactive free radicals (Cl and
ClO).  carbon tetrachloride (formerly widely used in fire extinguishers, refrigerant and as a
cleaning agent)
 Ozone depleting substances are
man-made gases that destroy  methyl chloroform (solvent for organic compounds; used for cleaning metal parts
ozone once the gases reach the and circuit boards).
ozone layer.
 Ozone depleting substances  They have been used as:
include:  refrigerants in commercial, home and vehicle air conditioners and refrigerators
 chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)  foam blowing agents
 hydrochlorofluorocarbons  a component in electrical equipment
(HCFCs)  industrial solvents
 solvents for cleaning (including dry cleaning)
 hydrobromoflurocarbons (HBFCs)
 aerosol spray propellants
 halons (were used in fire  fumigants
extinguishers)

Chlorofluorocarbons Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer

 The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were widely used as refrigerants until the 1980s.
Layer (Vienna Convention) was agreed in 1985.
 They are also considered greenhouse gases that cause climate change.  It established global monitoring and reporting on
 There are still CFCs left in older industrial air conditioning and refrigeration ozone depletion.
systems.  It also created a framework for the development of
protocols for taking more binding action.

Hydrochlorofluorocarbons Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone

 Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) have been used as a substitute for CFCs. Layer
 They do less damage to the ozone layer than CFCs.  The Montreal Protocol under the Vienna Convention
(the protocol) was agreed in 1987.
 It facilitates global cooperation in reversing the rapid
Halons decline in atmospheric concentrations of ozone.
 Halons are halocarbon gases that were originally developed for use in fire  Under the protocol countries agreed to phase out the
extinguishers. production and consumption of certain chemicals that
deplete ozone.
 Production and consumption of halons ended in 1994 in developed countries

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 Phase out of these substances is required by
specific deadlines.
 The Vienna Convention and its Montreal
Protocol are the first and only global
environmental treaties to achieve universal
ratification, with 197 parties.
 As a result of the international agreement, the
ozone hole in Antarctica is slowly recovering.
 Climate projections indicate that the ozone layer
will return to 1980 levels between 2050 and 2070.
 This phase down is expected to arrest the global
average temperature rise up to 0.5 °C by 2100.
 It is a legally binding agreement between the signatory
parties with non-compliance measures.
 It came into effect from 1st January 2019.
India’s position
 India has agreed on a lenient schedule as it consumes
only 3% of HFCs as compared to the other nations like
the USA (37%) and China (25%).
 Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are used since as an
alternative to CFCs and HCFCs.
 HFCs do not contribute to ozone depletion.
 However, they are potent greenhouse gases with high
global warming potential.
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Kigali amendment to Montreal Protocol 2016
 Kigali is the capital city of Rwanda.
 In the 28th meeting of the Parties (2016) to
the Montreal Protocol, negotiators from 197
nations have signed an agreement to amend
the Montreal Protocol in Kigali.
 The parties are expected to reduce the
manufacture and use of
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) by roughly 80-
85% from their respective baselines, till
2045.
The Ozone Depleting Substances Rules
 The rules are framed under the jurisdiction of Environment
(Protection) Act.
 These Rules set the deadlines for phasing out of various ODSs,
besides regulating production, trade import and export of ODSs
and the product containing ODS.
 These Rules prohibit the use of CFCs in manufacturing various
products beyond 1st January 2003 except in metered dose inhaler
and for other medical purposes.
 Similarly, use of halons is prohibited after 1st January 2001 except
for essential use.
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 Other ODSs such as carbon

tetrachloride and methylchoroform and CFC for
metered dose inhalers can be used upto 1st January
2010.

 Further, the use of methyl bromide has been

allowed upto 1st January 2015.

 Since HCFCs are used as interim substitute to

replace CFC, these are allowed up to 1st January
2040.

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Environment & Ecology

Lecture – 3

Lecture 2 – Pollution

 Water pollution is the

addition/presence of undesirable
substances to/in water such as
organic, inorganic, biological,
radiological, heat, which
degrades the quality of water so
Water that it becomes unfit for use’.

Pollution  Natural sources of pollution of

water are soil erosion, leaching of
minerals from rocks (due to
natural solubility and solubility
triggered by acid rain) and
decaying of organic matter

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Point and non-point sources of Sources of Water Pollution

pollution Some of the most commonly occurring water
pollutants are
 When pollutants are discharged
from a specific location such as a  Domestic Waste
drain pipe carrying industrial  Industrial effluents
effluents discharged directly into
a water body it represents point  Insecticides and pesticides
source pollution.  Detergents and Fertilizers

 In contrast, non-point sources  Some of the water pollution that is caused is

include discharge of pollutants by Direct Sources, such as factories, waste
management facilities. refineries etc, that
from diffused sources or from a
directly release waste and harmful by-products
larger area such as runoff from into the nearest water source without treating
agricultural fields, grazing lands, them. Indirect sources include pollutants that
construction sites, abandoned enter the water bodies via groundwater or soil or
mines and pits, etc. via the atmosphere as acid rain.

Effects of Pollution of Water

Effects of Pollution of Water

 Diseases: In humans, drinking or consuming
polluted water in any way has many
disastrous effects on our health. It  Effects the food chain: Disruption in
causes typhoid, cholera, hepatitis and food chains happens when toxins and
various other disease. pollutants in the water are consumed
by aquatic animals (fish, shellfish etc)
 Destruction of Ecosystems: Ecosystems are
which are then consumed by humans.
extremely dynamic and respond to even
small changes in the environment. Water
pollution can cause an entire ecosystem to
collapse if left unchecked.

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Effects of Pollution of Water

Eutrophication
 Eutrophication: Chemicals in a water
 Lakes receive their water from surface runoff and along with its various
body, encourage the growth of algae.
chemical substances and minerals.
These algae form a layer on top of the
 Over periods, ageing occurs as the lakes accumulate mineral and organic
pond or lake. Bacteria feed on this algae
matter and gradually, they get filled up.
and this decreases the amount of
 The nutrient-enrichment of the lakes promotes the growth of algae, aquatic
oxygen in the water body,
plants and various fauna. This process is known as natural eutrophication.
severely affecting the aquatic life there.

Eutrophication and Algal Bloom

 Similar nutrient enrichment of lakes at an accelerated rate is caused by human
activities and the consequent ageing phenomenon is known as cultural
eutrophication.
 On the basis of their nutrient content, lakes are categorized as Oligotrophic
(very low nutrients), Mesotrophic (moderate nutrients) and Eutrophic (highly
 Eutrophic water body: it is a body of water rich in
nutrients and so supporting a dense plant population,
the decomposition of which kills animal life
by depriving it of oxygen.
 Eutrophication is the response to the addition of
nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates naturally

nutrient rich). or artificially, fertilising the aquatic ecosystem.

 Phytoplankton (algae and blue-green bacteria) thrive
on the excess nutrients and their population explosion
 A vast majority of lakes in India are either eutrophic or mesotrophic because of
covers almost entire surface layer. This condition is
the nutrients derived from their surroundings or organic wastes entering them.
known as algal bloom.

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Mechanism  The new anaerobic conditions (absence of oxygen) created to

 Phytoplankton are photosynthetic during day time adding oxygen to the promote the growth of bacteria such as Clostridium
aquatic ecosystem. botulinum which produces toxins deadly to aquatic organisms, birds
and mammals.
 But during nights, they consume far more oxygen as they respire aggressively.

 i.e. Algal blooms accentuate the rate of oxygen depletion as the population of
phytoplankton is very high.

 The primary consumers like small fish are killed due to oxygen deprivation
caused by algal blooms.

 Death of primary consumers adversely affects the food chain.

 Further, more oxygen is taken up by microorganisms during the
decomposition process of dead algae, plants and fishes.

 Water temperature has also been related to the occurrence of  Algal Blooms restrict the penetration of
algal blooms, with unusually warm water being conducive to sunlight resulting in the death of aquatic
blooms.
plants and hence restricts the
 Algal blooms can be any colours, but one of the most common
ones are red or brown. These blooms are commonly referred to
replenishment of oxygen.
as red or brown tides.

 New species invasion: Eutrophication

Effects of Eutrophication
may cause the ecosystem competitive by
 Loss of freshwater lakes: Eutrophication eventually
creates detritus layer in lakes and produces
transforming the normal limiting
successively shallower depth of surface water. nutrient to abundant level. This cause
 Eventually, the water body is reduced into marsh whose plant shifting in species composition of the
community is transformed from an aquatic environment to a
ecosystem.
recognizable terrestrial environment.

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 Loss of coral reefs: Occurs due to decrease
in water transparency (increased
turbidity).
 Affects navigation due to increased
turbidity; creates colour (yellow, green,
red), smell and water treatment problems;
increases biomass of inedible toxic
phytoplankton, benthic and epiphytic algae
and bloom of gelatinous zooplankton.
 Nitrogen testing & modelling: N-Testing is a technique to
find the optimum amount of fertiliser required for crop
plants. It will reduce the amount of nitrogen lost to the
surrounding area.
 Encouraging organic farming.
 Reduction in nitrogen emission from vehicles and power
plants.
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Mitigation of Eutrophication
 Treating Industrial effluents domestic sewage to remove nutrient-rich sludge
through wastewater processing.
 Riparian buffer: Interfaces between a flowing body of water and land created
near the waterways, farms, roads, etc. in an attempt to filter pollution.
 Sediments and nutrients are deposited in the buffer zones instead of deposition in
water (Wetlands, estuaries are natural riparian buffers).
 Implementation of effective filter ecosystems to remove nitrogen and phosphorus
present in the run-off water (such as phyto-purification plants).
Mercury Poisoning in Fishes
 Mercury is a naturally occurring chemical, but it can
become harmful when it contaminates fresh and
seawater areas. Fish and other aquatic animals
ingest the mercury, and it is then passed along the
food chain until it reaches humans.
 Mercury in humans may cause a wide range of
conditions including neurological and chromosomal
problems and birth defects.
5

Minamata Disease
 Minamata disease, sometimes referred to as Chisso-
Minamata disease, is a neurological syndrome
caused by severe mercury poisoning. Symptoms
include ataxia, numbness in the hands and feet,
general muscle weakness, narrowing of the field of
vision and damage to hearing and speech.
Coral reef
14-01-2020
 In extreme cases, insanity, paralysis, coma and death follow within
weeks of the onset of symptoms. A congenital form of the disease can
also affect foetuses.
 The neurological disorder was caused by the release of methylmercury
in the industrial wastewater from a local chemical factory.
Bioaccumulation of the highly toxic methylmercury in the fish and
shellfish in Shiranui Sea and Minamata Bay caused mercury poisoning
in the people when eaten.
 It caused deaths of cats, dogs and pigs along with human beings. The
animal effects were severe enough in cats that they came to be called
dancing cat fever. The disease was discovered in 1956.
 Coral reefs are built by and made up of
thousands of tiny animals—coral
“polyps”—that are related to anemones
and jellyfish.
 Polyps are shallow water
organisms which have a soft body
covered by a calcareous skeleton. The
polyps extract calcium salts from sea
water to form these hard skeletons.
 The polyps live in colonies fastened to the
rocky sea floor.
 The tubular skeletons grow upwards and
outwards as a cemented calcareous
rocky mass, collectively called corals.
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 14-01-2020

 When the coral polyps die, they

shed their skeleton [coral] on
which new polyps grow.  Coral reefs over a period of time transform or evolve
into coral islands (Lakshadweep).
 The cycle is repeated for over  The corals occur in different forms and colours,
millions of years leading to depending upon the nature of salts or constituents they
accumulation of layers of corals are made of.
[shallow rock created by these  Small marine plants (algae) also deposit calcium
depositions is called reef]. carbonate contributing to coral growth.
Coral Reef Relief Features
 These layers at different stages  Fringing reef, barrier reef and atoll (coral islands are
give rise to various marine formed on atolls) are the most important relief features.
landforms. One such important
landform is called coral reef.

Fringing Reefs (Shore Reefs) “LAGOON”

 Fringing reefs are reefs that grow directly from a shore. They are located very close to land, and often
form a shallow lagoon between the beach and the main body of the reef.
 A fringing reef runs as a narrow belt [1-2 km wide]. This type of reef grows from the deep sea bottom
with the seaward side sloping steeply into the deep sea. Coral polyps do not extend outwards because
of sudden and large increase in depth.
 The fringing reef is by far the most common of the three major types of coral reefs, with numerous
examples in all major regions of coral reef development.
 Fringing reefs can be seen at the New Hebrides Society islands off Australia and off the southern coast
of Florida.
 A lagoon – as used in the context of coral reef typology –
refers to a comparatively wide band of water that lies
between the shore and the main area of reef development,
and contains at least some deep portions.
Barrier Reefs
 Barrier reefs are extensive linear reef complexes
that parallel a shore, and are separated from it by lagoon.

7

 This is the largest (in size, not distribution) of the three reefs, runs for
hundreds of kilometres and is several kilometres wide.
 It extends as a broken, irregular ring around the coast or an island,
running almost parallel to it.
 Barrier reefs are far less common than fringing reefs or atolls,
although examples can be found in the tropical Atlantic as well as the
Pacific.
 The 1200-mile long Great Barrier Reef off the NE coast of Australia is
the world’s largest example of this reef type.
 The GBR is not actually a single reef as the name implies, but rather a
very large complex consisting of many reefs.
 Atolls are far more common in the Pacific than any other ocean. The Fiji atoll and the
Funafuti atoll in the Ellice/Island are well known examples of atolls. A large ‘number of
atolls also occur in the Lakshadweep Islands.
 In the South Pacific, most atolls occur in mid-ocean. Examples of this reef type are common
in French Polynesia, the Caroline and Marshall Islands, Micronesia, and the Cook Islands.
 The Indian Ocean also contains numerous atoll formations. Examples are found in
the Maldives and Chagos island groups, the Seychelles, and in the Cocos Island group.
14-01-2020
Atolls
 An atoll is a roughly circular (annular) oceanic reef system
surrounding a large (and often deep) central lagoon.
 The lagoon has a depth 80-150 metres and may be joined with
sea water through a number of channels cutting across the
reef.
 Atolls are located at great distances from deep see platforms,
where the submarine features may help in formation of atolls,
such as a submerged island or a volcanic cone which may
reach a level suitable for coral growth.
Formation Of Lakshadweep Islands [You must include the concept of Hotspot]
 The basic coral reef classification scheme described above was first proposed
by Charles Darwin, and is still widely used today.
 Darwin theorized that fringing reefs began to grow near the shorelines of
new islands as ecological conditions became ideal for hard coral growth.
 Then, as the island began to gradually subside into the sea, the coral was
able to keep pace in terms of growth and remained in place at the sea
surface, but farther from shore; it was now a barrier reef.
 Eventually, the island disappeared below the sea surface, leaving only the
ring of coral encircling the central lagoon; an atoll had formed.
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 14-01-2020

 Step 1: A fringing reef forms first,

and starts growing in the shallow
waters close to a tropical island.

 Step 2: Over time, the island

subsides and the reef grows
outwards, and the distance
between the land and the reef
increases. The fringing reef
develops into a barrier reef.

 Step 3: If the island completely

subsides, all that is left is the reef.
The reef retains the approximate
OIL SPILLS
shape of the island it grew around,
forming a ring enclosing a lagoon.

OIL SPILL: 2.Demulsifiers

An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon or
naturally extracted oil into the environment, especially marine
areas, due to human activity and is a form of pollution.
Remedies:
1.Dispersant:
Dispersants are chemicals that when applied to oil floating on
the surface greatly increases the rate of dispersal and breakdown
of the oil. Dispersants assist the natural process where the
mechanical action of the water can break down oil into small
droplets.
These are chemicals used to separate oil and water. They can be used with
dispersants when the type of oil prevents chemical dispersion.
3.Surface cleaners
Surface cleaners are chemicals that when applied to oil covered hard surfaces
increase the rate of dispersal from the surface, aiding cleaning.
4.Bioremediation products
Bioremediation accelerates the natural degradation process through adding
nutrients, micro-organisms, or both.

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 14-01-2020

Oil Zapping:
 Oilzapper feeds on hydrocarbon compounds present in crude oil and the
 Oil Zapping is a bio-remediation technique involving the use of ‘oil zapping’ bacteria.
hazardous hydrocarbon waste generated by oil refineries, known as Oil Sludge
 The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) has developed the oil zapping bacteria. and converts them into harmless CO2 and water.

 The Oil Zapping project was supported by the Department of Biotechnology (Government  The Oilzapper is neatly packed into sterile polythene bags and sealed
of India) and the Ministry of Science and Technology. aseptically for safe transport.

 There are five different bacterial strains that are immobilized and mixed with a carrier
 The shelf life of the product is three months at ambient temperature.
material such as powdered corncob. This mixture of five bacteria is called Oil Zapper.

 One of the biggest and most frequent threats for any oil refinery
is oil sludge. There are 16 refineries in India and all create toxic
waste. Estimates suggest that about 20 000 tonnes of petroleum
sludge is generated every year. Cleaning up the mess
 At present, refineries have to construct polymer-lined pits with a
 The good news is that more than 5000 hectares of cropland
special leachate collection system to prevent the dumped sludge
from leaking into the earth and groundwater. contaminated with crude oil spills has already been reclaimed in
different parts of India and more than 26 000 tonnes of oily sludge
 A pit costs about 10 million rupees and each refinery needs successfully treated with Oilzapper. Many oil-slick contaminated
several such pits. With more refineries being set up, space is lakes in the north-eastern parts of India have also been cleaned up
always a constraint. What's more, a pit gets filled up in three to
in two years.
four years whereas with Oilzapper, one just needs 200 tonnes of
environment-friendly bacteria to clean up 20 000 tonnes of oily
waste!

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Q-1) The increasing amount of carbon dioxide

in the air is slowly raising the temperature of
the atmosphere, because it absorbs:

a) the water vapour of the air and retains its

heat
Some MCQ’s b) Infrared part of solar radiation
c) the ultraviolet part of the solar radiation
d) all the solar radiations

41 42

Q-2) Consider the following pairs.

A-b) Disease Pollutant

1) Itai-itai disease Cadmium
2) Minamata disease Mercury
3) Blue Baby Syndrome Arsenic

Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?

a) 1, 3
b) 2, 3
c) 1, 2
d) 1, 2 and 3

44

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 14-01-2020

Q-3) Which of the following are the favorable conditions

for coral reef formations?
1) Shallow continental shelf
2) High sediments in the water
3) Areas where fresh waters from rivers enter oceans
4) Mean annual temperatures should be between 22 –
A-a) 29 degree C.

Select the correct answer code:

a) 1, 2
b) 1, 3 and 4
c) 2, 3
d) 1, 4

46

A-d)

High fresh water influx and sediments are

unfavorable conditions for coral reef formations
Thank You!
Keep learning!

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Environment & Ecology

Lecture – 3.2

Lecture 3 – Pollution

Soil pollution is defined as the ‘addition of

substances to the soil, which adversely
affects physical, chemical and biological
properties of soil and reduces its

Soil Pollution productivity.

It is a build-up of persistent toxic

compounds, chemicals, salts, radioactive
materials, or disease-causing agents in
the soil which have adverse effects on
plant growth, human and animal health.

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Plastic bags
Causes of Soil Pollution
They accumulate in soil and prevents germination of
seeds. They stay in the soil for centuries without
decomposing (non-biodegradable).

Burning of plastic in garbage dumps release highly

toxic and poisonous gases like carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, phosgene, dioxins and other
Anthropogenic poisonous chlorinated compounds.
Natural Causes Causes
Toxic solid residue left after burning remains in the
soil. The harmful gases enter soils through chemical
cycles.

Pesticides and fertilisers

Industrial sources
Chlorohydrocarbons (CHCs) like DDT,
endosulfan, heptachlor accumulate in soil
They include fly ash, metallic
and cause biomagnification. Some of
residues, mercury, lead, copper,
these pesticides like DDT and endosulfan
zinc, cadmium, cyanides,
are banned by most of the countries.
chromates, acids, alkalies,
organic substances, nuclear
Excessive use of chemical fertilisers
wastes
reduces the population of soil-borne
organisms and the crumb structure of the
A large number of industrial
soil, productivity of the soil and increases
chemicals, dyes, acids, etc. find
salt content of the soil.
their way into the soil.

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 15-01-2020

Radioactive Pollution is defined as the increase in the

natural radiation levels in the environment that pose a
serious threat to humans and other life forms.
Radiation “Radioactive contamination is the deposition of or presence
Pollution of radioactive substances on surfaces or within solids, liquids
or gases (including the human body), where their presence is
unintended or undesirable.”
-International Atomic Energy Agency

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 15-01-2020

Non-ionizing radiations

 Non-ionizing radiations are constituted by the electromagnetic waves at the longer

wavelength of the spectrum ranging from near infra-red rays to radio
waves (includes higher wavelength ultraviolet rays, microwaves).
 These waves have energies enough to excite the atoms and molecules of the
medium through which they pass, causing them to vibrate faster but not strong
enough to ionise them.
 They may damage eyes which may be caused by reflections from coastal sand,
snow (snow blindness) directly looking towards the sun during an eclipse.
 They injure the cells of skin and blood capillaries producing blisters and reddening
called sunburns.
In a microwave oven, the radiation causes water molecules in the cooking medium to
vibrate faster and thus raising its temperature.

inherent problems Radiation dose

 Accidental leakage, as occurred in the Three Mile Island,
Chernobyl and Fukushima incidents and Safe disposal of
radioactive wastes.
 At high doses, nuclear radiation is lethal, but at lower doses, it
creates various disorders, the most frequent of all being cancer.
 Continued small dose exposure to nuclear radiation can
cause childhood leukaemia, miscarriage, underweight babies,
infant deaths, increased susceptibility to AIDS and other immune
disorders.
 A traditional unit of human-equivalent dose is the rem, which stands for
radiation equivalent in man.
 At low doses, such as what we receive every day from background
radiation (<1 m rem), the cells repair the damage rapidly.
 At higher doses (up to 100 rem), the cells might not be able to repair the
damage, and the cells may either be changed permanently or die.
E.g. radiation sickness.
Cells changed permanently may go on to produce abnormal cells when they
divide and may become cancerous.

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 15-01-2020

Safe Disposal of Nuclear Wastes

Radioactive wastes are of two types:

1. Low-level radioactive wastes (LLW) which include civilian

applications of radionuclides in medicine, research and industry,
materials from decommissioned reactors, protection clothing worn
by persons working with radioactive materials or working in nuclear
establishments.
2. High-level radioactive wastes (HLW) results from spent nuclear fuel
rods and obsolete nuclear weapons.

Some proposed methods of disposing nuclear waste are:

 Bury it deep underground in insulated containers. This is a strategy being

pursued in the united states.
 Shoot it into space or the sun. The cost would be very high, and a launch
accident should be disastrous.
 Bury it under the ice sheet of Antarctica or Greenland ice cap. The ice could be
destabilized by heat from the waste. The method has been prohibited by
international law.
 Dump it into deep oceans by keeping the waste into glass and steel cases. But
Solid
the containers might leak and contaminate the ocean.
 Change it into harmless or less harmful isotopes. Currently, no method is known
Waste
to do that, and the method would be too costly.
 Presently waste fuel rods are being stored in special storage ponds at reactor
sites or sent to reprocessing plants. Even though reprocessing is more expensive,
but some countries use reprocessing as an alternative to waste storage.

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 15-01-2020

Solid wastes or municipal solid

wastes generally comprise paper,
food wastes, plastics, glass,
metals, rubber, leather, textile,
etc.
Open-burning reduces the volume
of the wastes, although it is
generally not burnt to completion
and open dumps often serve as
the breeding ground for rats and
flies.

Open dumps
Open dumps refer to uncovered areas
that are used to dump solid waste of
all kinds.
The waste is untreated, uncovered,
and not segregated. It is the breeding
ground for flies, rats, and other insects
that spread disease.
The rainwater runoff from these
dumps contaminates nearby land and
water thereby spreading disease.
Landfills
It is a pit that is dug in the ground. The
garbage is dumped, and the pit is covered
with soil every day thus preventing the
breeding of flies and rats.
After the landfill is full, the area is
covered with a thick layer of mud, and
the site can thereafter be developed as a
parking lot or a park.
All types of waste are dumped in landfills,
and when water seeps through them it
gets contaminated and in turn, pollutes
the surrounding area.

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Incineration plants

The process of burning waste in large furnaces at high

temperature is known as incineration.
In these plants, the recyclable material is segregated, and
the rest of the material is burnt.
Burning garbage is not a clean process as it produces
tonnes of toxic ash and pollutes the air and water.
At present, incineration is kept as the last resort and is
used mainly for treating infectious waste.

Pyrolysis

It is a process of combustion in the absence of oxygen or the

material burnt under a controlled atmosphere of oxygen. It is
an alternative to incineration.
The gas and liquid thus obtained can be used as fuels.
Pyrolysis of carbonaceous wastes like firewood, coconut, palm
waste, corn combs, cashew shell, rice husk paddy straw and
sawdust, yields charcoal along with products like tar, methyl
alcohol, acetic acid, acetone and fuel gas.

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Composting Vermiculture

Composting is a biological process in which It is also known as earthworm

micro-organisms, mainly fungi and
bacteria, decompose degradable organic
farming. In this method,
waste into humus-like substance in the Earthworms are added to the
presence of oxygen. compost.
These worms break the waste, and
This finished product, which looks like soil, is the added excreta of the worms
high in carbon and nitrogen and is an
excellent medium for growing plants.
makes the compost very rich in
It increases the soil’s ability to hold water nutrients.
and makes the soil easier to cultivate. It
helps the soil retain more plant nutrients.

E - Waste
 The discarded and end-of-life electronic
products ranging from computers, equipment,
home appliances, audio and video products and
all of their peripherals are popularly known as
Electronic waste (E-waste).

 E-waste is not hazardous if it is stocked in safe

storage or recycled by scientific methods or
transported from one place to the other in parts
or totality in the formal sector.
The e-waste can, however, be considered
hazardous if recycled by primitive methods.

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Solar Waste

9

Solar modules use potentially hazardous
materials, including lead compounds,
polymers and cadmium compounds. If
disposed of in an inappropriate way, potential
leaching of those hazardous materials can
have negative environmental and health
impacts.
For instance, leaching of lead has huge
environmental impact including loss in
biodiversity, decreased growth and
reproductive rates in plants and animals, and
several other health hazards like adverse
impact on kidney function, nervous, immune,
reproductive and cardiovascular systems.
Basel Convention
The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary
Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal was
created to protect people and the environment from the
negative effects of the inappropriate management of
hazardous wastes worldwide.
It is the most comprehensive global treaty dealing with
hazardous waste materials throughout their lifecycles,
from production and transport to final use and disposal.
15-01-2020
BRS Conventions
The Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm (BRS) Conventions are
multilateral environmental agreements, which share the common
objective of protecting human health and the environment from
hazardous chemicals and wastes.
 The 14th meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP-2019) to Basel
Convention (COP 14) was held along with the 9th meeting of the COP to
Rotterdam Convention and the 9th meeting of the COP to Stockholm
Convention in Geneva, Switzerland.
Theme: “Clean Planet, Healthy People: Sound Management of Chemicals and
Waste”.
Rotterdam Convention
The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior
Informed Consent Procedure for certain
hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in
international trade provides Parties with a first
line of defence against hazardous chemicals.
It promotes international efforts to protect
human health and the environment as well as
enabling countries to decide if they want to
import hazardous chemicals and pesticides listed
in the Convention.
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 15-01-2020

Stockholm Convention Outcomes of the recent meeting:

 In Basel Convention on Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous
The Stockholm Convention on Wastes and their Disposal, two important issues were mainly discussed and
Persistent Organic Pollutants decided i.e. technical guidelines on e-waste and inclusion of plastic waste in
is a global treaty to protect Prior Informed Consent (PIC) procedure.
human health and the  In Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP), COP decided
environment from highly to list “Dicofol” in Annex A (Elimination) without any exemption. The “PFOA”,
dangerous, long-lasting (Perfluorooctanoic acid) was also listed with some exemptions in Annex A of
chemicals by restricting and Stockholm Convention.
ultimately eliminating their  In Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain
production, use, trade, release Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade, two new chemicals
and storage. named Phorate and HBCD (hexabromocyclododecane) were added in list for
mandatory Prior Informed Consent (PIC) procedure in international trade.

Thank You!
Keep learning!

11
 19-01-2020

Topics covered:-
1) Some Previous year’s questions (2016)
2) Types of biodiversity
3) Causes of biodiversity loss – climate
change, invasive species, habitat
change etc.
4) Marine, animal and plant biodiversity.
5) Protection networks – wildlife
sanctuary, national park and bio
Lecture 4 and 5 – Biodiversity and 6)
reserves.
Biodiversity hot spots – India and

Conservation world, criticism against hotspots.

Topics covered:-
7) Bioprospecting and biopiracy issues.
8) International conservation initiatives
and India – cartanega and Nagoya
protocol.
9) Laws and policies – India and world,
convention on biodiversity, Aichi
targets,
10) Biodiversity act, 2002.
11) Some current affairs.
Some questions
12) Some practice MCQ’s.
from 2016 UPSC
Prelims
4

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 19-01-2020

Q-1) Net metering' is sometimes seen in the news in

the context of promoting the

a) production and use of solar energy by the

A-a)
households/consumers
b) use of piped natural gas in the kitchens of Net metering solar rooftop
households
c) installation of CNG kits in motor- cars
d) installation of water meters in urban households

Q-2) Proper design and effective implementation of

UN-REDD+ Programme can significantly contribute
to A-d)

1) Protection of biodiversity  Reduction of forest loss plus

2) Resilience of forest ecosystems their rejuvenation.
3) Poverty reduction

Select the correct answer using the code given below  Poor get livelihood from forest
a) 1 and 2 only produce – helps in poverty
b) 3 Only reduction.
c) 2 and 3 only
7
d) 1, 2 and 3

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 19-01-2020

Q-3) Which of the following is/are the advantage

/advantages of practising drip irrigation?
1. Reduction in weed
2. Reduction in soil salinity
3. Reduction in soil erosion A-c)
 Drip irrigation reduces soil erosion as water is
Select the correct answer using the code given below:- delivered directly to plant roots at a very slow
(a) 1 and 2 only rate.
(b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only  In drip irrigation, water is applied directly to the
(d) None of the above is an advantage of practising drip roots, and not to the entirely field means
irrigation excluding the land scape between plants where
weeds usually grow so, weed growth is reduced.
9

Q-4) With reference to 'Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima

Yojana', consider the following statements:
1. Under this scheme, farmers will have to pay a
uniform premium of two percent for any crop they A-B)
cultivate in any season of the year.
2. This scheme covers post-harvest losses arising out of
cyclones and unseasonal rains.
 Farmers' premium is
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? different for different
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only crops.
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

11

3
 19-01-2020

Q-5) With reference to 'Initiative for Nutritional Security through

Intensive Millets Promotion', which of the following statements
is/are correct?
1. This initiative aims to demonstrate the improved production and
post harvest technologies, and to demonstrate value addition
techniques, in an integrated manner, with cluster approach.
2. Poor, small, marginal and tribal farmers have larger stake in this A-c)
scheme. It was launched under the Rashtriya
3. An important objective of the scheme is to encourage farmers of
commercial crops to shift to millet cultivation by offering them Krishi Vikas Yojana in 2011-12 for
free kits of critical inputs of nutrients and micro-irrigation promotion of millets as Nutri-cereals.
equipment.

Select the correct answer using the code given below. It does not include micro-irrigation
(a) 1 only equipments.
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 2 only
13 (d) 1, 2 and 3

 Biodiversity can be defined as a community of all

the living organisms on the earth and the diversity
among them from all the ecosystems. Biodiversity
is thus the variability between the species, within
the species and between the ecosystem. Types of Biodiversity
 Biodiversity can be categorised into
 The term biodiversity was coined by Walter G.
Rosen in the year 1986. three main types:
 Genetic Diversity (Diversity within
 Biodiversity holds ecological and economic
significance. It provides us with nourishment, species)
housing, fuel, clothing and several other  Species Diversity (Diversity between
resources. It also extracts monetary benefits
through tourism. Therefore, it is very important to species)
have a good knowledge of biodiversity for a  Ecosystem Diversity (Diversity
sustainable livelihood
between ecosystem)

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 19-01-2020

1. Genetic Diversity 2. Species Diversity

 Species diversity can be defined as the variety of species within a particular region or
 Every individual of a particular species differs from
habitat. This type of diversity can be found in both the natural ecosystem and
each other in its genetic makeup.
agricultural ecosystem.
 This genetic variability among the members of any
 There are more than 85,000 flowering plant species in tropical North and South America,
plant or animal species is known as genetic
tropical and subtropical Asia has more than 50,000 flowering plants whereas, there are
diversity.
only 35,000 flowering plant species in tropical and subtropical Africa. But, Europe has
 When two individuals are closely related, they
around 11,300 vascular plants. Also, other areas, such as salt flats or a polluted stream,
share more genetic information among each other
have fewer species.
and hence, are more similar.

Difference between Species Richness and Species

Species Evenness Evenness

 It shows the proportion of species at a  Species richness shows how many species belonging
given site. It shows relative to a particular area, while species evenness is
abundance of species in a region i.e. if comparing the no. of individuals across different
there is low evenness it means few species.
species dominate the site.
 For example, if there are many individuals of a
 Mathematically, Species evenness is species x while very less individual of another
measured with the help of diversity species y then the species evenness will be low since
Index. species from both x and y are not equally
represented in the population.

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3. Ecosystem Diversity

 There are a large diversity of different ecosystems Biodiversity

which have their own distinctive species. This Protection:
ecosystem varies with each other as per their
habitats and the difference in their species. This
ecosystem diversity can be found within a specific
geographical region or within a country or a state. Steps Taken By
This type of diversity also includes forests,
grasslands, deserts and mountains.
Indian
Government

 The Central Government has enacted
the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972.
The Act, inter alia, provides for the
creation of Protected Areas for the
protection of wildlife and also provides
for punishment for hunting of specified
fauna specified in the schedules I to IV
thereof.
 The Centrally Sponsored Scheme of National Plan for
Conservation of Aquatic Eco-System also provides assistance to
the States for the management of wetlands including Ramsar
sites in the country.
 Wildlife Crime Control Bureau has been established for control
of illegal trade in wildlife, including endangered species.

 Wetland (Conservation and  Wildlife Institute of India, Bombay Natural History society and
Management) Rules 2010 have Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History are some of
been framed for the protection the research organisations undertaking research on
of wetlands, in the States. conservation of wildlife.

6

 The Centrally Sponsored Scheme ‘Integrated Development of Wildlife
 The Indian Government has banned
the veterinary use of diclofenac drug
that has caused the rapid
population decline of Gyps vulture
across the Indian Subcontinent.
Conservation Breeding Programmes
to conserve these vulture species
have been initiated at Pinjore
(Haryana), Buxa (West Bengal) and
Rani, Guwahati (Assam) by the
Bombay Natural History Society.
 Under the ‘Recovery of Endangered Species’ component of the
Centrally Sponsored Scheme ‘Integrated Development of
Wildlife Habitats’ for the recovery of endangered species
viz. Hangul in Jammu and Kashmir, Snow Leopard in Jammu and
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Arunachal
Pradesh, Vulture in Punjab, Haryana and Gujarat, Swiftlet in
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Nilgiri Tahr in Tamil Nadu, Sangai
Deer in Manipur, the government has to spend lakhs of rupees.
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Habitats‘ has been modified by including a new component namely
‘Recovery of Endangered Species‘ and 16 species have been
identified for recovery viz. Snow Leopard, Bustard (including
Floricans), Dolphin, Hangul, Nilgiri Tahr, Marine Turtles, Dugong,
Edible Nest Swiftlet, Asian Wild Buffalo, Nicobar Megapode, Manipur
Brow-antlered Deer, Vultures, Malabar Civet, Indian Rhinoceros,
Asiatic Lion, Swamp Deer and Jerdon’s Courser.
 Protected Areas, viz, National Parks, Sanctuaries, Conservation
Reserves and Community Reserves all over the country covering
the important habitats have been created as per the provisions of
the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 to provide better protection to
wildlife, including threatened species and their habitat.
 The State Governments have been requested to strengthen the
field formations and intensify patrolling in and around the
Protected Areas.
7

 Financial and technical assistance is extended to the State
Governments under various Centrally Sponsored Schemes, viz,
‘Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats’, ‘Project Tiger’ and
‘Project Elephant’ for providing better protection and
conservation to wildlife.
 The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) has been empowered
under the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 to apprehend and
prosecute wildlife offenders.
Habitat loss and fragmentation
 This is the most important cause of driving animals and
plants to extinction.
 Due to the growing human population, wetlands are
being made dry through landfills, as the demand for
land increases.
 Natural forests are cleared for industry, agriculture,
dams, habitation, recreational sports, etc.
 The most dramatic examples of habitat loss come from
tropical rain forests.
 Once covering more than 14 per cent of the earth’s land
surface, these rain forests now cover no more than 6 per
cent. They are being destroyed fast.
31
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Loss of Biodiversity
 The IUCN Red List (2004) documents the extinction of 784 species in the last 500
years0. Some examples of recent extinctions include the three subspecies (Bali,
Javan, Caspian) of tiger.
 During the long period (> 3 billion years) since the origin and diversification of life
on earth, there were five episodes of mass extinction of species.
 Sixth Extinction (anthropogenic) presently is in progress with current species
extinction rates estimated to be 100 to 1,000 times faster than in the pre-human
times.
 Ecologists warn that if the present trends continue, nearly half of all the species on
earth might be wiped out within the next 100 years.
Culling of animals – Conservation or Biodiversity loss?
Natural culling
 Culling means ‘Selection’.
 In the wild, it is the process of weeding out of the weak.
 A population boom makes individuals compete for food and
safety, and the weaker ones lose out, leaving a smaller
population of more able individuals.
 Culling naturally occurs by starvation, disease and predation.
It is nature’s way of controlling population
8

Culling by humans – controlled culling
In the post-conservation era, human
intervention became necessary for the
management of wildlife populations
through controlled hunting, which is now
referred to as culling.
The practice of Culling worldwide
 In the US, some areas require seasonal
culling to ease pressure on livestock
feed.
 In parts of Africa, culling has been
used for commercial harvesting.
 Australia culls feral cats to protect
native species.
35
 Australia also culls kangaroos.
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Why did controlled culling become necessary?
 Man-Animal conflict – too many wild animals compete with
humans for resources.
 Threat to life and livelihood (crop, property damage) makes
culling necessary.
 Loss of forestland to mines, industry, agriculture, etc. is the
primary reason behind the man-animal conflict.
 Crop-raiding by smaller herbivores due to a population boom
& animals raiding nutrient-rich crops like wheat and maize are
other major reasons for man-animal conflict.
Over-exploitation
 Humans have always depended on nature for food
and shelter, but when ‘need’ turns to ‘greed’, it
leads to over-exploitation of natural resources.
 In the last 500 years, many species extinctions
(Steller’s sea cow, passenger pigeon) were due to
overexploitation by humans.
 Presently many marine fish populations around the
world are over-harvested, endangering the
continued existence of some commercially
important species.
9

 Whales for oil, fish for food, trees for wood, plants for medicines
etc. are being removed by humans at higher rates than they can
be replaced.
 Excessive cutting of trees, overgrazing, collection of firewood,
hunting of wild animals for skin (for example tigers from reserve
forests of India), ivory etc. all result in gradual loss of species.
Poaching
 Large mammals such as the tiger, rhinoceros and the elephant
once faced the distinct possibility of complete extinction due to
rampant hunting and poaching.
 Global warming (Climate change), natural calamities are other
reasons for loss of biodiversity.
 The recent illegal introduction of the African
catfish Clarias gariepinus for aquaculture
purposes is posing a threat to the
indigenous catfishes in our rivers.
 The colonization of tropical Pacific Islands
by humans is said to have led to the
extinction of more than 2,000 species of
native birds.
Some Invasive fauna in India are:
 Eucalyptus in Southern India.
 Gold Fish
 House Gecko
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Alien species invasions
 When alien species are introduced unintentionally or
deliberately for whatever purpose, some of them turn
invasive and cause decline or extinction of indigenous
species.
 The Nile perch introduced into Lake Victoria in East
Africa led eventually to the extinction of an ecologically
unique assemblage of more than 200 species of cichlid
fish in the lake.
 You must be familiar with the environmental damage
caused and threat posed to our native species by
invasive weed species like carrot grass (Parthenium),
Argemone, Lantana and water hyacinth (Eicchornia).
38
Species Extinction
Extinction is caused through various processes:
 Deterministic processes that have a cause and effect. E.g.
glaciations, human interference such as deforestation.
 Stochastic processes (chance and random events) that affect the
survival and reproduction of individuals. E.g. unexpected changes
in weather patterns decreased food supply, disease, increase of
competitors, predators or parasites, etc. that may act
independently or add to deterministic effects.
 The impact of these processes will, of course, depend on the size
and degree of genetic diversity and resilience of populations.
10

Coastal and
marine
ecosystems
Marine biodiversity
 Marine biodiversity includes these wide ranges of
ecosystems from coastal areas to the deep sea.
 Being one of the 17 Mega-diverse countries, India
represents 4 hotspots among the 32 biodiversity
hotspots of the world.
 The geographical location of India between the
Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn is among the most
important reasons for the enormous biological
diversity and supports them in accordance with
conductive climatic factors.
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Coastal and marine ecosystems are
found in 123 countries around the world.
The marine habitats include a wide
range of ecosystems such as the shallow
coral reef ecosystem, mesophotic reef
ecosystem, soft sediment ocean floor
ecosystem to coastal estuarine
ecosystem, saline wetland ecosystem,
mangrove ecosystem, gulf waters,
creeks, tidal flats, deltaic plains etc.
MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM
 Mangrove ecosystems occur mostly in the inter-
tidal region between mean sea level to the
highest spring tide in the tropical and
subtropical regions of the world.
 India’s mangrove cover is sporadic with a total
area covering 4,627.63 sq. km. among 12
maritime states and union territories.
 The highest species diversity is recorded from
Odisha with a total of 101 species while Gujarat
harbors 40 species.
11

SEAGRASS ECOSYSTEMS
 Seagrasses are commonly known as the flowering group of
plants.
 The ecological contribution of this ecosystem towards niche
maintenance is remarkable in coastal waters situated at the
continental shelf region.
 It increases the complexity of life and provides a healthy place
to live for a wide range of species.
 It provides the basic strata for all the dwelling organisms as a
nursery ground for reproduction, pre and post larval
settlement as well as protection for those animals against
oceanic currents and sedimentation.
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SEAWEED ECOSYSTEMS
 Seaweeds are the marine macro algae under 3 phyla or
divisions, namely, Brown Algae i.e., Phaeophyta, Red Algae
i.e.,Rhodophyta and Green Algae i.e., Chlorophyta.
 Most of the importance of seaweed is derived from its delicacy
and being adopted by coastal dwellers in several counties for
consumption as food. They are a good source of nutrients and
are used as fertilizer for agricultural purposes.
 Seaweeds contain plenty of minerals which can be extracted to
meet the necessary requirements.
 The therapeutic applications of seaweeds cover a wide range
where these are used for the purposes of treatment.
CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEMS
 Coral reefs are among the most ecologically fragile
environments of the globe.
 These biological organisms are abundant and very common in
marine environments, and have been known to natural
historians for millennia.
 Despite covering less than 0.2 per cent of the total area of
oceans, coral reefs are noted for some of the highest levels of
biodiversity on Earth and house 25 per cent of all marine
creatures.
 It has been estimated that about 1-9 million species live on
coral reefs.
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 19-01-2020

 The coral reef ecosystem contributes various services such as

THREATS TO COASTAL AND MARINE ECOSYSTEMS
biological, ecological, physiological services and economic
services for the sustainable development as well as protection of
the marine and coastal habitats. India represents a total 57.10 NATURAL: Storms and wave energies may be seen as typhoons,
sq. km. of coral cover. quakes, and tsunamis. These are natural catastrophic events which
may lead to the destruction of marine biodiversity.

 The major reef areas of India are the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay, Lakshadweep and
Gujarat while small patches of reef have also been recorded
from Gopalpur-on-Sea, Kerala, Netrani Island of Karnataka,
Goa and Malvan coast. Most of the marine faunal communities
are recorded from the reef habitats of India.
ANTHROPOGENIC: Sedimentation from developmental activities,
eutrophication from sewage and agriculture, physical impact of
maritime activities, dredging, destructive fishing practices,
pollution from industrial sources, climate change, introduction of
invasive species, UV- radiation, carbonate mineral saturation,
habitat alteration, unregulated tourism, chemical stress, oil spills,
anchoring and bacterial effects.

LEGISLATION
 WILDLIFE (PROTECTION) ACT, 1972: Provides protection to a wide number of
animals against collection.

 ENVIRONMENTAL (PROTECTION) ACT, 1986: Prohibits use of any parts of

selected marine faunal communities against construction and other purposes.

 COASTAL REGULATION ZONE NOTIFICATION, 1991: Regulates onshore Wildlife

development activities to protect coastal environments.
Diversity of
 CITES: Restricts the trade of threatened marine fauna in order to avoid
unsustainable utilization under Appendix II.
India
 UNCLOS, MARPOL, and the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic
Pollutants: Regulation of marine pollution.

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Himalayan mountain system
 The west Himalayas have low rainfall, heavy
snowfall (temperate conditions).
 In the east Himalayas, there is heavy rainfall,
snowfall only at very high altitudes.
 Lower altitudes conditions are similar to the
tropical rain forests.
Himalayan foothills
 Flora: Natural monsoon evergreen and semi-
evergreen forests; dominant species are sal,
silk-cotton trees, giant bamboos; tall grassy
meadow with savannahs in terai.
 Fauna: Elephant, sambar, swamp deer,
cheetal, hog deer, barking deer, wild boar
tiger, panther, hyena, black bear, sloth bear,
Great Indian one-horned rhinoceros, wild
buffalo, Gangetic gharial, golden langur.
Eastern Himalayas
 Flora: Oaks, magnolias, laurels and birches covered with moss and ferns;
coniferous forests of pine, fir, yew and junipers with an undergrowth of
scrubby rhododendrons and dwarf bamboos; lichens, mosses, orchids, and other
epiphytes dominant (due to high humidity and high rainfall).
 Fauna: Red panda, hog badgers, forest badgers, crestless porcupines, takins etc.
Peninsular – Indian sub-region
 It has two zones.
 peninsular India and its extension into the drainage basin of the Ganges river
system, and
 desert region of Rajasthan-the Thar of Indian desert region.
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Western Himalayas (High altitude region)
 Flora: Natural monsoon evergreen and semi-evergreen forests; rhododendrons;
dwarf hill bamboo and birch forests mixed with alpine pastures.
 Fauna: Tibetan wild ass (kiang) (Don’t confuse this with Asiatic wild ass which in
found in Kutch region), wild goats (thar, ibex) and blue sheep; antelopes (Chiru
and Tibetan gazelle), deers (hangul of Kashmir stag and shou or Sikkim stag,
musk deer); golden eagle, snow cocks, snow partridges; snow leopard, black and
brown bears; birds like Griffon vultures.
Peninsular India
 It is home to tropical moist deciduous to tropical dry deciduous and scrub vegetation
depending upon the variation in rainfall and humidity.
 Flora: Sal in north and east extensions (higher rainfall) and teak in southern plateau are
dominant trees.
 West Ghats have evergreen vegetation (flora and fauna similar to evergreen rainforests of
northeastern of India. In dry areas of Rajasthan and Aravalli hills, trees are scattered, and
thorny scrub species predominate. The forests give way to more open savannah habit.
 Fauna: Elephant, wild boar, deers (cheetal or axis deer), hog deer swamp deer or
barasinga, sambar, muntjak or barking deer, antelopes (four-horned antelope, Nilgiri,
blackbuck, chinkara gazelle), wild dog or dhole, tiger, leopard, cheetah, lion, wild pig,
monkey, striped hyena, jackal, gaur.
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 19-01-2020

Indian desert
 Thar desert of Rajasthan has unique flora and
fauna.
 Flora: Thorny trees with reduced leaves; cacti,
other succulents are the main plants.
 Fauna: Animals are mostly burrowing ones.
Among mammals’ rodents are the largest
group.
 The Indian desert gerbils are mouse-like,
rodents, other animals are, Asiatic wild ass,
black buck, desert cat, caracal, red fox; reptiles
(snakes, lizards and tortoise) well represented.
 Desert lizards include agamids and geckos.
Among birds, the most discussed is Great
Indian Bustard.
Tropical rain forest region
 Distributed in areas of Western Ghats and northeast India.
 Flora: Extensive grasslands interspersed with densely forested
gorges of evergreen vegetation known as sholas occur in the
Nilgiris (an offshoot of Western Ghats). Sholas also occur in
Annamalai and Palani hills.
 The rain forests of the Western Ghats have dense and lofty trees
with much species diversity. Mosses, ferns, epiphytes, orchids,
lianas and vines, herbs, shrubs make diverse habitat. Ebony trees
predominate in these forests.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

 Flora: These are home for tropical rain
forests. Mangroves are distributed in the
coastal areas.
Tropical rain forest region  Fauna: Among mammals, bats and rats;
 Fauna: It is very rich with all kinds of animals. There are wild elephants, gaur Andaman pig, crab-eating macaque, palm
civet and deers (spotted deer, barking deer,
and other larger animals.
hog deer, sambar).
 Among marine mammals, there are dugong,
 Most species are tree dwellers. The most prominent are hoolock gibbon (only false killer whale, dolphin.
ape found in India), golden langur, capped langur or leaf monkey, Assam  Among birds are rare one is Narcondum
macaque and the pig-tailed macaque, lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri langur hornbill, white-bellied sea-eagle.
slender loris, bats, giant squirrel, civets, flying squirrels, Nilgiri mongoose,  Salt-water crocodile, a number of marine
spiny mouse. turtles, coconut crab, lizards (the largest
being water monitor), 40 species of snakes
including cobra, viper, voral and sea snake,
python, etc. are present.

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Mangrove swamps of Sundarbans

 Sunderbans are the delta of the Ganges where
both the Brahmaputra and the Ganges join and
drain into the Bay of Bengal.
PLANT
 Flora: Various species of mangroves.
DIVERSITY IN
 Fauna. In the higher regions of mangroves,
there are spotted deer, pigs, monitor lizard,
INDIA
monkeys. The most interesting animal of
Sunderbans is the Royal Bengal Tiger.

PLANT CLASSIFICATION

1) Herb is defined as a plant whose stem is always green and tender with height. of not more
than 1 meter.
2) Shrub is defined as a woody perennial plant differing fron a perennial herb in its persistent
and woody stem. It differs from a tree in its low stature its habit of branching from the
base. Not more than 6 meters in height.
3) Tree is defined as a large woody perennial plant having a single well defined stem with
more or less definite crown.
4) Parasites · An organism that draws a part or whole of its nourishment from another living
organism. These plants do not draw moisture and mineral nutrients from the soil. They
grow on some living plant called host and penetrate their sucking roots, called haustoria,
into the host plants.

16

5. Epiphytes - plant growing on the host plant but not nourished by the host plant. They do
not draw food from the host plant. They only take the help of the host plant in getting
access to light. Eg. Vanda
6. Climbers -herbaceous or woody plant that climbs up trees or other support by twining
round them or by holding on to them by trendrills, hooks, aerial roots or other attachments
Effect of intensity of light on growth of plant
Extremely high intensity favours root growth than shoot growth, which results in increased
transpiration, short stem, smaller & thicker leaves; on the other hand, low intensity of light
retards growth, flowering & fruiting of the plant.
 The light that is absorbed the best is blue, so this shows the highest rate of
photosynthesis, after which comes red light.
 Green light cannot be absorbed by the plant, and thus cannot be used for
photosynthesis. Chlorophyll looks green because it absorbs red and blue light,
making these colours unavailable to be seen by our eyes.
 It is the green light which is not absorbed that finally reaches our eyes, making
the chlorophyll appear green.
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 When the intensity of light is less than the minimum, plant ceases to grow due to
accumulation of CO2 & finally dies.
 Out of 7 colours in visible light only (Blue > Red > Violet) are effective in photosynthesis
 Plants grown in Blue light are small (More roots, Smaller stem), Plants grown in red light
are etiolated (Pale & elongated) & Plants grown in UV & violet light are dwarf.
 Colour of light plays an important role during photosynthesis. Plants use only certain
colours from light for the process of photosynthesis.
 The chlorophyll absorbs blue, red and violet light rays. Photosynthesis occurs more in
blue and red light rays and less, or not at all, in green light rays.
 Plants give out carbon dioxide not only at night but during the day
too.
 It happens because of the process of respiration in which plants
take in oxygen and give out carbon dioxide.
 As soon as the sun rises another process called photosynthesis
starts, in which carbon dioxide is taken in and oxygen is given out.
 Thus, the proportion of oxygen becomes greater in comparison to
carbon dioxide in the lower atmosphere
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 19-01-2020

Effects of snow on plants

Effect of frost on plants
 Snow acts as blanket ,
 Water in the intercellular spaces of the prevent further drop in
plant gets frozen into ice which withdraws temperature & protects
water from interior of the cells. This results seedlings from excessive
in increasing concentration of salts & cold & frost
dehydration of cells, Thus, coagulation &
precipitation of the cell colloid result in  Results in mechanical
death of the plant bending of tree stem &
shortens the period of
vegetative growth.

Effect of temperature on plants

 Excess high temperature results in death of the plant due

to coagulation of protoplasmic protein.
 High temperature disturbs the balance between
respiration & photosynthesis, thereby causing depletion of
food, resulting in greater susceptibility to bacterial &
fungal attack
 It also results in desiccation of plant tissues & depletion of
moisture

18

INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS
 These plants are specialized in trapping
insects and are popularly known as
insectivorous plants.
 They are very different from normal plants
in their mode of nutrition. They, however,
never prey upon humans or large animals.
 Insectivorous plants can broadly be divided
into active and passive types based on their
method of trapping their prey.
 The active ones can close their leaf traps
the moment insects land on them.
 The passive plants have a ‘pitfall’
mechanism, having some kind of jar or
pitcher-like structure into which the insect
slips and falls, to eventually be digested.
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The insectivorous plants often have several attractions such as brilliant colors, sweet
secretions and other curios to lure their innocent victims.
Why do they hunt despite having normal roots and photosynthetic leaves?
 These plants are usually associated with rain-washed, nutrient-poor soils, or wet and
acidic areas that are ill-drained.
 Such wetlands are acidic due to anaerobic conditions, which cause partial
decomposition of organic matter releasing acidic compounds into the surroundings.
 As a result, most microorganisms necessary for complete decomposition of organic
matter cannot survive in such poorly oxygenated conditions.
 Normal plants find it difficult to survive in such nutrient poor habitats. The hunter
plants are successful in such places because they supplement their photosynthetic food
production by trapping insects and digesting their nitrogen rich bodies.
19

Convention on
Biodiversity CBD:
Prologue to Cartagena,
Nagoya, Aichi
1 2
Convention on Biodiversity CBD: Prologue to Cartagena, Nagoya, Aichi
 In the late 80s, the UNEP members decided we should have some sort of
international agreement to protect biodiversity.
 They worked on a draft Agreement. (Nairobi Conference)
 In 1992, when Earth Summit was held in Rio, Brazil, these UNEP people put that
draft-agreement on the table, and requested various countries to sign it.
 This signed international agreement is known as “Convention on Biodiversity.”
(Official name =Convention on Biological Diversity)
 Convention on Biodiversity is the brainchild of United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) Headquarter is Montreal, Canada. It works under UNEP.
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Background
 The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), a legally binding treaty to conserve
biodiversity has been in force since 1993. It has 3 main objectives:
1. The conservation of biological diversity.
2. The sustainable use of the components of biological diversity.
3. The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic
resources.
 Nearly all countries have ratified it (notably, the US has signed but not ratified). The CBD
Secretariat is based in Montreal, Canada and it operates under the United Nations
Environment Programme. The Parties (Countries) under Convention of Biodiversity (CBD),
meet at regular interval and these meetings are called Conference of Parties (COP).
1

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on
Biological Diversity is an international treaty governing the
movements of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from
modern biotechnology from one country to another. It was
adopted in 2000 as a supplementary agreement to the
Convention on Biological Diversity and entered into force in 2003.
What are Living modified organisms (LMOs)?
The protocol defines a ‘living modified organism’ as any living
organism that possesses a novel combination of genetic material
obtained through the use of modern biotechnology, and ‘living
organism’ means any biological entity capable of transferring or
replicating genetic material, including sterile organisms, viruses
and viroids.
 ‘Living modified organism (LMO) Products’: are
defined as processed material that are of living
modified organism origin, containing
detectable novel combinations of replicable
genetic material obtained through the use of
modern biotechnology (for instance, flour from
GM maize).
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 Modern biotechnology’: is defined in the
Protocol to mean the application of in vitro
nucleic acid techniques, or fusion of cells
beyond the taxonomic family, that overcome
natural physiological reproductive or
recombination barriers and are not
techniques used in traditional breeding and
selection.
 ‘Living modified organism intended for direct
use as food or feed, or for processing (LMO-
FFP)’: are agricultural commodities from GM
crops. Overall the term ‘living modified
organisms’ is equivalent to genetically modified
organism – the Protocol did not make any
distinction between these terms and did not
use the term ‘genetically modified organism.’
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 20-01-2020

Nagoya Protocol
 The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the
Application
Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their
 The Protocol applies to the transboundary movement, transit, handling and use
Utilization (ABS) to the Convention on Biological Diversity
of all living modified organisms that may have adverse effects on the
(CBD) is a supplementary agreement to the Convention on
conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, taking also into account
Biological Diversity.
risks to human health.
 It provides a transparent legal framework for the effective
Relationship with the WTO
implementation of one of the three objectives of the CBD: the
 A number of agreements under the World Trade Organization (WTO), such as
fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the
the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS
utilization of genetic resources.
Agreement) and the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT Agreement),
and the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property
 The Nagoya Protocol on ABS was adopted on 29 October 2010
Rights (TRIPs), contain provisions that are relevant to the Protocol.
in Nagoya, Japan and entered into force on 12 October 2014.

 Its objective is the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization
of genetic resources, thereby contributing to the conservation and sustainable use A range of tools and mechanisms provided
of biodiversity. by the Nagoya Protocol will assist
contracting Parties including:
 The Nagoya Protocol applies to genetic resources that are covered by the CBD,
and to the benefits arising from their utilization.
 Establishing national focal points
 The Nagoya Protocol also covers traditional knowledge (TK) associated with (NFPs) and competent national
genetic resources that are covered by the CBD and the benefits arising from its authorities (CNAs) to serve as contact
utilization. points for information, grant access or
cooperate on issues of compliance.
 The Nagoya Protocol’s success will require effective implementation at the
domestic level.

12

3

 An Access and Benefit-sharing Clearing-House to
share information, such as domestic regulatory
ABS requirements or information on NFPs and
CNAs
 Capacity-building to support key aspects of
implementation. Based on a country’s self-
assessment of national needs and priorities, this
can include capacity to
 Develop domestic ABS legislation to
implement the Nagoya Protocol
 Negotiate mutually agreed terms (MAT)
 Develop in-country research capability and
institutions
13
Aichi Biodiversity Targets
 The 'Aichi Targets was adopted at the Nagoya conference of the
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). In the conference of parties
(COP-10), the parties agreed to come up with new plans and targets
as the previous targets on biodiversity protection were not achieved.
 The short-term plan which consists of 20 ambitious targets is
collectively known as Aichi targets.
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 Awareness-raising
 Technology Transfer
 Targeted financial support for capacity-
building and development initiatives
through the Nagoya Protocol’s financial
mechanism, the Global Environment
Facility (GEF)
14
The Aichi Biodiversity Targets are:
 Strategic Goal A: Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss
by mainstreaming biodiversity across government and society
 Strategic Goal B: Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and
promote sustainable use.
 Strategic Goal C: To improve the status of biodiversity by
safeguarding ecosystems, species and genetic diversity
 Strategic Goal D: Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and
ecosystem services
 Strategic Goal E: Enhance implementation through participatory
planning, knowledge management and capacity building.
India enacted Biological Diversity Act in 2002 for giving effect to the
provisions of the CBD. The National Biodiversity Authority is a statutory
body, which was established by the Central Government in 2003 to
implement India’s Biological Diversity Act (2002).
4
 20-01-2020

 It performs facilitative, regulatory and advisory

functions for the Government of India on issues of
conservation, sustainable use of biological resources
and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out
of the use of biological resources.

 The NBA is headquartered in Chennai, Tamil Nadu.

 International Biological Diversity Day is observed on

22 May. Theme for 2018: "Celebrating 25 Years of
Action for Biodiversity".

 United Nations General Assembly had declared the

period 2011-2020 to be the “United Nations Decade
on Biodiversity”.

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 22-01-2020

Topics covered:-
1) Some Previous year’s questions
(2016)
2) Wetlands
Lecture 6 and 7 – General issues on 3)
4)
Ramsar sites in detail.
Practice MCQs.

Environment and Ecology

Q1) With reference to 'Red Sanders', sometimes seen in

the news, consider the following statements:
1. It is a tree species found in a part of South India.
2. It is one of the most important trees in the tropical
rain forest areas of South India.

Some questions Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

from 2016 UPSC (b) 2 only

(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Prelims
3 4

1
 22-01-2020

A-a)
Q2) Recently, for the first time in our country,
Red Sanders is associated with
which of the following States has declared a
Tropical dry deciduous forest,
particular butterfly as 'State Butterfly'?
generally found at altitudes of 150-
900 m.
(a) Arunachal Pradesh
(b) Himachal Pradesh
(c) Karnataka
(d) Maharashtra

Q3) Recently, our scientists have discovered a

new and distinct species of banana plant which
A-d) attains a height of about 11 metres and has
orange- coloured fruit pulp. In which part of
Maharashtra government India has it been discovered?
has declared the Blue (a) Andaman Islands
Mormon as the State (b) Anaimalai Forests
butterfly. (c) Maikala Hills
(d) Tropical rain forests of northeast

2
 22-01-2020

A-a) Q4) What is/are unique about 'Kharai camel', a

Scientists at the botanical survey of breed found in India?
India (BSI) have discovered a new 1. It is capable of swimming up to three kilometres
species of banana from a remote in seawater.
tropical rain forests on the little
2. It survives by grazing on mangroves.
Andaman islands. Musa
3. It lives in the wild and cannot be domesticated.
indandamanesis, a sweet of banana
with orange pulp.
Select the correct answer using the code given
below.
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
10
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Q5) In the cities of our country, which among the following

atmospheric gases are normally considered in calculating
the value of Air Quality Index?
A-a) 1. Carbon dioxide
2. Carbon monoxide
They are domesticated and don't 3. Nitrogen dioxide
live in the wild. They can swim up 4. Sulfur dioxide
to three kilo meters into the sea in 5. Methane
search of mangroves.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 1, 4 and 5 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
12

3

A-b)
Types
Wetlands take many forms
including:
Coastal Wetlands: Coastal wetlands
are found in the areas between
land and open sea that are not
influenced by rivers such as
shorelines, beaches, mangroves and
coral reefs. A good example is the
mangrove swamps found in
sheltered tropical coastal areas.
22-01-2020
 Wetlands are areas where water is
the primary factor controlling the
environment and the associated plant
and animal life. They occur where the
water table is at or near the surface
of the land, or where the land is
covered by water.
 Wetlands are defined as: "lands
transitional between terrestrial and
aquatic eco-systems where the water
table is usually at or near the surface
or the land is covered by shallow
water".
Types
Shallow lakes and ponds: These wetlands are areas of
permanent or semi-permanent water with little flow.
They include vernal ponds, spring pools, salt lakes and
volcanic crater lakes.
Marshes: These are periodically saturated, flooded, or
ponded with water and characterized by herbaceous
(non-woody) vegetation adapted to wet soil conditions.
Marshes are further characterized as tidal marshes and
non-tidal marshes.
Swamps: These are fed primarily by surface water inputs
and are dominated by trees and shrubs. Swamps occur
in either freshwater or saltwater floodplains.
4

Types
Bogs: Bogs are waterlogged peatlands in
old lake basins or depressions in the
landscape. Almost all water in bogs
comes from rainfall.
Estuaries: The area where rivers meet
the sea and water changes from fresh to
salt can offer an extremely rich mix of
biodiversity. These wetlands include
deltas, tidal mudflats and salt marshes.
Threats to Wetlands
22-01-2020
Importance
 Wetlands are highly productive ecosystems that provide the world with nearly
two-thirds of its fish harvest.
 Wetlands play an integral role in the ecology of the watershed. The combination of
shallow water, high levels of nutrients is ideal for the development of organisms
that form the base of the food web and feed many species of fish, amphibians,
shellfish and insects.
 Wetlands' microbes, plants and wildlife are part of global cycles for water, nitrogen
and sulphur. Wetlands store carbon within their plant communities and soil
instead of releasing it to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
 Wetlands function as natural barriers that trap and slowly release surface water,
rain, snowmelt, groundwater and flood waters. Wetland vegetation also slow the
speed of flood waters lowering flood heights and reduces soil erosion.
Urbanization:
Wetlands near urban
centres are under
increasing developmental
pressure for residential,
industrial and commercial
facilities. Urban wetlands
are essential for preserving
public water supplies.
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Agriculture: Pollution:
Vast stretches of wetlands Wetlands act as natural water filters.
However, they can only clean up the
have been converted to fertilizers and pesticides from
paddy fields. Construction agricultural runoff but not mercury
of a large number of from industrial sources and other
reservoirs, canals and types of pollution.
dams to provide for
 There is growing concern about the
irrigation significantly effect of industrial pollution on
altered the hydrology of drinking water supplies and the
the associated wetlands. biological diversity of wetlands.

 Climate Change: Increased air temperature; shifts in precipitation; increased

frequency of storms, droughts, and floods; increased atmospheric carbon dioxide
concentration; and sea level rise could also affect wetlands.
Ramsar Site
 At the time of joining the Convention, each Contracting Party undertakes to
 Dredging: The removal of material from a wetland or river bed. Dredging of designate at least one wetland site for inclusion in the List of Wetlands of
streams lowers the surrounding water table and dries up adjacent wetlands. International Importance.

 Draining: Water is drained from wetlands by cutting ditches into the ground which
collect and transport water out of the wetland. This lowers the water table and
dries out the wetland.
 Introduced Species: Indian wetlands are threatened by exotic introduced plant
species such as water hyacinth and salvinia. They clog waterways and compete
with native vegetation.
 Salinization: Over withdrawal of groundwater has led to salinisation.
 The inclusion of a “ramsar site” in the List embodies the government’s commitment
to take the steps necessary to ensure that its ecological character is maintained.
 There are over 2300 ramsar sites on the territories of 170 Ramsar Contracting
Parties across the world.
 The countries with the most Sites are the united kingdom with 170 and Mexico
with 142.
 Bolivia has the largest area under Ramsar protection.

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 22-01-2020

Criteria for Identification of Wetlands under

Transboundary Ramsar Sites Ramsar Convention
If a wetland

 contains a representative, rare, or unique example of a natural or near-natural

 Contracting Parties are designating their new and existing
Ramsar Sites as Transboundary Ramsar Sites.
 These are ecologically coherent, shared wetlands extending
across national borders, which are managed collaboratively.
wetland type.
 supports vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species; or threatened
ecological communities.
 supports populations of plant and/or animal species important for maintaining the
biological diversity of a particular biogeographic region.

 supports plant and/or animal species at a critical stage in their life cycles or provides
refuge during adverse conditions.

Criteria for Identification of Wetlands under Ramsar sites in India

Ramsar Convention
If a wetland  As of February 2019, there are 27 Ramsar
Sites in India.
 regularly supports 20,000 or more water birds.
 Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
 regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one species or subspecies of Kerala and Punjab have three wetlands
water birds. each.

 supports a significant proportion of indigenous fish subspecies  West Bengal, Orissa and Rajasthan have
two wetlands each.
 is an important source of food for fishes, spawning ground, nursery and/or migration
path.  Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Tripura, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Assam, Madhya
 is an important source of food and water resource, increased possibilities for recreation Pradesh, Manipur Jammu & Kashmir have
and eco-tourism, etc. one wetland each.

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 24-01-2020

Conservation Efforts
Ramsar Convention

 The Convention came in to force in 1975.

 The Convention’s mission is “the
conservation and wise use of all wetlands
through local and national actions and
international cooperation, as a
Lecture 6 and 7 – Ramsar Wetlands contribution towards achieving sustainable
development throughout the world”.

 India has 27 Ramsar Sites which are the Wetlands of

Three pillars of the Convention are: International importance.

Montreux Record
 Work towards the wise use of all their wetlands.  It is maintained as part of the Ramsar List.

 Montreux Record is a register of wetland sites on

 Designate suitable wetlands for the list of Wetlands
of International Importance (the “Ramsar List”) and
ensure their effective management.
 Cooperate internationally on transboundary
wetlands, shared wetland systems and shared
species.
the List of Wetlands of International Importance
where changes in ecological character have
occurred, are occurring, or are likely to occur as a
result of technological developments, pollution or
other human interference.
 Two wetlands of India are in Montreux Record:
Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) and Loktak Lake
(Manipur). Chilka lake (Odisha) was placed in the
record but was later removed from it.

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 24-01-2020

 To counter unplanned urbanization and a growing population,

Ramsar sites in India
management of wetlands has to be an integrated approach in ✔ As of February 2019, there are 27 Ramsar
terms of planning, execution and monitoring. Sites in India.

 Effective collaborations among academicians and professionals,
including ecologists, watershed management specialists,
planners and decision makers for overall management of
wetlands.
 Spreading awareness by initiating awareness programs about
the importance of wetlands and constant monitoring of
wetlands for their water quality would provide vital inputs to
safeguard the wetlands from further deterioration.
✔ Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Kerala and Punjab have three wetlands
each.
✔ West Bengal, Orissa and Rajasthan have
two wetlands each.
✔ Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Tripura, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Assam, Madhya
Pradesh, Manipur Jammu & Kashmir have
one wetland each.

1. Wular Lake
✔ Jammu and Kashmir
✔ 23 March 1990
✔ 189

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2. Hokera Wetland
Details: ✔ Jammu and Kashmir
✔ 8 November 2005
✔ The largest freshwater lake in India with extensive marshes of ✔ 13.75
emergent and floating vegetation, particularly water chestnut, that
Details:
provide an important source of revenue for the State Government
and fodder for domestic livestock ✔ Located in the northwest
Himalayan biogeographic
✔ The lake supports an important fishing industry and is a valuable province of Kashmir, back of the
source of water for irrigation and domestic use snow-draped Pir Panchal, Hokera
wetland is only 10 km from
✔ The area is important for wintering, staging and breeding birds scenic paradise of Srinagar.

✔ Human activities include rice cultivation and tree farming

Details:

✔ A natural perennial wetland contiguous to the Jhelum basin, it is the only site with 3. Surinsar-Mansar Lakes
remaining reed-beds of Kashmir. ✔ Jammu and Kashmir
✔ 8 November 2005
✔ It is an important source of food, spawning ground and nursery for fishes, besides ✔ 3.5
offering feeding and breeding ground to a variety of water birds
✔ Sustainable exploitation of fish, fodder and fuel is significant, despite water
withdrawals since 1999.
✔ Potential threats include recent housing facilities, littered garbage, and demand
for increasing tourist facilities.

3
 24-01-2020

Details:
✔ A freshwater to brackish lake lying at 4,595m above sea level, with wet meadows and
borax-laden wetlands along the shores

✔ The site is said to represent the only breeding ground outside of China for one of the
4. Tsomoriri most endangered cranes, the Black-necked crane (Grus nigricollis), and the only
✔ Jammu and Kashmir breeding ground for Bar-headed geese in India
✔ 19 August 2002
✔ 120 ✔ The Great Tibetan Sheep or Argali (Ovis ammon hodgsoni) and Tibetan Wild Ass
(Equus kiang) are endemic to the Tibetan plateau.

✔ The barley fields at Korzok have been described as the highest cultivated land in the
world

✔ With no outflow, evaporation in the arid steppe conditions causes varying levels of
salinity

Black-necked crane Bar-headed geese

Argali

4
 24-01-2020

Details:
✔ Ancient trade routes and now major trekking routes pass the site

✔ The 400-year-old Korzok monastery attracts many tourists, and the

wetland is considered sacred by local Buddhist communities and the
water is not used by them

✔ The local community dedicated Tsomoriri as a WWF Sacred Gift for the
Living Planet in recognition of WWF-India’s project work there

✔ The rapidly growing attraction of the recently opened area to western

tourists (currently 2500 per summer) as an ‘unspoilt destination’ with
pristine high desert landscapes and lively cultural traditions brings great
Korzok promise but also potential threats to the ecosystem

Details:
✔ A water storage reservoir created in 1975 on the Beas River in
the low foothills of the Himalaya on the northern edge of the
5. Pong Dam Lake Indo-Gangetic plain.

✔ Himachal Pradesh ✔ At the time when wetlands in northern India are getting reduced
✔ 19 August 2002 due to extensive drainage and reclamation, the avian habitats
✔ 156.62
formed by the creation of the Pong Dam assume a great
significance.

✔ Given the site’s location on the trans-Himalayan flyway, more

than 220 bird species have been identified, with 54 species of
waterfowl.

5
 24-01-2020

Details:

✔ Hydrological values include monsoon-season flood prevention, both in the

surroundings and downstream due to water regulation, groundwater recharge, silt
trapping and prevention of soil erosion; electricity is generated for this and
neighboring states, and irrigation water is being channeled to fertile areas of the
Punjab and Rajasthan deserts.

✔ A lucrative fishery has grown up, with 27 fish species and a yield increasing markedly
each year- some 1800 fishermen now have direct employment and 1000 families
benefit indirectly
✔ A nature conservation education centre is found on the island of Ransar or Ramsar
✔ Recent management strategies have shifted away from law enforcement and use
restrictions towards more participatory approaches and community awareness, and
Waterfowl the site is well suited to ‘community-based ecotourism’

6. Chandra Taal
7. Renuka Lake
✔ Himachal Pradesh
✔ 8 November 2005 ✔ Himachal Pradesh
✔ 0.49
✔ 8 November 2005
✔ 0.2

6
 24-01-2020

Details:
✔ A natural wetland with freshwater springs and inland subterranean karst Details:
formations, fed by a small stream flowing from the lower Himalayan out to the ✔ Among ungulates Sambhar, Barking deer and Ghorals are also abundant in
Giri river. the area.

✔ The lake is home to at least 443 species of fauna.
✔ There are 103 species of birds of which 66 are residents, e.g. Crimson-
breasted barbet, Mayna, Bulbul, Pheasants, Egrets, Herons, Mallards and
Lapwing.
✔ The lake has high religious significance and is named after the mother of
Hindu sage Parshuram, and is thus visited by thousands of pilgrims and
tourists.
✔ Conservation measures so far include community awareness, and
prevention of silt influx from eroded slopes and 50 ha. of massive plantation
in the catchment.

✔ The site is managed by the Shimla Forest Department, Himachal Pradesh.

Sambar deer Barking deer

8. Kanjli Wetland
✔ Punjab
✔ 22 January 2002
✔ 1.83

7

Details:
 A permanent stream, the Kali Bein, converted by construction of a small barrage in
1870 into a water storage area for irrigation purposes.
 The site is known for its importance in supporting a considerable diversity of
aquatic, mesophytic, and terrestrial flora and fauna in the biogeographical region.
 Acts also as a key regulator of groundwater discharge and recharge with the
seasons.
 By this means and by direct abstraction of water for irrigation by the local
population, the site plays a crucial role in the agriculture which predominates on
the surrounding fertile plain, with fewer pressures upon water supplies than
elsewhere in the Punjab.
9. Ropar Wetland
✔ Punjab
✔ 22 January 2002
✔ 13.65
24-01-2020
Details:
 The invasive water hyacinth is present and must be removed from time to
time; increasing pollution levels, deforestation in the catchment area, and
excessive grazing are seen as potential threats.
 The stream is considered to be the most significant in the state from the
religious point of view, as it is associated with the first guru of the
Sikhs, Shri Guru Nanak Dev Ji
 The stream itself and surrounding marsh is under provincial ownership
and surrounding areas privately owned.
 The site is a center for environmental tourism and picnicking.
Details:
 A manmade wetland of lake and river formed by the 1952 construction
of a barrage for diversion of water from the Sutlej River for drinking
and irrigation supplies.
 The site is an important breeding place for the nationally protected
Smooth Indian Otter, Hog Deer, Sambar, and several reptiles, and the
endangered Indian Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) is thought to be
present.
 Some 35 species of fish play an important role in the food chain, and
about 150 species of local and migratory birds are supported.
8
 24-01-2020

Smooth Indian Otter Details:

Hog Deer  Local fisheries are economically significant, and wheat, rice, sugar cane,
and sorghum are cultivated in the surrounding area.

 Deforested local hills leading to siltation, and increasing

industrialization causing an inflow of pollutants, are potential threats,
and invasive weeds are a further cause for concern.

 Nature lovers, birdwatchers, swimmers and boaters visit the site in

considerable numbers.

10. Harike Wetland

✔ Punjab
✔ 23 March 1990
Details:
✔ 41
✔ A shallow water reservoir with thirteen islands, at the confluence of
two rivers
✔ Dense floating vegetation covers 70% of the lake
✔ An important site for breeding, wintering and staging birds,
supporting over 200,000 Anatidae (ducks, geese, swans, etc.)
during migration
✔ The entire lake is leased on an annual basis to commercial fishery
organizations

9
 24-01-2020

Q1) Consider the following statements about the

functions of wetland:-

I) It stores the flood

II) It recharges the ground water A-c)
III) It provides different products such as fish, timber etc

Which of above the statements are true about the function

of wetland?
A. I
B. II
C. I, II and III
D. III

37

Thank You!
Keep learning!

10
 27-01-2020

11. Upper Ganga River (Brijghat

to Narora Stretch)

✔ Uttar Pradesh
✔ 8 November 2005
✔ 265.9

Lecture 6 and 7 – Ramsar

Wetlands

Details:
✔ A shallow river stretch of the great Ganges with intermittent small stretches of deep-
water pools and reservoirs upstream from barrages

✔ The river provides habitat for IUCN Red listed Ganges River Dolphin, Gharial, Crocodile,
6 species of turtles, otters, 82 species of fish and more than hundred species of birds
12. Deepor Beel
✔ Major plant species, some of which have high medicinal values, include Dalbergia
sissoo, Saraca indica, Eucalyptus globulus, Ficus bengalensis, Dendrocalamus strictus, ✔ Assam
Tectona grandis, Azadirachta indica and aquatic Eichhorina ✔ 19 August 2002
✔ 40
✔ This river stretch has high Hindu religious importance for thousands of pilgrims and is
used for cremation and holy baths for spiritual purification

✔ Major threats are sewage discharge, agricultural runoff, and intensive fishing
✔ Conservation activities carried out are plantation to prevent bank erosion, training on
organic farming, and lobbying to ban commercial fishing

1
 27-01-2020

 The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has directed the Assam government
to declare the area around Deepor Beel — a major wetland on the
western edge of Guwahati — an eco-sensitive zone.
 Deepor Beel is an ‘Important Bird Area’ and a Ramsar Site, with a reserve
forest nearby. 13. Loktak Lake
 Eco-sensitive zone entails declaring up to 10 km around a protected area
✔ Manipur
✔ 23 March 1990
a buffer zone and restricting industrial and other human activities.
✔ 266
 The NGT, in its order on August 19, also directed the government to
remove existing encroachment on the wetland, take steps to prohibit any
further encroachment and manage a municipal solid waste dumping
ground inside Deepor Beel’s system.

Details:
✔Loktak Lake is the largest freshwater lake in the
north-eastern region of the country
✔It is famous for the phumdis (heterogeneous mass
of vegetation, soil, and organic matters at various
stages of decomposition) floating over it
✔Keibul Lamjao, the only floating national park in the
world floats over it
Details:
✔ The etymology of Loktak is Lok = stream and tak = the end
✔ The Keibugl Lamjao National Park, which is the last natural refuge of the
endangered ‘Sangai’ or Manipur brow-antlered deer (‘Cervus eldi eldi’),
one of three subspecies of Eld’s deer, covering an area of 40 km2, is
situated in the southeastern shores of this lake and is the largest of all the
phumdis in the lake.

✔It is located near Moirang, Bishnupur district

in Manipur

2
 27-01-2020

Neermahal

 A palace known as Neermahal

14. Rudrasagar Lake (Water Palace) is situated near
the north-east bank of the lake. It
✔ Tripura constructed by the then Tripura
✔ 8 November 2005 king Maharaja Bir Bikram Kishore
✔ 2.4 Manikya Bahadur in between
1935–1938 as summer resort.

Details:
15. Sambhar Lake ✔ The Sambhar Salt Lake, India’s largest inland salt lake.
✔ Rajasthan
✔ Sambhar has been designated as a Ramsar site (recognized wetland of
✔ 23 March 1990 international importance) because the wetland is a key wintering area
✔ 240 for tens of thousands of flamingos and other birds that migrate from
northern Asia.

✔ The specialized algae and bacteria growing in the lake provide striking
water colours and support the lake ecology that, in turn, sustains the
migrating waterfowl.

✔ There is other wildlife in the nearby forests, where Nilgai move freely
along with deer and foxes.

3
 27-01-2020

16. Keoladeo National Park

✔ Rajasthan
✔ 1 October 1981
✔ 28.73

Details:
Details:
✔ Cattle and water buffalo graze on the site
✔ A complex of ten artificial, seasonal lagoons, varying in size, situated in a
densely populated region ✔ A field research station exists

✔ Vegetation is a mosaic of scrub and open grassland that provides habitat ✔ Placed on the Montreux Record in 1990 due to ‘water
for breeding, wintering and staging migratory birds shortage and an unbalanced grazing regime’

✔ Also supported are five species of ungulates, four species of cats, and two
species of primates, as well as diverse plants, fish and reptiles
✔ The canal provides water for agriculture and domestic consumption.
✔ Additionally, the invasive growth of the grass
Paspalum distichum has changed the ecological
character of large areas of the site, reducing its
suitability for certain waterbird species, notably the
Siberian crane

4
 27-01-2020

Details:
✔ A natural freshwater lake (a relict sea) that is the largest natural wetland in
the Thar Desert Biogeographic Province

✔ Represents a dynamic environment with salinity and depth varying

depending on rainfall
17. Nalsarovar Bird
Sanctuary ✔ The area is home to 210 species of birds, with an average 174,128 individuals
✔ Gujarat recorded there during the winter and 50,000 in the summer
✔ 24 September 2012 ✔ It is an important stopover site within the Central Asia Flyway, with globally
threatened species such as the critically endangered Sociable Lapwing
✔ 123
(Vanellus gregarius) and the vulnerable Marbled Teal (Marmaronetta
angustirostris) stopping over at the site during migration, while the
vulnerable Sarus Crane (Grus antigone) takes refuge there during summer
when other water bodies are dry

Details:
Sociable Lapwing
✔ The wetland is also a lifeline for a satellite population of the
endangered Indian Wild Ass (Equus hemionus khur) which
uses this area in the dry season.

✔ Local communities heavily rely on the lake as it provides them

with a source of drinking water and water for irrigation, as well
Marbled Teal as an important source of income from fishing for Catla fish
(Catla Catla) and Rohu (Labeo rohita).

✔ An average of 75,000 tourists visit the wetland annually.

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 27-01-2020

18. Bhoj Wetland

✔ Madhya Pradesh
✔ 19 August 2002
✔ 32 sq. Km

Details:
19. East Calcutta Wetlands
✔ The Bhoj Wetland consists of two lakes located in the city of Bhopal.
✔ The two lakes are the Bhojtal and the Lower Lake, which lie to the west of the ✔ West Bengal
city center ✔ 19 August 2002
✔ It is a manmade reservoir. ✔ 125
✔ A total of more than 20,000 birds are observed annually.
✔ The Upper Lake acts as the lifeline of the city supplying 40% of its potable
water.
✔ White storks, black-necked storks, bar-headed geese, spoonbills, etc., that
have been rare. sightings in the past, have started appearing
✔ A recent phenomenon is the gathering of 100-120 sarus cranes in the lake.
✔ The largest bird of India, the sarus crane (Grus antigone) is known for its size,
majestic flight and lifetime pairing.

6

✔ World-renowned as a model of a multiple use wetland.
✔ The site’s resource recovery systems, developed by local people through the
ages, have saved the city of Calcutta from the costs of constructing and
maintaining waste water treatment plants.
✔ The wetland forms an urban facility for treating the city’s waste water and
utilizing the treated water for pisciculture and agriculture, through the
recovery of nutrients in an efficient manner- the water flows through fish
ponds covering about 4,000 ha, and the ponds act as solar reactors and
complete most of their bio-chemical reactions with the help of solar energy.
✔ Thus the system is described as one of the rare examples of environmental
protection and development management where a complex ecological process
has been adopted by the local farmers for mastering the resource recovery
activities.
20. Sunderban Wetlands
✔ West Bengal
✔ 30 January 2019
✔ 4230
27-01-2020
✔ The wetland provides about 150 tons of fresh vegetables daily, as well as
some 10,500 tons of table fish per year, the latter providing livelihoods
for about 50,000 people directly and as many again indirectly.
✔ The fish ponds are mostly operated by worker cooperatives, in some
cases in legal associations and in others in cooperative groups whose
tenurial rights are under legal challenge.
✔ A potential threat is seen in recent unauthorized use of the waste water
outfall channels by industries which add metals to the canal sludge and
threaten the edible quality of the fish and vegetables.
 It comprises hundreds of islands and a network of rivers, tributaries and
creeks in the delta of the Ganga and the Brahmaputra at the mouth of the
Bay of Bengal in India and Bangladesh.
 Located on the southwestern part of the delta, the Indian Sundarban
constitutes over 60% of the country’s total mangrove forest area.
 It is the 27th Ramsar Site in India, and with an area of 4,23,000 hectares is
now the largest protected wetland in the country.
7

 It is classified as a moist tropical forest dominated by “ Sundri tree”
 It is a UNESCO world heritage site.
 It is the largest single block of halophytic mangrove forest in the world.
 It has common features of the both estuarine and mangrove ecosystem and
acts as agent of carbon Sequestration
 Its area lies both in India and Bangladesh (Largest in Bangladesh).
 It acts as shelter belt to protect the people from storms, cyclones, tidal
surges, sea water seepage and intrusion.
 It is the only mangrove reserve in the world inhabited by tigers
21. Bhitarkanika Mangroves
✔ Orissa
✔ 19 August 2002
✔ 650 sq. Km.
27-01-2020
Mangrove for Future
 A regional initiative, being coordinated by United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) and International Union for the Conservation of Nature
(IUCN).
 It aims at promoting coastal ecosystem conservation in six tsunami-hit
countries including India.
 Mangrove for the Future (MFF) programme in India provides focus on
promoting conservation and management of coastal and marine
biodiversity, while mangrove ecosystems are at centre-stage, on three
important aspects:
1. Coastal restoration;
2. Coastal livelihoods; and
3. Integrated coastal zone management
Details:
✔ In 1975, an area of 672 km2 was declared the Bhitarkanika Wildlife
Sanctuary.
✔ The core area of the sanctuary, with an area of 145 km2, was
declared Bhitarkanika National Park in September 1998.
✔ Gahirmatha Marine Wildlife Sanctuary, which bounds the Bhitarkanika
Wildlife Sanctuary to the east, was created in September 1997, and
encompasses Gahirmatha Beach and an adjacent portion of the Bay of
Bengal.
✔ Bhitarkanika Mangroves were designated a Ramsar Wetland of
International Importance in 2002.
✔ It is also famous for its salt water crocodiles and Olive ridley sea turtle.
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Details:

22. Chilika Lake ✔ Chilka Lake (Chilika Lake) is a brackish water lagoon, spread over the Puri,
Khurda and Ganjam districts of Odisha, at the mouth of the Daya River, flowing
✔ Orissa into the Bay of Bengal, covering an area of over 1,100 km2.
✔ 1 October 1981 ✔ It is the largest coastal lagoon in India and the second largest lagoon in the world.
✔ 1165 ✔ The lagoon hosts over 160 species of birds in the peak migratory season.
✔ Birds from as far as the Caspian Sea, Lake Baikal, Aral Sea and other remote parts
of Russia, Kirghiz steppes of Mongolia, Central and southeast Asia, Ladakh and
Himalayas come here.
✔ These birds travel great distances; migratory birds probably follow much longer
routes than the straight lines, possibly up to 12,000 km, to reach Chilika Lake.
✔ In 1981, Chilika Lake was designated the first Indian wetland of international
importance under the Ramsar Convention.

Details:
23. Kolleru Lake
✔In November 2002, the Ramsar Wetland Conservation Award was presented to the Chilika
Development Authority for outstanding achievements in the field of restoration and wise use of ✔ Andhra Pradesh
wetlands and effective participation of local communities in these activities. ✔ 19 August 2002
✔ 901
✔White bellied sea eagles, greylag geese, purple moorhen, jacana, flamingos, egrets, gray and purple ✔ It is a bird sanctuary
herons, Indian roller, storks, white ibis, spoonbills, brahminy ducks, shovellers, pintails, and more.

✔Nalbana Island is the core area of the Ramsar designated wetlands of Chilika Lake
✔Nalbana was notified in 1987 and declared a bird sanctuary in 1973 under the Wildlife Protection
Act.

✔The Irrawaddy dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris) is the flagship species of Chilika lake
✔Chilka is home to the only known population of Irrawaddy dolphins in India and one of only two
lagoons in the world that are home to this species.
✔It is classified as critically endangered, in five of the six other places it is known to live.

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24. Point Calimere Wildlife and

Bird Sanctuary
✔ Tamil Nadu
✔ 19 August 2002
✔ 385
Details:
✔ One of the last remnants of
Dry Evergreen Forests.
✔ Habitat: Dry Evergreen.
Forests, Mangrove & Wetlands
✔ Winter Migrants : Spoon Billed
Sandpiper, Greater Flamingos.
✔ Threats: Agricultural & Shrimp
farm runoff =>High.
concentration of DDT & HCH
in their tissue.

25. Vembanad-Kol Wetland 26. Sasthamkotta Lake

✔ Kerala
✔ 19 August 2002
✔ 1512.5
Details:
✔ Largest lake of Kerala, spanning
across Alappuzha, Kottayam,
and Ernakulam districts
✔ Famous tourist locations like Alappuzha
and Kumarakom, known for house boats
falls here
✔ River mouths of Pamba-Achenkovil
rivers in Vembanad forms one of the
unique wetland topography of Kerala,
the Kuttanad
✔ It is below sea level and is famous for
exotic fish varieties and Paddy fields that
are below sea level
✔ Kerala
✔ 19 August 2002
✔ 3.73
Details:
✔ It is the largest freshwater lake in
Kerala, situated in Kollam district.
✔ River Kallada had a unique
replenishing system through a bar
of paddy field which has now
disappeared due to indiscriminate
sand and clay mining.
✔ The lake is now depleting due to
destruction of replenishing
mechanism.

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27. Ashtamudi Wetland

✔ State: Kerala
✔ Designated on: 19 August 2002

“
✔ Area: 614 sq. Km

Details:
✔ A natural backwater in Kollam district
✔ River Kallada and Pallichal drain into it

✔ It forms an estuary with Sea at Neendakara which is a

Some Current Affairs
famous fishing harbour in Kerala
✔ National Waterway 3 passes through it
✔ Most tastiest backwater fish in Kerala, the Karimeen of
kanjiracode Kayal is from Ashtamudi Lake

42

Wetlands
Why in News?
✔World Wetlands Day is celebrated every year on
2nd February.

✔This day marks the date of the adoption of the

Convention on Wetlands on 2 February 1971, in Ramsar,
Iran.
Some MCQ’s
✔In 2019 World Wetlands Day was celebrated with a
theme – 'Wetlands and climate change'.
44

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Q) Which of following statement is correct about

the wetland in India?

A. Tso Marari and Chandartal are Glaciated A-d)

Wetlands
B. Chilka in Odisha is an example of lagoon wetland
C. Loktak lake is oxbow wetland it is in Manipur
D. All of the above

45

Thank You!
Keep learning!

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Topics covered:-
1) Renewable energy:-
a) Solar energy
b) Geothermal Energy
c) Hydropower Energy
d) Tidal energy
e) Hydrogen Energy

2) Ministry of New and Renewable

Lecture 8 – Energy Sources 3)
Energy (MNRE)
Indian Renewable Energy
Development Agency (IREDA)

Topics covered:-
4) Biomass Renewable energy is energy
5) Biomass Gasification generated from natural resources—
such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides and
6) Fuel Cell Technology
geothermal heat—which are
7) Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar renewable (naturally replenished).
Mission (JNNSM) Renewable energy technologies range
8) Bio-fertilizers and Bio-pesticides from solar power, wind power,
9) Some practice MCQs hydroelectricity/micro hydro, biomass
and biofuels for transportation.

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 Renewable energy resources are always available to

 It would also reduce environmental pollution such as air pollution caused by
be tapped, and will not run out. This is why some
burning of fossil fuels and improve public health, reduce premature mortalities
people call it Green Energy.
due to pollution and save associated health costs.
 Renewable energy resources and significant
opportunities for energy efficiency exist over wide
 Renewable energy sources, that derive their energy from the sun, either
geographical areas, in contrast to other energy
directly or indirectly, such as hydro and wind, are expected to be capable of
sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of
supplying humanity energy for almost another 1 billion years, at which point
countries.
the predicted increase in heat from the sun is expected to make the surface of
 Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy
the earth too hot for liquid water to exist.
efficiency, and technological diversification of energy
sources, would result in significant energy security and
economic benefits.

1. Solar Energy
 Direct solar energy can be used as
heat, light, and electricity through
the use of solar cells.

 Direct use of solar energy can be

used through various devices
broadly directed into three types
of systems
a) passive,
b) active
c) photovoltaic.

2

Passive solar energy
 As you know some of the earliest uses
of solar energy were passive in nature
such as to evaporate sea water for
producing salt and to dry food and
clothes.
 In fact solar energy is still being used for
these purposes. The more recent
passive uses of solar energy is for
cooking, heating, cooling and for the
day lighting of homes and buildings.
Solar cells or photovoltaic technology
 Solar energy can be converted directly into
electrical energy (direct current, DC) by photovoltaic
(PV) cells commonly called solar cells.
 Photovoltaic cells are made of silicon and other
materials. When sunlight strikes the silicon atoms it
causes electrons to eject. This principle is called as
‘photoelectric effect’.
 A typical solar cell is a transparent wafer that
contains a very thin semiconductor.
 Sunlight energizes and causes electrons in the
semiconductor to flow, creating an electrical
current.
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Active use of solar energy
 Active solar heating and cooling systems rely
on solar collectors which are usually mounted
on roofs.
 Such systems also requires pumps and motors
to move the fluids or blow air by fan in order
to deliver the captured heat.
 A number of different active solar heating
systems are available. The main application of
these systems is to provide hot water,
primarily for domestic use.
Q. With reference to technologies for solar power production, consider the
following statements:
1. ‘Photovoltaics’ is a technology that generates electricity by direct conversion of light
into electricity, while ‘Solar Thermal’ is a technology that utilizes the Sun’s rays to
generate heat which is further used in electricity generation process.
2. Photovoltaics generates Alternating Current (AC), while Solar Thermal generates
Direct Current (DC).
3. India has manufacturing base for Solar Thermal technology, but not for Photovoltaics.
Which of the statements given above is / are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1, 2 and 3
d) None
3

2. Geothermal Energy
 Geothermal energy is natural heat from the interior of the
earth that can be used to generate electricity as well as to heat
up buildings.
 The core of the earth is very hot and it is possible to make use
of this geothermal energy.
 These are areas where there are volcanoes, hot springs, and
geysers, and methane under the water in the oceans and seas.
 In some countries, water is pumped from underground hot
water deposits and used for heating of houses.
Environmental impact of geothermal energy
 Geothermal energy can pose several environmental
problems which includes on-site noise, emissions of gas
and disturbance at drilling sites.
 The steam contains hydrogen sulphide gas, which has the
odour of rotten eggs, and cause air pollution.
 The minerals in the steam are also toxic to fish and they
are corrosive to pipes, and equipment, requiring constant
maintenance.
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Geothermal resource falls into three major categories:-
i) Geopressurized zones,
ii) hot-rock zones and
iii) Hydrothermal convection zones.
Of these three only the first is currently being exploited on a commercial
basis. Geothermal energy in India
 In India, Northwestern Himalayas and the
western coast are considered geothermal
areas.
 The Geological Survey of India has already
identified more than 350 hot spring sites,
which can be explored as areas to tap
geothermal energy.
 The Puga valley in the Ladakh region has
the most promising geothermal field
3. Hydropower Energy
 Hydroelectric power uses the kinetic energy of
moving water to make electricity.
 Generation of electricity by using the force of falling
water is called hydroelectricity or hydel power. It is
cheaper than thermal or nuclear power.
 Dams are built to store water at a higher level;
which is made to fall to rotate turbines that
generate electricity.
 One of the greatest advantages of hydropower is
that once the dam is built and turbines become
operative, it is relatively cheap and clean source of
energy.
4

Hydropower also has some
disadvantages, building of dam
seriously disturbs and damages the
natural habitats and some of them
are lost forever.
Tidal energy
 As the tide rises, water is initially prevented
from entering the bay. Then when tides are
high and water is sufficient to run the
turbines, the dam is opened and water flows
through it into the reservoir (the bay), turning
the blades of turbines and generating
electricity.
 Again when the reservoir (the bay) is filled, the
dam is closed, stopping the flow and holding
the water in reservoir when the tide falls (ebb
tide), the water level in the reservoir is higher
than that in the ocean.
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4. Tidal energy
 Tidal power projects attempt to
harness the energy of tides as they
flow in and out.
 The main criteria for a tidal power
generation site are that the mean tidal
range must be greater than 5 metres.
 The tidal power is harnessed by
building a dam across the entrance to
a bay or estuary creating a reservoir.
Tidal energy
 The dam is then opened to run the
turbines (which are reversible),
electricity is produced as the water is
let out of the reservoir.
 The dams built to harness the tidal
power adversely affect the vegetation
and wildlife.
5

5. Hydrogen Energy
 Many scientists believe that the fuel for the
future is hydrogen gas.
 When hydrogen gas burns in the air or in fuel
cells, it combines with oxygen gas to produce
non-polluting water vapour and fuel cells directly
convert hydrogen into electricity.
 Widespread use of hydrogen as fuel would
greatly reduce the problem of air pollution and
danger of global warming because there will not
be any CO2 emission.
 Producing hydrogen from algae in large scale cultures
is possible. It may be possible to control photosynthesis
so that green algae are able to produce hydrogen
through the process of photosynthesis.
 Hydrogen is a pollution free, cost effective manner and
if technologies such as fuel cells can be made cost
effective, then hydrogen has the potential to provide
clean, alternative energy for diverse uses, including
lighting, power, heating, cooling, transportation and
many more.
28-01-2020
 Hydrogen may be a clean source of energy but getting
large amount of pure hydrogen for commercial
purposes is a problem because hydrogen is present in
combination with other elements such as oxygen,
carbon and nitrogen thus hydrogen has to be produced
from either water or organic compounds like methane
etc. requiring large amounts of energy. This is a very
costly proposition.
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE)
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is the nodal Ministry
of the Government of India for all matters relating to new and renewable
energy. The broad aim of the Ministry is to develop and deploy new and
renewable energy for supplementing the energy requirements of the
country. Creation CASE and Ministry:
1) Commission for Additional Sources of Energy (CASE) in 1981.
2) Department of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (DNES) in 1982.
3) Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) in 1992.
4) Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) renamed as
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) in 2006.
6

 The Ministry is mainly responsible for
a) research and development,
b) intellectual property protection, and
c) international cooperation, promotion, and coordination in
renewable energy sources such as wind power, small hydro,
biogas, and solar power.
Initiatives
 Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM)
 Remote Village Lighting Programme
 National Biogas and Manure Management Programme (NBMMP)
 Solar Lantern Programme LALA
 Solar thermal energy Demonstration Programme
 National Biomass Cookstoves Initiative (NBCI)
 National Offshore Wind Energy Authority
Key functional area
 Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA)
 Integrated Rural Energy Programme (IREP);
 Commission for Additional Sources of Energy (CASE);
28-01-2020
Aim
 To develop and deploy new and renewable energy for
supplementing the energy requirements of India.
Mission
 Bring in Energy Security;
 Increase the share of clean power;
 Increase Energy Availability and Access;
 Improve Energy Affordability; and
 Maximise Energy Equity.
Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA)
 IREDA is a Mini Ratna (Category – I) Government of India Enterprise.
 It is under the administrative control of MNRE.
 IREDA is Public Limited Government Company established as a Non-
Banking Financial Institution in 1987 engaged in promoting,
developing and extending financial assistance for setting up projects
relating to new and renewable sources of energy and energy
efficiency/conservation with the motto: “Energy For Ever”.
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Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA)

Objectives

 To give financial support to specific projects and schemes

for generating electricity and / or energy through new and
renewable sources and conserving energy through energy
efficiency. Biomass
 To increase IREDA’s share in the renewable energy sector
by way of innovative financing.

Biomass [Conventional Source]
 Biomass is a renewable energy resource derived from plant
and animal waste.
 The energy from biomass (biomass conversion) is released
on burning or breaking the chemical bonds of organic
molecules formed during photosynthesis.
 Biomass fuels can be used directly or they can be
transformed into more convenient form and then used.
Sources of biomass
 By-products from the timber industry, agricultural
crops and their by-products, raw material from the
forest, major parts of household waste and wood.
 Solid Biomass fuels: Wood logs and wood pellets,
charcoal, agricultural waste (stalks and other plant
debris), animal waste (dung), aquatic plants (kelp and
water hyacinths) urban waste (paper, cardboard and
other combustible materials).

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Conversion to gaseous and liquid biofuels

 Biomass can be converted into alcohol (liquid biofuels) by distillation.

 Liquid Biofuels: Ethanol, Methanol, Gasoho, Biodiesel.

 Gaseous Biofuels: Synthetic natural gas (biogas), Wood gas: Methane – 70% and CO2 – 30%.

 Instead of burning loose biomass directly, it is more practical to compress it into briquettes
(compressing them into blocks of a chosen shape) improve its utility and convenience of
use.

 Such biomass in the biomass briquettes can be used as fuel in place of coal in traditional
furnaces or in a gasifier.

 A gasifier converts solid fuels into a more convenient-to-use gaseous fuel called producer
gas.

Uses of biomass
 In the developed world biomass is
becoming important for applications
such as combined heat and power
generation.

 Biomass energy is gaining significance

as a source of clean heat for domestic
heating and community heating
applications.

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Advantages of biomass energy

 Burning of biomass does not increase atmospheric carbon dioxide because to
begin with biomass was formed by atmospheric carbon dioxide and the same
amount of carbon dioxide is released on burning.

 Biomass is an important source of energy and the most important fuel worldwide
after coal, oil and natural gas.

 Biomass is renewable and is abundantly available on the earth in the form of

firewood, agricultural residues, cattle dung, city garbage etc.

 Bio-energy, in the form of biogas, which is derived from biomass, is expected

to become one of the key energy resources for global sustainable development.

Biomass Gasification
 Biomass gasification is thermo-chemical conversion of biomass into a
combustible gas mixture (producer gas) through a partial combustion
route with air supply restricted to less than that theoretically
required for full combustion.

 A gasifier system basically comprises of a reactor where the gas is

generated, and is followed by a cooling and cleaning train which
cools and cleans the gas. The clean combustible gas is available for
power generation in diesel-gen-set or 100% producer gas engines.

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The Ministry is promoting multifaceted biomass gasifier based power plants for producing
electricity using locally available biomass resources such as wood chips, rice husk, arhar
stalks, cotton stalks and other agro-residues in rural areas. The main components of the
biomass gasifier programmes are:
i. Distributed / Off-grid power for Rural Areas
ii. Captive power generation applications in Rice Mills and other industries.
iii. Tail end grid connected power projects up to 2 MW capacities.
Emphasis is also given for setting up of small biomass gasifier based
power plants up to 2 MW capacities connected at the tail end of grid
as it provides multiple benefits such as reducing T&D losses,
ensuring sustainable supply of biomass, access to electricity in
villages etc.

The focus of the biomass gasifier programme is to meet captive electrical and thermal
needs of rice mills and other industries which in turn help in replacing / saving of
conventional fuels such as coal, diesel, furnace oil etc. In addition, to provide unmet
demand of electricity for villages for lighting, water pumping and micro-enterprises.
The programme envisages implementation of such projects with
involvement of Independent Power Producers (IPPs), Energy Service
Companies (ESCOs), industries, Co-operative, Panchayats, SHGs,
NGOs, manufactures or entrepreneurs, industries, promoters &
developers etc.

Bagasse as biofuel
About 150 MW equivalent biomass gasifier systems have been set
up for grid and off-grid projects.  Indian sugar mills are rapidly turning to
bagasse, the leftover of cane after it is
More than 300 rice mills and other industries are using gasifier crushed and its juice extracted, to
systems for meeting their captive power and thermal applications. generate electricity.
In addition, about biomass gasifier 70 systems are providing
electricity to more than 230 villages in the country.  This is mainly being done to clean up the
environment, cut down power costs and
earn additional revenue.

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Biogas plant
 The biogas plant consists of two components: a digester (or fermentation tank)
and a gas holder. Petro crops (Plants)
 Recent researches suggest that hydrocarbon
 The gas holder cuts off air to the digester (anaerobiosis) and collects the gas producing plants can become alternative
generated. energy sources, which can be inexhaustible
and ideal for liquid fuel.
 Any biodegradable (that which can be decomposed by bacteria) substance can be
Content Here
fermented anaerobically (in absence of oxygen) by methane-producing
 These plants called petroplants/petrocrops
(methanogenic) bacteria.
can be grown on land which are unfit for
 Cowdung or faeces are collected and put in a biogas digester or fermenter (a large agriculture and not covered with forests.
vessel in which fermentation can take place). Jatropa curcas is an important petro plant.

 A series of chemical reactions occur in the presence of methanogenic bacteria  Biocrude can be obtained by tapping the latex
(CH4 generating bacteria) leading to the production of CH4 and CO2. of Jatropa curcas.

Petro crops (Plants)

 Biocrude is a complex mixture of liquids,
terpenoids, triglycerides, phytosterols
waxes, and other modified isoprenoid
compounds.

 Hydro cracking of biocrude can convert

Content Here

it into several useful products like

gasoline (automobile fuel), gas oil and
kerosene.

 Some potential Petro-crop species

belong to family Asclepiadaceae and
Euphorbiaceae.

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Topics covered:-
1) Renewable energy:-
a) Solar energy
b) Geothermal Energy
c) Hydropower Energy
d) Tidal energy
e) Hydrogen Energy

2) Ministry of New and Renewable

Lecture 8 – Energy Sources 3)
Energy (MNRE)
Indian Renewable Energy
Development Agency (IREDA)

Fuel Cell Technology

Topics covered:-
4) Biomass
5) Biomass Gasification
6) Fuel Cell Tecnology
7) Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar
Mission (JNNSM)
8) International Solar Aliance
9) Non-Conventional Gas
10) Bio-fertilizers and Bio-pesticides
11) Some practice MCQs
 Fuel cells are highly efficient power-generating systems that produce electricity by
combining fuel (hydrogen) and oxygen in an electrochemical reaction.
 Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that convert the chemical energy of a fuel
directly and very efficiently into electricity (DC) and heat, thus doing away with
combustion.
 Hydrogen and phosphoric acid are the most common type of fuel cells, although
fuel cells that run on methanol, ethanol, and natural gas are also available.
 The most suitable fuel for such cells is hydrogen or a mixture of compounds
containing hydrogen.

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 29-01-2020

 A fuel cell consists of an electrolyte sandwiched between two electrodes.

Oxygen passes over one electrode and hydrogen over the other, and they
react electrochemically to generate electricity, water, and heat.

 Though rapid progress has been made; high initial cost is still the biggest
hurdle in the widespread commercialization of fuel cells.

 The rapidly depleting fossil fuel sources of energy and escalating demand of
energy have made it necessary to look for alternative sources of energy that
are known as renewable or inexhaustible. We can define inexhaustible
energy resources as ‘those resources which can be harnessed without
depletion’. Most of these resources are free from pollution and some of
them can be used at all places. These renewable energy resources are also
known as non-conventional or inexhaustible or alternate energy sources.

With reference to ‘fuel cells’ in which hydrogen-rich fuel and oxygen are used to
generate electricity, consider the following statements: [UPSC 2015] Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM)
 Also known as the National Solar Mission
1) If pure hydrogen is used as a fuel, the fuel cell emits heat and water as by-products.

2) Fuel cells can be used for powering buildings and not for small devices like laptop
computers.
3) Fuel cells produce electricity in the form of Alternating Current (AC).
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Objective
 To establish India as a global leader in solar energy, by creating the policy
conditions for its diffusion across the country as quickly as possible.
 To promote ecologically sustainable growth while addressing India’s energy security
challenges.

(a) 1 only  Major contribution by India to the global effort to meet the challenges of climate
(b) 2 and 3 only
change.
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
 One of the several initiatives that are part of National Action Plan on Climate
Change.
7

2

Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM)
 The program was inaugurated in 2010.
 Initial target was 20GW by 2022 and it was increased to 100 GW in
2015 Union budget.
 Long term goal: Global leader in solar energy; maximum in energy
production.
 Immediate goal: Setting up an enabling environment for solar
technology penetration in the country.
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Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM)
Targets are set for three phases
a) First phase 2010-13
b) Second phase 2013–17
c) Third Phase 2017–22
 At each stage progress will be reviewed and roadmap for future targets will be
adopted.
 Total target of 100,000 MW by 2022.
 MNRE has proposed to achieve it through 40,000 MW through Rooftop Solar
Projects and 60,000 MW through Large and Medium Scale solar projects.
 The International Solar Alliance (ISA) is an alliance of more than 122 countries
initiated by India, most of them being sunshine countries, which lie either
completely or partly between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn,
now extended to all members of UN.
 The Paris Declaration establishes ISA as an alliance dedicated to the promotion of
solar energy among its member countries.
 The agreement of the International Solar Alliance was open for signature during
the COP22 at Marrakech on November 15, 2016. The signatories of the agreement
include India, France, Australia, UAE, UK, Japan amongst others.
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 When the ISA Framework Agreement entered into force on December 6th, 2017, Q) Consider the following statements: [UPSC 2016]
ISA formally became a de-jure treaty based International Intergovernmental
Organization, headquartered at Gurugram, India. 1. The International Solar Alliance was launched at the United Nations Climate Change
Conference in 2015.
 The ISA’s major objectives include global deployment of over 1,000GW of solar 2. The Alliance includes all the member countries of the United Nations.
generation capacity and mobilisation of investment of over US$ 1000 billion into
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
solar energy by 2030.
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
 As an action-oriented organisation, the ISA brings together countries with rich solar (c) Both 1 and 2
potential to aggregate global demand, thereby reducing prices through bulk (d) Neither 1 nor 2
purchase, facilitating the deployment of existing solar technologies at scale, and
promoting collaborative solar R&D and capacity building.

As non conventional gas is by definition “anything which is not conventional gas”, it

agregates very different geological objects, that only have in common to hold a little
gas, generally not very mobile and not as easy to produce as conventional gas:-

What is “non  gas that remained in the mother rock where it was formed (shale gas),

conventional” gas?  when the mother rock is a coal seam, then it is gas that remained in the coal seam
when it formed. As gas is mainly composed of methane, this gas is often designated
as coal bed methane or coal seam methane,

 gas that migrated normally into a reservoir rock, and then this reservoir rock lost its
permeability for geological reasons, with pores that stopped to communicate (tight
gas),

4

 Coal bed methane – or CBM – has been known for a very long time, and
actually since the beginning of coal production, since this methane enclosed
in the coal is a major cause of mining accidents (this methane escapes from
the coal seam, mixes in detonating proportions with the air inside the
galleries of the mine, and any spark – coming from a machine, a steel tool
hitting a stone… – ignites the mixture that then explodes).
 The presence of methane in coal is normal, as a result of formation of coal.
 Part of this methane remains “sticked to” (adsorbed) the coal ; on average a
ton of coal contains 4 m3 of methane.
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Coal Bed Methane
Producing coal bed methane is increasing the permeability of
coal by fracking it. It requires the following steps:
 a well is drilled down to the coal seam then horizontally into it,
 water under high pressure is injected into this well to fracture
the coal,
 then various substances are injected into the seam to prevent
the micro-fractures from closing (micro-balls), or to ease the
circulation of the gas,
 and at last gas is brought back to the surface through the same
well.
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Tight Gas

 “Tight gas” is close to conventional gas (it is gas that went

through secondary migration), the major difference being that the
reservoir rock has very small pores and/or lost its permeability Aerial view of a
because of a geological action that cemented the pores.
tight gas
 Therefore, even after fracking there is a lot of “friction” inside the production in
reservoir rock when producing this gas, and flow rates are limited. the US

 A consequence is that producing this gas requires to drill wells

pretty close one to another.

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 It is this type of gas – and not shale gas – that is the dominant
component of non conventional gas production in the US right
now.

 It is also tight gas that is presently developed in China.

 As this gas is produced with wells that drain a limited volume, Shale gas
even though they are horizontal wells (the drained volume is the
volume that has been fracked, and fracking does not extent
beyond several hundred meters from the well), the flow of a given
well decreases very fast.

 “Shale gas” is gas that never left the mother rock where it was formed(a shale most of the
time). For the time being, only Northern America – and mostly US – has been explored for
this kind of resource (any assessment for another region of the world is therefore highly
speculative), and very large amounts of “gas in place” have been found.

 It can also happen that gas has been created in significant amounts in the mother rock, but
then migrated and is not there any more ! For all these reasons, it is almost impossible to
know what is the proportion of gas in the mother rock without drilling a number of
exploration wells.

 Even when the proportion of gas is significant, shales are compact rocks with low
permeability, which also hinders an easy circulation of the gas in the rock.

 As a result, the recoverable amounts of shale gas are calculated by multiplying figures close
to ∞ (gas in place) by something close to 0 (extrac on ra o), which makes it difficult to
calculate reserves.

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Just like CBM or tight gas, shale gas is produced – when possible – by drilling horizontal wells
into the shale, fracking it, and then letting the gas flow to the surface. And as for CBM, the flow
rate peaks after a very short producing time (6 months to 1 year), with a residual plateau at a
low level that can last several years. To get a rising – or even constant – production of shale gas,
it is therefore necessary to:
Shale gas  drill all the time new wells to compensate for the decline of the existing ones, which means
that the country must have a strong drilling industry with plenty of operators,
resources  have gas located in wide areas with little people, because drilling a well every hundred
in the US. meters or so is not something you can do everywhere,
 be able to bring water to the well (generally by truck),
 have an already dense network of gas pipes where you have shales, to evacuate the gas
extracted from the ground,
 and at last be in a country where you do not need a new administrative authorization for
every well you have to drill, otherwise you can’t proceed at the “right” speed.

Q) With reference to two non-conventional energy sources

called ‘coal bed methane’ and ‘shale gas’, consider the
following ‘statements: [UPSC 2014]
1) Coal bed methane is the pure methane gas extracted A-d)
from coal seams, while shale gas is a mixture of propane
and butane only that can be extracted from fine-grained
sedimentary rocks.
 Shale gas contains methane. First
2) In India abundant coal bed methane sources exist, but so statement says it contains
far no shale gas sources have been found. “propane and butane only”.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 only  Shale gas resources exist in India.
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
31

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Bio-Fertilizers and Their Use in Agriculture

 For a sustainable agriculture system, it is essential to use renewable inputs (fertilizer,
pesticides, water etc.) which can benefit the plant and cause no or minimal damage to the
environment.

 One of the energy efficient and pollution free method is to exploit the ability of certain

Bio-fertilizers microorganisms like bacteria, algae and fungi to fix atmospheric nitrogen, solubilize
phosphorus, decompose organic material or oxidize sulphur in the soil.

and  When they are applied in the soil, they enhance growth and yield of crops, improve soil
fertility and reduce pollution. They are known as “bio fertilizers”. Thus bio-fertilizers are

Bio-pesticides living or biologically active products or microbial inoculants of bacteria, algae and fungi
(separately or in combination) which are able to enrich the soil with nitrogen, phosphorus,
organic matter etc. Following are some of the important types of bio fertilizers which can be
considered for agro based industries.

Rhizobium biofertilizer
 Rhizobium is a symbiotic bacterium forming
root nodules in legume plants.
 These nodules act as miniature nitrogen
production factories in the fields.
 The nodule bacteria fix more nitrogen (N2)
than needed by legume plant and the bacteria.
 The surplus fixed nitrogen is then secreted and
fertilizes the soil.
 Rhizobium is more efficient than-free living
nitrogen-fixing bacteria.

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Azotobacter biofertilizer Azospirillium biofertilizer

 Azotobacter are aerobic free living nitrogen
fixers.
 They grow in the rhizosphere (around the
roots) and fix atmospheric nitrogen non-
symbiotically and make it available to the
particular cereals.
 These bacteria produce growth promoting
hormones which helps in enhancing growth
and yield of the plant.
 These are aerobic free living nitrogen
fixers which live in associative symbiosis.
 In this type of association bacteria live on
the root surface of the host plant and do not
form any nodule with roots of grasses.
 It increases crop yield and its inoculation
benefits crop.
 They also benefit the host plants by
supplying growth hormones and vitamins.
 These bacteria are commonly used for the
preparation of commercial inoculants
(vaccines, culture medium).

Azolla biofertilizers
 Azolla is a water fern inside which grows the
Mycorrhizal fungi biofertilizer
nitrogen fixing blue green algae Anabaena.
 Mycorrhizal fungi acts as biofertilizer and are known to
 It contains 2-3% nitrogen when wet and also occur naturally on roots of forest trees and crop plants.
produces organic matter in the soil.
 Mycorrhizal fungi resist disease in plants. The plants also
 The Azolla-Anabaena combination type
show drought and salinity resistance. Plants
biofertilizer is used all over the world.
can tolerate adverse soil, pH, high temperature and heavy
 The only constraint in Azolla is that it is an metal toxicity.
aquatic plant and water becomes
limiting factor in growing it particularly in
summer.

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Compost Tea

 Compost Tea is a liquid fertilizer for flowers, vegetables Biopesticides

and houseplants.
 Compost tea is an aerobic (in the presence of oxygen)
water solution that has extracted the microbe population
from compost (dead and decaying matter) along with the
nutrients.
 In simple terms, it is a concentrated liquid created by a
process to increase the numbers of beneficial
organisms as an organic approach to plant/soil care.
 Air is sent through the water to keep the water
oxygenated, as this favours the beneficial bacteria and
fungi over the pathogens.
Animals or plants used wilfully to destroy pests are called
Biopesticides. For common knowledge, we can divide them
into bioherbicides and bioinsecticide. Ex- Bacillus
thuringiensis
Bioherbicides
The use of bioherbicides is another way of controlling weeds
without environmental hazards posed by synthetic
herbicides. Bioherbicides are made up of microorganisms
(e.g. bacteria, viruses, fungi) and certain insects (e.g.
parasitic wasps, painted lady butterfly) that can target very
specific weeds. The microbes possess invasive genes that can
attack the defense genes of the weeds, thereby killing it.

Bioinsecticide

Bioinsecitides are animals

(including insects) that kill
other insects. For
example, the praying The REN21’s
mantis eats aphids.
Similarly, Gambusia fish is
Renewable 2019 Global
used to feed on larvae of Status Report (GSR)
mosquitoes. was recently released

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Global prospects of the report Indian case

 India ranked fourth globally for new investment in renewable energy in 2018.
 Renewables now supply around 26 per cent of global electricity
production but the transport, cooling and heating sectors lag far  India’s new power generation capacity from solar photovoltaic panels decreased
behind in renewable adoption. compared to 2017, according to the report.

 Underlining the subsidy support being given to fossil fuel, the GSR
read that lack of political will and fossil fuel subsidies are threatening
to derail the crucial UN 2030 Climate and Development Goals.
 Erratic policy decisions kept the world from using the sector to its
potential in meeting climate change targets, added the report.
 However, India placed fifth, overtaking Italy, with 33 gigawatts (GW) total installed
capacity.
 The report confirmed that installed renewable power capacity was more than
that of fossil fuel and nuclear power combined for the fourth consecutive year.
 Around 100 GW of solar PV were added in 2018 which is enough to meet more
than 25 per cent of electricity demand in France.

Decrease in investments
 Lack of ambitious and sustained
policies to drive decarburizing
in heating, cooling and transport
sectors indicates that countries are
not trying to maximise the benefit of
energy transition.
 The investment has decreased 16
per cent compared to 2017. It
attributes this to factors like:
 Land and transmission constraints,
 25 per cent safeguard duty on
imports from China and Malaysia
 Flaws in tender scheme
 Tax uncertainties

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Q1) Consider the following statements regarding Renewable

Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21)
1) REN21 is an international non-profit association and is
based at International Solar Alliance (ISA).
2) Its goal is to facilitate knowledge exchange, policy
development and joint action towards a rapid global
transition to renewable energy.

Some MCQ’s Which of the above statements is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) 1 and 2 both
d) Neither 1 nor 2

49 50

A-b)
 REN21 is the global renewable energy policy multi-
stakeholder network that connects a wide range of key
actors. REN21’s goal is to facilitate knowledge exchange,
Q3) Which of the following is non-
policy development and joint action towards a rapid conventional source of energy?
global transition to renewable energy.

 REN21 brings together governments, nongovernmental a. Oil and Petroleum

organisations, research and academic institutions,
international organisations and industry to learn from
b. Solar energy
one another and build on successes that advance c. Wind energy
renewable energy. To assist policy decision making,
REN21 provides high quality information, catalyses
d. Geothermal power
discussion and debate and supports the development of
thematic networks.

 REN21 is an international non-profit association and is

based at the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP) in Paris, France.
52

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A-a) Q4) Consider the following statements regarding the energy

The non-conventional resources are renewable and
almost inexhaustible. Of these solar energy or
energy from the sun is very important. It is
widespread in nature is non-polluting and available
free of cost.
Solar energy is now harnessed through “solar
panels” directly which heat homes by solar
radiations, solar photovoltaic cells used in solar TVs
and solar thermal energy is used to cook food in
solar cookers. Solar energy is also used in
industries.
54
from biomass:
I. Biomass is plant matter produced as a result of
photosynthesis and some of it can be burnt to provide
heat, for example wood, agricultural waste.
II. Biomass can also be used for power generation or
converted into alcohol (liquid or methane gas) to be used
as fuel.
III. Biomass is renewable energy and shall be available as long
as plants grow on earth.
Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct?
a. Only I
b. I and II
c. I and III
d. All of the above

A-d)
Biomass is plant matter produced as a result of
photosynthesis. Some of it can be burnt to provide heat,
for example wood, agricultural waste. Biomass can also
be used for power generation or converted into alcohol
(liquid or methane gas) to be used as fuel. Since these
are obtained from plant material, they are called bio-
fuels.

Biomass is renewable energy and shall be available as

long as plants grow on earth. Thus for supplying fuel
wood, fast growing trees like oil palm, species such as
Thank You!
Keep learning!
Euphorbia, Jatropha etc. are planted. Another use of
biomass as fuel is to collect agricultural waste and crop
residues and animal manure.

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Topics covered:-
1) PYQs

2) Sustainable development:-
a) Timeline
b) Need and importance
c) Components
d) Principles
Lecture 8 – Sustainable e) MDGs and SDGs

development 3)
4)
Some current affairs
Practice MCQs

Q1) Consider the following statements:

1) Asiatic lion naturally found in India only
2) Double-humped camel is naturally found in India only
3) One-horned rhinoceros is naturally found in India only

Which one of the statement given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only
Some PYQ’s (b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

3 4

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A-a)
Q2) Consider the following statements:
1) Some species of turtle are herbivores
Two humped camel are called Bactrian 2) Some species of fish are herbivores
camel, found in Central Asia’s cold 3) Some species of marine mammals are herbivores
deserts, says National Geographic. So, B 4) Some species of snakes are viviparous
and D removed. We are now 50:50
Which of the statement given above are correct?
between A or C. In the remaining (a) 1 and 3 only
options, statement #1 is common, so (b) 2, 3 and 4 only
we have to accept Asiatic lions are (c) 2 and 4 only
found in India only as ‘true’. Everything (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
boils down to the habitat of Rhinos.
6

A-d)
National Action Plan on Climate Change
 Do all snakes lay eggs? No. Some, known as
‘oviparous’, lay eggs e.g. the cobras, the pythons,
the keelbacks. Some, known as ‘viviparous’, bring  The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) was launched in 2008 by
out live young e.g. most vipers, vine-snakes, the Prime Minister's Council on Climate Change.
estuarine snakes, most sea snakes. So, #4 is right.
Answer could be B, C or D, in all these options, #2  It aims at creating awareness among the representatives of the public, different
is common so we’ve to accept ‘Some species of fish agencies of the government, scientists, industry and the communities on the threat
are herbivores’ are true without verification.
posed by climate change and the steps to counter it.
 Now everything boils down to the validity of
statement number 1 and 3.
 Depending on the species, sea turtles may be  There are 8 national missions forming the core of the NAPCC which represent
carnivorous (meat eating), herbivorous (plant multi-pronged, long term and integrated strategies for achieving key goals in
eating), or omnivorous (eating both meat and climate change. These are-
plants). So #1 is right and by elimination we are left
with answer D: all statements are correct.

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Salient Features:-
1. National Solar Mission
2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency NAPCC is guided by following principles-
3. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
4. National Water Mission  Protection of poor and vulnerable sections of society through inclusive and sustainable
5. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem development strategy, sensitive to climate change.
6. National Mission for A Green India  Achievements of national growth through qualitative changes enhancing ecological
7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture sustainability.
8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change  Deployment of appropriate technologies for both adaptation and mitigation of
GreenHouse Gases emissions extensively and at an accelerated pace.

Human beings have made a rapid economic progress during the past two centuries by leading
a luxurious life. However, this progress has been achieved at a tremendous cost to
environment. Ever increasing exploitation of natural resources coupled with environmental

Sustainable
degradation has reached a point that the present threatens the well being and future of
mankind.
Here comes the need of sustainable development.

development What is Sustainable Development?

 ‘Development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs’.
 This most widely accepted definition of Sustainable Development was given by
the Brundtland Commission in its report Our Common Future (1987).
 Sustainable development (SD) calls for concerted efforts towards building an inclusive,
sustainable and resilient future for people and planet.

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1962 Silent Spring, by brings together research on toxicology, ecology and epidemiology
Rachel Carson to suggest that agricultural pesticides are building to catastrophic
levels, linked to damage to animal species and human health
Sustainable 1967 Environmental
defense fund
Formed to pursue legal solutions to environmental damage. The
EDF goes to court to stop the Suffolk county mosquito control
Development: 1968
(EDF)
Biosphere
commission from spraying DDT on long island’s marshes.
Intergovernmental Conference for Rational Use and Conservation
A timeline of the Biosphere (UNESCO) is held; early discussions of the
concept of ecologically sustainable development.
1968 Club of rome An organization of individuals who share a common concern for
the future of humanity and strive to make a difference. Promotes
understanding of the global challenges facing humanity and to
propose solutions through scientific analysis, communication and
advocacy.

1969 Friends of the forms as an advocacy organization dedicated to the prevention of

Earth environmental degradation, the preservation of diversity and the 1973 Endangered United states enacts the endangered species act, one of the first
role of citizens in decision making. Species Act countries to implement legal protections for its heritage in fish,
wildlife, and plants.
1969 National is passed in the U.S., one of the first countries to establish a
Environmental national legislative framework to protect the environment. It sets 1973 Chipko in response to deforestation and environmental degradation. The
Policy Act the basis for environmental impact assessment in the world. movement actions of the women of the community influenced both forestry
and women’s participation in environmental issues.
1970 First Earth Day is held as a national teach-in on the environment. An estimated
20 million people participated in peaceful demonstrations across 1975 CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora
the U.S. and Fauna comes into force.

1971 Polluter Pays Organisation for economic co-operation and development (OECD) 1976 Habitat The UN conference on human settlements, is the first global
Principle Council says that those causing pollution should pay the costs. meeting to link environment and human settlement.

1972 UN Conference The Stockholm conference is rooted in the regional pollution and 1980 World identifies the main agents of habitat destruction as poverty,
on Human acid rain problems of northern Europe. It leads to the Conservation population pressure, social inequity and trading regimes. It calls
Environment and establishment of many national environmental protection Strategy for a new international development strategy to redress
UNEP agencies and the United Nations Environment Programme inequities.
(UNEP).

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1982 The United Nations World
Charter for Nature
1985 Meeting of the world
meteorological society,
UNEP and the international
council of scientific unions
held in Austria
1986 Chernobyl nuclear accident
1987 Montreal Protocol
adopts the principle that every form of life is unique
and should be respected regardless of its value to 1987 Brundtland Weaved together social, economic, cultural and environmental
humankind. It calls for an understanding of our report a report issues and global solutions.
dependence on natural resources and the need to of the world It popularized the term “sustainable development”
control our exploitation of them. commission on It contains within it two key concepts.
environment and The concept of ‘needs’, in particular the essential needs of the
Reports on the buildup of carbon dioxide and other
development world’s poor, to which overriding priority should be given, and,
“greenhouse gases” in the atmosphere. They predict
The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and
global warming.
social organization on the environment’s ability to meet present
and future needs.
1988 Intergovernment established to assess the most up-to-date scientific, technical, and
The Chernobyl nuclear reactor explosion sent nuclear
al Panel on socioeconomic research in the field.
fallout across Europe, increasing the risks of future
Climate Change
human cancers as it generated massive toxic
(IPCC)
radioactive explosion,
1990 UN Summit for UN Summit for Children
on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is
Children
adopted.

1991 Global Established in 1991 and restricted in 1994 to give more decision –
environment making power to developing countries over billions of aid dollars
1994 China’s Agenda 21 White paper on PRC’s population, environment, and
facility (GEF) for work on biodiversity, climate change, water, land degradation
development is published. China sets an international
and pollutants.
example for country strategies for sustainable
1992 Earth Summit UN Agreements are reached on the action plan “Agenda 21,” and on development.
Conference on the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Framework Convention
1998 Controversy over genetically Global environmental and food security concerns
Environment and on Climate Change, and non-binding Forest Principles.
modified organisms raised over genetically modified (GM) food products.
Development  Three major conventions, called the rio conventions, have come
The EU blocks import of GM crops from North
(UNCED), Rio de to be seen under the umbrella of UNCED:
America and farmers in developing countries rebel
Janeiro. a) The convention on biological diversity (CBD),
against “terminator technology,” seeds that will only
b) The united nations convention to combat desertification
germinate once.
(UNCCD) and
c) The UN framework convention on climate change (UNFCCC). 1999 Launch of the dow jones The first of its kind, the tool provides guidance to
Each convention structures a framework around sustainable sustainability indexes. investors looking for profitable companies that follow
development in the context of their respective themes of sustainable development principles.
biodiversity, land management and climate change.

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2002 Also called as Rio The summit promoted partnerships as a non-negotiated
+10 World Summit approach to sustainability.
on Sustainable In 2002 the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD)
Development Held known as Rio+10, was held in Johannesburg to review progress
in Johannesburg in implementing the outcomes from the Rio Earth Summit.
WSSD developed a plan of implementation for the actions set
out in Agenda 21, known as the Johannesburg Plan, and also
launched a number of multi-stakeholder partnerships for
sustainable development.
2005 Kyoto Protocol enters into force, legally binding developed country parties to
goals for greenhouse gas emission reductions, and establishing
the Clean Development Mechanism for developing countries.
2009 Copenhagen A crescendo of expectations is dashed as the Conference of the
climate Parties fails to an agreement on new GHG emissions reductions
negotiations commitments beyond 2012 (the end of the Kyoto Protocol time
frame). The international environmental community sees this as a
watershed moment, with many arguing that the multilateral process
is broken. Momentum begins to shift toward national and regional
efforts to reduce emissions.
2011 Durban The negotiations' outcome is a step forward in establishing an
Climate international agreement beyond Kyoto-one with mitigation
commitments from all major emitters, including developed countries
and several major developing countries

Need of sustainable development:-

2012 Rio +20 Fifty years after Silent Spring, 40 years after Stockholm and
20 years after the Earth Summit, the global community
reconvenes in an effort to secure agreement on "greening
world economies through a range of smart measures for
clean energy, decent jobs more sustainable and fair use of
resources. The conference focused on two themes in the
context of sustainable development economy and an
institutional framework. It galvanized the process to develop
a new set of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) which
will carry on the momentum generated by the MDGs and fit
into a development framework beyond 2015.

24

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 The basic principles of sustainable development make it

possible to harmonise the various sectoral and development
strategies on sustainable development.
 They also provide a general type of guidance for determining
Principles of the Strategy's priorities, more specifically defined goals and
sustainable tasks, the frameworks and means of implementation, in a
coordinated way.
development  The basic principles have been formulated, clarified, and
adopted at the highest levels by the relevant bodies of the
United Nations.
They are as under:-

3) Inter and Intra-generational Equity: The interests of sustainable

1) Holistic Approach: As most of the things are a system of inter-related
development are focused on people. The development and environmental
elements, the elements interact with one another. Any intervention may
needs of present generations must be addressed without compromising
trigger ripple effects even in remote systems. Local challenges can be
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
adequately addressed relying on the knowledge of the wider environment
and global trends alike.
4) Sustainable management of resource: Sustainable management of
resources must be done with a view to the limitations of the carrying
2) Social Justice: The right to adequate conditions for living must be
capacity of the environment. Thus, by using natural resources in a prudent
recognized and fundamental human rights must be guaranteed for all. All
and thrifty way, it preserves resources required for future development.
people should have equal opportunities for acquiring knowledge and skills
Biodiversity is also a natural resource and we attach high priority to its
required to become worthy members of society.
conservation.

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7) Social Responsibility: To enable sustainable development and to make a

higher quality of life possible, unsustainable patterns of production and
5) Integration: In order to elaborate, evaluate, and implement sectoral
consumption must be changed. Also, social responsibility of businesses'
policies, plans, and programmes, economic, social, and environmental
must be strengthened, along with cooperation between the private and
considerations and their relationships must also be taken into account to
the public sector.
ensure that they can mutually reinforce each other. Moreover, local,
regional, and national activities must be coordinated.
8) Public Participation: Adequate access to information affecting social,
economic life and the environment, must be provided for all. In addition,
6) Utilization of local resource: Efforts should be made to supply the needs
information on decision making processes must be available to the public.
of communities on a local level from locally available resources. Local
People's knowledge about sustainable development, its socio-economic
features and diversity should be preserved. Preservation and sustainable
and environmental implications, and about sustainable solutions and
utilization of the man-made environment and cultural heritage are also
approaches must be clarified and enhanced. Public participation in
very important tasks.
decision making should be strengthened.

9) Polluters Pay Principle: Prices must reflect the real costs paid by society
for activities involved in consumption and production as well as for their
impacts, including the costs of using natural resources. Those engaged in
activities which damage or pollute the environment must pay for damage
caused to human health or the environment.
10) Precaution and Prevention: Wherever the possibility of severe or
Core Elements
irreversible damage is perceived, a lack of complete scientific certainty
should not be used as an excuse for delaying effective action to prevent
of Sustainable
damage to the environment or endangering human health i.e. action must
be taken in view of the gravity of the perceived threat. Moreover, human
Development
activities must be planned and carried out in such a way that activities
damaging or polluting the environment endangering natural systems and
human health must be prevented and where it is not possible - reduced.

8

Core Elements of Sustainable Development:-
Three core elements of sustainable development are
economic growth, social inclusion and environmental
protection. It is crucial to harmonize them.
Sustainable economic growth, achieving sustainable
livelihood, living in harmony with
nature and appropriate technology are important for
sustainable development.
Social Sustainability:
 It can foster gender equality, development of people,
communities and cultures to help achieve a
reasonable and fairly-distributed quality of
life, healthcare and education across the Globe.
30-01-2020
Environmental Sustainability:
 It prevents nature from being used as an inexhaustible source of
resources and ensures its protection and rational use.
 Aspects such as environmental conservation, investment
in renewable energy, saving water, supporting sustainable
mobility, and innovation in sustainable construction and
architecture, contribute to achieving environmental
sustainability on several fronts.
Economic Sustainability:
 Focuses on equal economic growth that
generates wealth for all, without harming the
environment.
 Investment and equal distribution of economic
resources.
 Eradicating poverty in all its forms and dimensions.
9
 30-01-2020

In 2000, 189 nations gathered together at the UN Headquarters and made a

promise to free people from extreme poverty and multiple deprivations by
signing a historic agreement, the Millenium Development Goals. This pledge
of eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) was to provide a framework
for developmental planning for countries around the world. These targets
Millennium were to be achieved by 2015. The MDGs are also commonly known as a"
roadmap for world development by 2015"
Development According to United Nations, MDGs are "quantified targets for addressing
Goals extreme poverty in its many dimensionsincome poverty, hunger, disease, lack
of adequate shelter, and exclusion-while promoting gender equality,
education, and environmental sustainability. They are also basic human rights-
the rights of each person on the planet to health, education, shelter, and
security.

MDGs
Sustainable
Development
Goals

10
 30-01-2020

 The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were born at the United Nations Conference
on Sustainable Development in Rio de Janeiro in 2012.

 The objective was to produce a set of universal goals that meet the urgent
environmental, political and economic challenges facing the world.

 The SDGs are a bold commitment to finish what the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) started, and tackle some of the more pressing challenges.

 All 17 Goals interconnect, success in one-goal motivates for the success of others.

 For example, dealing with the threat of climate change impacts how we manage our
fragile natural resources, achieving gender equality or better health helps eradicate
poverty, and fostering peace and inclusive societies will reduce inequalities and help
economies prosper.

Difference between Some current

MDGs and SDGs affairs

44

11
 30-01-2020

Salient Features of the National Policy on Biofuels, 2018

 Categorisation of biofuels to enable extension of appropriate financial and fiscal
incentives under each category. The two main categories are:
NATIONAL POLICY ON BIOFUELS 2018 a) Basic Biofuels- First Generation (1G) bioethanol & biodiesel.
b) Advanced Biofuels - Second Generation (2G) ethanol, Municipal Solid Waste
(MSW) to drop-in fuels, third Generation (3G) biofuels, bio-CNG etc.
c) Thrust on Advanced Biofuels: Viability gap funding scheme for 2G ethanol Bio
Why in news? refineries in addition to additional tax incentives and higher purchase price as
compared to 1G biofuels.
Rajasthan has become the first State in the
country to implement the national policy on  Expands the scope of raw material for ethanol production: by allowing use of
sugarcane juice, sugar containing materials like sugar beet, sweet sorghum,
biofuels. starch containing materials like corn, cassava, damaged food grains like wheat,
broken rice, rotten potatoes, unfit for human consumption for ethanol
production.

 Allows use of surplus food grains for production of ethanol for blending with
petrol to ensure appropriate price to farmers during surplus. However, it needs
PRADHAN MANTRI JI-VAN (JAIV INDHAN-
the approval of National Biofuel Coordination Committee (headed by the VATAVARAN ANUKOOL FASAL AWASHESH
Minister, Petroleum and Natural Gas).
NIVARAN) YOJANA
 Encourages setting up of supply chain mechanisms for biodiesel production
from non-edible oilseeds, used cooking oil, short gestation crops.
Why in news?
 Synergising efforts by capturing the roles and responsibilities of all the
concerned Ministries/ Departments with respect to biofuels in the policy
Recently government approved Pradhan Mantri JI-
document itself. VAN yojana.

12
 30-01-2020

Details of the scheme

 The scheme under the Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas (MoP&NG) will SCHEME FOR BIOMASS BASED COGENERATION
provide financial support to Integrated Bioethanol Projects using lignocellulosic
biomass and other renewable feedstock. PROJECTS
 12 commercial scale and 10 demonstration scale Second Generation (2G)
ethanol projects will be provided viability gap funding support over the next six
years in two phases. Why in news?
 It also seeks to increase R&D in this area.
 The ethanol produced by the scheme beneficiaries will be mandatorily supplied Ministry of New and Renewable Energy recently
to Oil Marketing Companies (OMCs) to further enhance the blending percentage approved the scheme namely “Scheme to support
under Ethanol Blended Petrol Programme.
 Centre for High Technology (CHT), a technical body under the aegis of MoP&NG, promotion of biomass-based cogeneration in sugar
will be the implementation Agency for the scheme.
mills and other industries in the country.”

More about the scheme

 Aim: To support Biomass based Cogeneration Projects in Sugar mills and Other
Industries for power generation in the country.

 Incentives: It will provide Central Financial assistance (CFA) for projects utilizing
GLOBAL SOLAR COUNCIL
biomass like bagasse, agro-based industrial residue, crop residues, wood
produced through energy plantations, weeds, wood waste produced in
industrial operations, etc. Why in news?
Chairman of National Solar Energy Federation -
 Registered Companies, Partnership Firms, Proprietorship Firms, Cooperatives,
Public Sector Companies, Government owned Firms are eligible for financial Pranav R. Mehta recently became the first Indian to
support available under the scheme.
be appointed chief of Global Solar Council.
 Municipal Solid Waste is not covered under the programme.

13
 30-01-2020

Details
 Global Solar Council is international nonprofit association of the national,
regional and international associations in solar energy and the world ‘s leading
corporations.

 It was founded at the 2015 Paris Climate Conference.

 National Solar Energy Federation is a founding member of the Global Solar

Council (GSC).

 It is an umbrella organization of all solar energy stakeholders of India such as Some MCQ’s
international and national companies.

 It works in a complimentary manner with the Central and State Governments for
achieving India’s national solar target of 100 GW by 2022.
54

A-b)
Q1) Consider the following statements:  At the United Nations Sustainable Development
1. The Sustainable Development Goals were first Summit on 25 September 2015, world leaders
proposed in 1972 by a global think tank called the ‘Club adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
of Rome’. Development, which includes a set of 17
2. The Sustainable Development Goals have to be Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to end
poverty, fight inequality and injustice, and tackle
achieved by 2030.
climate change by 2030.
 The history of the SDGs can be traced to 1972
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? when governments met under the auspices of
(a) 1 only the United Nations Human and Environment
(b) 2 only Conference.
(c) Both 1 and 2  The ‘Club of Rome’ is a global think tank that
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 deals with a range of international political issues.

55

14
 30-01-2020

Q2) What is Rio+20 Conference, of ten mentioned in the

A-a)
news?
 The United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED), also
(a) It is the United Nations Conference on Sustainable
known as the Rio Summit or Earth Summit.
Development
(b) It is a Ministerial Meeting of the World Trade
 It was a major United Nations conference held
Organization
in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992.
(c) It is a Conference of the Inter-governmental Panel on
Climate Change
 In 2012, the United Nations Conference on
(d) It is a Conference of the Member Countries of the
Sustainable Development was also held in Rio,
Convention on Biological Diversity
and is also commonly called Rio+20 or Rio
Earth Summit 2012.
57

Q3) A World Summit with representation

from all the countries will be held in
Johannesburg in September 2002 on the
A-d)
subject of:
In September 2002 in Johannesburg
(a) AIDS control “World Conference on Sustainable
(b) global terrorism Development” was held in which
(c) human rights nearly 200 countries participated.
(d) sustainable development

59

15
 30-01-2020

Q4) Where was the World Summit on

Sustainable Development (Rio + 10) held?

(a)Davos
(b)Nova Scotia
(c)Johannesburg A-c)
(d)Shanghai

61

Thank You!
Keep learning!

16
 01-02-2020

Topics covered:-
1) Some Previous year’s questions
(2016)
2) UNFCCC
3) INTERGOVERNMENTAL
PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE
(IPCC)
4) UN-REDD Programme
Lecture 10 – 12 – Laws, Regulatory Bodies and 5) NATIONAL AFFORESTATION AND
ECO-DEVELOPMENT BOARD
Policies at national and international level 6) COMPENSATORY AFFORESTATION
FUND MANAGEMENT AND
PLANNING AUTHORITY (CAMPA)

Topics covered:- Topics covered:-

7) JOINT FOREST MANAGEMENT 1) NATIONAL MISSION FOR ELECTRIC
MOBILITY
(JFM)
2) ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION, AWARENESS
8) NATIONAL BAMBOO MISSION & TRAINING (EEAT) SCHEME
9) LIGHTING A BILLION LIVES (LABL) 3) THE ANIMAL WELFARE
10) ECO MARK 4) BOARD OF INDIA
5) CENTRAL ZOO AUTHORITY
11) URBAN SERVICES
6) THE NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY
ENVIRONMENTAL RATING SYSTEM 7) AUTHORITY (NBA) – CHENNAI
(USERS) 8) NATIONAL LAKE CONSERVATION PLAN
12) BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION & (NLCP)
9) GLOBALLY IMPORTANT AGRICULTURAL
RURAL LIVELIHOOD
HERITAGE SYSTEMS
IMPROVEMENT PROJECT (BCRLIP) 10) Some Current affairs
13) NATIONAL CLEAN ENERGY FUND 11) Some MCQ’s

1
 01-02-2020

Q-1) Consider the following pairs:

Wildlife: Naturally found in
1) Blue finned mahseer : Cauvery river
2) Irrawaddy dolphin : Chambal river
3) Rusty spotted cats : Eastern ghats

Some questions Which one of the pair given above are

from 2019 UPSC correctly matched?

(a) 1 and 2 only

Prelims (b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
5 6

Q-2) Consider the following states :

1) Chhattisgarh
2) Madhya Pradesh
A-c) 3) Maharashtra
4) Odisha
Gangetic river dolphin (Platanista
gangetica) is found in Chambal river With reference to the states mentioned above, in terms
of percentage of forest cover to the total area of State,
Irrawaddy Dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris) which one of the following is the correct ascending
is a different species. It’s found in Chilika order?
lagoon and salt-water estuaries of Odisha (a) 2-3-1-4
(b) 2-3-4-1
(c) 3-2-4-1
(d) 3-2-1-4
8

2

A-c)
Madhya Pradesh: 25%
Odisha: 31%
(1) Chattisgarh: 42%
(3) Maharashtra: 15%
Thus Maharashtra (3) is lowest and
Chattisgarh (1) is highest forest
cover in % term. So, pattern should
be 3-2-4-1. There is only one such
option C.
10
A-d)
Sulphate aerosol particles are very good
reflectors of sunlight, and it has been shown,
through various climate models, that even if
1% of current incident solar radiation is
reflected back in space, a very significant
amount of temperature rise on earth can be
offset. So, D is the closest match.
12
01-02-2020
Q-3) In the context of which of the following
do some scientists suggest the use of cirrus
cloud thinning technique and the injection of
sulphate aerosol into stratosphere?
(a) Creating the artificial rains in some regions
(b) Reducing the frequency and intensity of
tropical cyclones
(c) Reducing the adverse effects of the solar
wind on the earth
(d) Reducing the global warming
INTERGOVERNMENTAL
PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE (IPCC)
The UN General Assembly adopted a resolution, in
December 1988, on the subject and endorsed the UNEP/
WMO proposal for the setting up of the Inter-
Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
It was established by the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) and the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) in 1988 to provide the governments
of the world with a clear scientific view of what is
happening to the world’s climate.
The Secretariat coordinates all the IPCC work and liaises
with Governments. The secretariat is supported by WMO
and UNEP and hosted at WMO headquarters in Geneva.
3

⪢ It is open to all member countries of the United Nations (UN) and
WMO. Currently 195 countries are members of the IPCC.
⪢ The initial task for the IPCC as outlined in the UN General
Assembly Resolution 1988 was to prepare a comprehensive
review and recommendations with respect to the state of
knowledge of the science of climate change; social and economic
impact of climate change, and possible response strategies and
elements for inclusion in a possible future international
convention on climate.
⪢ The IPCC is a scientific body. It reviews and assesses the most
recent scientific, technical and socio-economic information
produced worldwide relevant to the understanding of climate
change.
13
 The IPCC has delivered on a regular basis the most
comprehensive scientific reports about climate
change produced worldwide, the Assessment
Reports.
 It has also responded to the need of the UNFCCC
for information on scientific and technical matters
through Special Reports, Technical Papers and
Methodology Reports.
 It has also produced methodologies and guidelines
to help Parties to the UNFCCC prepare their
15 national greenhouse gas inventories.
01-02-2020
 It does not conduct any research nor does it monitor climate
related data or parameters.
 Thousands of scientists from all over the world contribute to
the work of the IPCC on a voluntary basis.
 Review is an essential part of the IPCC process, to ensure an
objective and complete assessment of current information.
 Governments participate in the review process and the
plenary Sessions, where main decisions about the IPCC work
programme are taken and reports are accepted, adopted
and approved by endorsing the IPCC reports, governments
acknowledge the authority of their scientific content. The
work of the organization is therefore policy-relevant and yet
policy-neutral, never policy-prescriptive
14
 Reducing Emissions From
Deforestation And Forest
Degradation
 It is a global initiative negotiated
under the United Nations
Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) in
2005.
4
 01-02-2020

UN – REDD Programme
 Three UN Agencies – United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) – have collaborated in the
establishment of the UN-REDD programme, a multi-donor trust fund that allows
donors to pool resources and provide funding with the aim of significantly
reducing global emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in
developing countries.
 REDD involves a provision of incentives to the developing countries to encourage
them to "protect, better manage, and save their forest resources".
 Its original objective is to reduce greenhouse gases but it is claimed that it can
deliver co-benefits such as biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation.

National REDD+ Strategy

 REDD+ is an extension of the REDD initiative. The "+" here includes, "sustainable
management of forests, conservation, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks".
REDD+ is a more comprehensive forest management initiative which includes
incentives for conservation and sustainable management of forests, beyond a mere
reduction in deforestation.
 REDD+ initiative goes beyond deforestation and forest degradation, and includes the
role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest
carbon stocks.
 It aims at reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation,
conservation of forest carbon stocks, sustainable management of forests and
enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries. It gives emphasis to
activities that will help in sustainable livelihood of local communities and also in
conservation of biodiversity.
 MoEFCC has released National Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation (REDD+) strategy for India.
 It will support empowerment of youth cadres as community foresters to lead
charge at local level.
 Under it, Green Skill Development programme will be launched for imparting
forestry-related specialised skills among the youth.
 National REDD+ strategy will help India to fulfill its nationally determined
contribution (NDC) commitments and will also contribute to livelihood of forest
dependent population.
 It takes into consideration important role played by tribals, other forest dwelling
people and society as whole in reiterating India’s commitment to Paris Agreement.

5
 01-02-2020

NATIONAL AFFORESTATION AND ECO-DEVELOPMENT BOARD National Afforestation Programme

 A National Afforestation Programme (NAfP)
 The Ministry of Environment and Forests was launched in 2002, which involves
constituted the National Afforestation and Eco-
development Board (NAEB) in August 1992. plantation in degraded forests of the
 National Afforestation and Eco-development country.
Board has evolved specific schemes for
promoting afforestation and management  NAfP is a flagship programme of National
strategies, which help the states in developing Afforestation and Eco-development Board
specific afforestation and management
strategies and eco-development packages for (NAEB) and provides physical and capacity
augmenting biomass production through a building support to the Forest
participatory planning process of Joint Forest Development Agencies (FDAs), which are
Management and micro planning the implementing agencies.

India and REDD+

India is going to benefit from the REDD+ initiative in the following manner:
 India's sustained pro-conservation efforts and sustainable management of
India's position on REDD and REDD+ has been that the two initiatives should not be
forests which have increased the forest cover and enhanced the carbon stack
viewed in isolation. It had stressed that forest conservation and their sustainable
stand to be rewarded for its contribution towards providing carbon services to the
international community as well as for providing the local communities access to management must go hand-in-hand with the efforts to reduce deforestation. India's
traditional goods and services. stand was accepted at the 13th CoP at Bali and got incorporated in the Bali Action
 India's domestic acts, policies, and regulations have been framed in such a way Plan. Since then, REDD has come to be viewed under the broader framework of
that the benefits deriving from the REDD+ initiative shall accrue to the local REDD+.
communities. This shall further strengthen the community efforts towards forest
conservation and management.
 All REDD+ deliberations at the international level recognize, respect, an
encourage the participation of local communities in the implementation and
monitoring of REDD+ initiative.

6
 01-02-2020

Which of the following statements is/are

correct? Forest Carbon Partnership Facility
Proper design and effective implementation of UN-
REDD+ Programme can significantly contribute to
 It is a global partnership of governments, businesses, civil society, and Indigenous
1. protection of biodiversity
Peoples focused on reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation,
2. resilience of forest ecosystems
forest carbon stock conservation, the sustainable management of forests, and the
3. poverty reduction
enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries (activities commonly
Select the correct answer using the code given
referred to as REDD+).
below.
 The World Bank assumes the functions of trustee and secretariat.
a) 1 and 2 only
 The World Bank, the Inter-American Development Bank and United Nations
b) 3 only
Development Programme are Delivery Partners under the Readiness Fund and
c) 2 and 3 only
responsible for providing REDD+ readiness support.
d) 1, 2 and 3

25

Q. With reference to ‘Forest Carbon Partnership

Facility’, which of the following statements is/are
correct?
Objectives 1. It is global partnership of governments, businesses, civil
society and indigenous peoples.
 To assist countries in their REDD+ efforts by providing them with financial and 2. It provides financial aid to universities, individual
technical assistance. scientists and institutions involved in scientific forestry
 To pilot a performance-based payment system for REDD+ activities. research to develop eco-friendly and climate adaptation
 To test ways to sustain or enhance livelihoods of local communities and to conserve technologies for sustainable forest management.
biodiversity. 3. It assists the countries in their ‘REDD+ (Reducing
 To disseminate broadly the knowledge gained in Emission Reductions Programs Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degradation+)’
(ERPs) efforts by providing them with financial and technical
assistance.
Select the correct answer using the code given below
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

7
 01-02-2020

Topics covered:-
1) Some Previous year’s questions
(2016)
2) UNFCCC
3) INTERGOVERNMENTAL
PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE
(IPCC)
4) UN-REDD Programme
Lecture 10 – 12 – Laws, Regulatory Bodies and 5) NATIONAL AFFORESTATION AND
ECO-DEVELOPMENT BOARD
Policies at national and international level 6) COMPENSATORY AFFORESTATION
FUND MANAGEMENT AND
PLANNING AUTHORITY (CAMPA)

Topics covered:- Topics covered:-

7) JOINT FOREST MANAGEMENT 1) NATIONAL MISSION FOR ELECTRIC
MOBILITY
(JFM)
2) ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION, AWARENESS
8) NATIONAL BAMBOO MISSION & TRAINING (EEAT) SCHEME
9) LIGHTING A BILLION LIVES (LABL) 3) THE ANIMAL WELFARE
10) ECO MARK 4) BOARD OF INDIA
5) CENTRAL ZOO AUTHORITY
11) URBAN SERVICES
6) THE NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY
ENVIRONMENTAL RATING SYSTEM 7) AUTHORITY (NBA) – CHENNAI
(USERS) 8) NATIONAL LAKE CONSERVATION PLAN
12) BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION & (NLCP)
9) GLOBALLY IMPORTANT AGRICULTURAL
RURAL LIVELIHOOD
HERITAGE SYSTEMS
IMPROVEMENT PROJECT (BCRLIP) 10) Some Current affairs
13) NATIONAL CLEAN ENERGY FUND 11) Some MCQ’s

1

 But since afforestation is a long process and during that development of forest the goods and
services it would have otherwise provided needs to be compensated.
 Therefore the law requires that the Net Present Value (NPV) of the diverted forest shall be
recovered from the user agency and is diverting the forests.
 Consequently, if any user agency wants to divert forest and for non forest purposes, it has to
deposit money for compensatory afforestation.
 The authority thus set up to manage the fund is known as Compensatory Afforestation Fund
Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA)
01-02-2020
COMPENSATORY AFFORESTATION FUND MANAGEMENT AND PLANNING
AUTHORITY (CAMPA)
 The destruction of forests leads to loss of ecological services but because of
developmental or industrial requirements, forests are routinely cut and diverted to
non-forest purposes.
 In such cases the Forest Conservation Act 1980 requires that non-forest land shall
be a forested which will be equal to the size of the forest being diverted.
Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act 2016:
 To compensate the loss of forest area and to maintain the sustainability, the Government of
India came up with a well-defined Act, known as CAMPA (Compensatory Afforestation Fund
Management and Planning Authority).
 The law establishes the National Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account
of India, and a State Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of each
state.
 These Funds will receive payments for: (i) compensatory afforestation, (ii) net present value
of forest (NPV), and (iii) other project specific payments.
 The National Fund will receive 10% of these funds, and the State Funds will receive the
remaining 90%.
2
 01-02-2020

Issues with CAMPA:

 According to the Act’s provision,
a company diverting forest land
must provide alternative land to
take up compensatory
afforestation.
 For afforestation, the company
should pay to plant new trees in
the alternative land provided to
the state.
 In 2002, the Supreme Court had observed that collected funds for afforestation were under-
utilised by the states and it ordered for centrally pooling of funds under ad hoc
Compensatory Afforestation Fund.
 The law says that land selected for afforestation should preferably be contiguous to the
forest being diverted so that it is easier for forest officials to manage it. But if no suitable
non-forest land is found, degraded forests can be chosen for afforestation. In several states
like Chattisgarh, Odisha and Jharkhand where the intensity of mining is very high, to find the
non-forest land for afforestation to compensate the loss of forest is a big task.
 Utilisation of CAMPA fund: Several state governments are not utilising it properly. An
amount of Rs 86 lakh from CAMPA funds meant for afforestation was reportedly spent on
litigation work in Punjab.
 Moreover, at several places, the loss of natural species is compensated with plantation of
non-native species in the name of the artificial plantation. It serves as a threat to even the
existing ecosystem.

Way ahead: JOINT FOREST MANAGEMENT (JFM)

 JFM is an initiative to institutionalize participatory
 The proposed objective of the Act must be fulfilled by utilising the CAMPA funds only for the governance of country’s forest resources by involving
purpose it is meant for. It should efficiently be used only for afforestation and wildlife the local communities living close to the forest.
conservation activities.
 This is a co-management institution to develop
 A closer look at the state government activities using CAMPA funding is needed. The central partnerships between forest fringe communities and
government should adopt the concept of outcome budgeting for allocation of funds to the the Forest Department (FD) on the basis of mutual
state government in which funding will be done on installment basis by checking the trust and jointly defined roles and responsibilities with
outcome of previous funds. regard to forest protection and regeneration.

 State governments should restore the existing forests rather than creating new ones.  JFM started in consonance with the National Forest
Policy 1988, which has recognized the importance of
involving the local communities and the government
has issued necessary resolutions and guidelines
subsequently to initiate such institutions and
strengthen it further.

3

 Most of the states in India have adopted JFM and
issued resolutions permitting such partnership as per
the prescribed guidelines though the institutional
structure varies across the states.
 Under JFM, both forest departments and local
communities come to an agreement to form the
committee to manage and protect forests by sharing
the costs and benefits.
 Forest departments take the initiative to form such
committees directly by talking to the local community
or through the help of NGOs working in specific areas.
 NGOs are also involved for capacity building,
information dissemination, monitoring and evaluation
and often act as the facilitators in constituting these
participatory institutions.
Objectives of the Mission:-
 To promote the growth of bamboo sector
through an area based regionally
differentiated strategy;
 To increase the coverage of area under
bamboo in potential areas, with suitable
species to enhance yields;
 To promote marketing of bamboo and
bamboo based handicrafts;
 To establish convergence and synergy
among stakeholders for the development
of bamboo;
15
01-02-2020
NATIONAL BAMBOO MISSION
 The National Bamboo Mission is a Centrally
Sponsored Scheme with 100% contribution from
Central Government. It is being implemented by
the Horticulture Division under Department of
Agriculture and Co-operation in the Ministry of
Agriculture, New Delhi.
 Bamboo Mission envisages integration of different
Ministries/Departments and involvement of local
people/ initiatives for the holistic development of
bamboo sector in terms of growth of bamboo
through increase in area coverage, enhanced yields
and scientific management, marketing of bamboo
and bamboo based handicrafts, generation of
14 employment opportunities etc.
LIGHTING A BILLION LIVES (LABL)
 LaBL is a campaign by TERI that promotes the
use of solar lanterns specially designed and
manufactured on a decentralized basis.
 LaBL has been able to engage with government
interventions under Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan,
Madhya Pradesh Rural Livelihood Project,
Rasthriya Gramin Vikas Nidhi, and has
facilitated the spread of mobile telephony with
support from Department of
Telecommunications, Government of India.
4

LIGHTING A BILLION LIVES (LABL)
 LaBL has successfully engaged the
private sector and leveraged Corporate
Social Responsibility (CSR).
 This initiative has the potential to
contribute towards the realization of
the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) by improving energy access for
the rural poor.
ECO MARK
A government scheme of labeling of
environment friendly products to provide
accreditation and labelling for household and
other consumer products which meet certain
environmental criteria along with quality
requirements of the Bureau of Indian
Standards for that product.
 Objective - to recognize good
environmental performance as well as
improvements in performance of the unit.
01-02-2020
 Formation of more than 100 women-led Self Help
Groups (SHGs), and strengthening of around 150
SHGs are among the impacts of this initiative.
 The campaign has demonstrated how Public-Private
People partnerships can support rural development
schemes, particularly in the areas of health,
education, environment and women’s
empowerment.
 The campaign has drawn support from public sector
units and corporate, among its various partners, to
aid the execution of the programme at the scale at
which it exists today.
 Any product, which is made, used or disposed
of in a way that significantly reduces the
harm to environment, could be considered as
‘Environment Friendly Product’.
 The project would help in capacity building by
conducting training, workshops, seminars,
conference etc. on the issues pertaining to
the industry and environment interface.
 This would facilitate the change in attitude of
the stakeholders and the industry on the
need to support the proactive industry.
5
 01-02-2020

URBAN SERVICES ENVIRONMENTAL RATING

SYSTEM (USERS) Q-3) Which of the following statements is/are
 Project funded by UNDP executed by Ministry correct?
of Environment and Forests and implemented Proper design and effective implementation of
by TERI. UN-REDD+ Programme can significantly
contribute to
Aim – 1. protection of biodiversity
 to develop an analytical tool to measure the 2. resilience of forest ecosystems
performance, with respect to delivery of basic 3. poverty reduction
services in local bodies of Delhi and Kanpur.
(identified as pilot cities). Select the correct answer using the code given below.
 Performance measurement (PM) tool was (a) 1 and 2 only
developed through a set of performance (b) 3 only
measurement indicators that are benchmarked (c) 2 and 3 only
against set targets using the inputs-outputs (d) 1, 2 and 3
efficiency outcomes framework. 22

Q-4) Consider the following statements regarding

A-d)
Under REDD+ Developing country will have to
prove the ‘result’ they have fought deforestation
without harming local communities or biological
diversity. Only then, they’ll get the Money. So, 1
and 2 are correct. Answer could be “A”.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
1) It conducts its own research for assessing climate
change.
2) It is a joint initiative of World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) and United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP).

By extending the logic, forest conservation and Which of the above statements is/are correct?
SDG-jholachhap-giri ought to reduce poverty e.g. 1 only
using MNREGA labour for re-forestation 2 only
/plantation etc. REDD+ incorporates livelihood Both 1 and 2
improvement. So, #3 is correct. Answer “D”. Neither 1 nor 2

24

6
 01-02-2020

A-d)
Created in 1988 by the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) and the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP), the objective of the
IPCC is to provide governments at all levels with
scientific information that they can use to develop
climate policies. IPCC reports are also a key input into
international climate change negotiations.

The IPCC is an organization of governments that are

members of the United Nations or WMO. The IPCC
currently has 195 members. Thousands of people
Thank You!
from all over the world contribute to the work of the Keep learning!
IPCC. The IPCC does not conduct its own research

7
 03-02-2020

Topics covered:-
1) Some Previous year’s questions
(2016)
2) UNFCCC
3) INTERGOVERNMENTAL
PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE
(IPCC)
4) UN-REDD Programme
Lecture 10 – 12 – Laws, Regulatory Bodies and 5) NATIONAL AFFORESTATION AND
ECO-DEVELOPMENT BOARD
Policies at national and international level 6) COMPENSATORY AFFORESTATION
FUND MANAGEMENT AND
PLANNING AUTHORITY (CAMPA)

Topics covered:- Topics covered:-

7) JOINT FOREST MANAGEMENT 1) NATIONAL MISSION FOR ELECTRIC
MOBILITY
(JFM)
2) ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION, AWARENESS
8) NATIONAL BAMBOO MISSION & TRAINING (EEAT) SCHEME
9) LIGHTING A BILLION LIVES (LABL) 3) THE ANIMAL WELFARE BOARD OF INDIA
10) ECO MARK 4) CENTRAL ZOO AUTHORITY
5) THE NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY
11) URBAN SERVICES
6) AUTHORITY (NBA) – CHENNAI
ENVIRONMENTAL RATING SYSTEM 7) NATIONAL LAKE CONSERVATION PLAN
(USERS) (NLCP)
12) BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION & 8) GLOBALLY IMPORTANT AGRICULTURAL
HERITAGE SYSTEMS
RURAL LIVELIHOOD
9) Some Current affairs
IMPROVEMENT PROJECT (BCRLIP) 10) Some MCQ’s
13) NATIONAL CLEAN ENERGY FUND

1

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION & RURAL
LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT PROJECT (BCRLIP)
 Aim - conserving Biodiversity in selected
landscapes, including wildlife protected
areas/critical conservation areas while
improving rural livelihoods through participatory
approaches.
 Development of Joint Forest Management (JFM)
and eco-development in some states are models
of new approaches to provide benefits to both
conservation and local communities.
5 6
NATIONAL CLEAN ENERGY FUND
“ “
 ‘National Clean Energy Fund’ (NCEF) was
constituted in the public account of India in
the Finance Bill 2010-11.
 Objective - to invest in entrepreneurial
ventures and research & innovative projects
in the field of clean energy technology.
 The Central Board of Excise and Customs
consequently notified the Clean Energy Cess
Rules 2010 under which producers of
specified goods namely raw coal, raw lignite
and raw peat were made liable to pay Clean
7 Energy Cess.
03-02-2020
 The project intends to expand to other globally
significant sites in the country to strengthen
linkages between conservation and improving
livelihoods of local communities that live in the
neighborhood of biodiversity rich areas-as well
as to enhance the local and national economy.
 The Project would be implemented as a
Centrally Sponsored Scheme with five
financiers (IDA loan, GEF grant, contributions
from Government of India, State Governments
and beneficiaries), amounting to around Rs.
137.35 crores, spread over six years.
 Any project with innovative
methods to adopt to clean
energy technology and research
& development shall be eligible
for funding under the NCEF.
 Government assistance under
the NCEF shall in no case exceed
40% of the total project cost.
 Indo-French Project to Study
Effects of Climate Change on
Farming.
8
2

 The project would explore
“
adaptation strategies based on
innovative cropping systems and
water resource management
policies, by considering a range of
scenarios for agricultural systems
and policies, to be tested at the farm
and the watershed scale.
 The methodology will combine
remote sensing, field surveys and
advanced numerical analysis with
hydrological, agronomical and
economic modelling, and will pay
particular attention to sustainability
9 and acceptability issues.
Barriers
Higher cost of Electric Vehicles,
Challenges in battery technology,
Consumer mindset, Inadequate
government support.
03-02-2020
NATIONAL ELECTRIC MOBILITY MISSION
PLAN
 In 2013, a National Electric Mobility Mission Plan
(NEMMP) 2020 is launched by the GOI to promote
electric mobility and manufacturing of electric vehicles
in India.
 The setting up of National Council for Electric Mission
(NCEM) has been influenced by the following three
factors:-
1. Fast dwindling petroleum resources.
2. Impact of vehicles on the environment and climate
change.
3. Worldwide shift of the automobile industry towards
more efficient drive technologies and alternative fuels
including electric vehicles
3
 03-02-2020

ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION, AWARENESS &

TRAINING (EEAT) SCHEME
EEAT a Central Scheme launched during the 6th Five Year Plan in 1983-84 with
the following objectives:

1. To promote environmental awareness among all sections of the society.

2. To spread environment education, especially in the nonformal system.
3. To facilitate development of education/training materials and aids in the
formal education sector.
4. To promote environment education through existing educational/scientific
institutions.
5. To ensure training and manpower development for EEAT.

The Animal Welfare Board of India is a statutory

6) To encourage NGOs, mass media and other
concerned organizations for promoting awareness
about environmental issues.
7) To use different media (audio & visual) for spreading
messages concerning environment and awareness
and,
8) To mobilize people’s participation for preservation
and conservation of environment
1 advisory body on Animal Welfare Laws and
promotes animal welfare in the country.
THE ANIMAL WELFARE
BOARD OF INDIA
The Animal Welfare Board of India, the first of its
kind to be established by any Government in the
2 world, was set up in 1962, in accordance with
Section 4 of the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
Acts 1960.
Shrimati Rukmini Devi Arundale pioneered the
setting up of the Board, with its Headquaters at
3
Chennai. She guided the activities of the Board
for nearly twenty years till her demise in 1986

4
 03-02-2020

Functions

To keep the law in force in India for

the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
UPSC 2014
under constant study and to advise
the government on the amendments
to be undertaken in any such law
from time to time.
17

CENTRAL ZOO AUTHORITY Functions

 The amendment made to the Wild Life (Protection) Act
in 1991 added a new chapter dealing with zoos to the
Act and allowed for the Central Government to
constitute an authority known as the Central Zoo
Authority to oversee the functioning and development
of zoos in the country.
 According to the provisions of this chapter, only such
zoos which were operated in accordance with the norms
and standards prescribed by the Central Zoo Authority
would be granted ‘recognition’ to operate by the
Authority.
The following are the functions of the Central Zoo
Authority as specified in the Act:
1. To specify the minimum standards for
housing, upkeep and veterinary care of
animals kept in a zoo
2. To evaluate and assess the functioning of zoos
with respect to the standards or the norms as
are prescribed
3. To recognize and derecognize zoos.

5

THE NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY
AUTHORITY (NBA) – CHENNAI
 The National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) was
established in 2003 to implement India’s Biological
Diversity Act (2002).
 The NBA is a Statutory, Autonomous Body and it
performs facilitative, regulatory and advisory
function for the Government of India on issues of
conservation, sustainable use of biological
resources and fair and equitable sharing of benefits
arising out of the use of biological resources
NATIONAL LAKE CONSERVATION
PLAN (NLCP)
Ministry of Environment and Forests has been implementing the National Lake
Conservation Plan (NLCP) since 2001 for conservation and management of polluted
and degraded lakes in urban and semi-urban areas
Objective
 to restore and conserve the urban and semi-urban lakes of the country degraded
due to waste water discharge into the lake and other unique freshwater eco
systems, through an integrated ecosystem approach.
Activities Covered Under NLCP
 Prevention of pollution from point sources by intercepting, diverting and treating
the pollution loads entering the lake. The interception and diversion works may
include sewerage & sewage treatment for the entire lake catchment area.
03-02-2020
Objectives of the NBA
 Anybody seeking any kind of intellectual property rights on a
research based upon biological resource or knowledge obtained
from India has to obtain prior approval of the NBA.
 The NBA will impose benefit-sharing conditions.
 For ensuring equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use
of biological resources and associated knowledge, Sections 19
and 21 stipulate prior approval of the National Biodiversity
Authority (NBA) before their access.
 Ensures protection to the knowledge of local people relating to
biodiversity through measures such as registration of such
knowledge.
GLOBALLY IMPORTANT AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE
SYSTEMS
 In 2002, the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the
United Nations launched an initiative called GIAHS.
 It aims to recognize, conserve and manage best agricultural
biodiversity knowledge systems, food and livelihood security
and cultures throughout the world.
 The project aims to identify around 100 to 150 agricultural
heritage systems in the world that would be protected and
managed for their traditional knowledge.
 In our country so far the following sites have received
recognition under this programme:
1. Traditional Agricultural System, Koraput, Odisha
2. Below Sea Level Farming System, Kuttanad, Kerala
24 3. Pampore Saffron Heritage of Kashmir.
6
 03-02-2020

 The Koraput region situated in the  Kuttanad Wetland Agriculture System is

Eastern Ghats is a high land plateau
with number of hills and hillocks.
 The tribal people have indigenous
knowledge system for their various
agricultural practices.
 For example, they use their
traditional knowledge to check
viability of seeds before sowing,
maintain soil fertility and conserve
the landraces (old seed strains which
are farmer-selected in areas where
subsistence agriculture prevails
largely) of rice and other crops.
 The knowledge is transmitted from
generation to generation by families.
26
unique, as it is the only system in India that
favours rice cultivation below sea level in the
land created by draining delta swamps in
brackish waters.
 As an approach to cope with the imminent
climate impacts in coastal areas and evolve
efficient methods it aims to deal with soil
availability and floods issues in agriculture.
 The Kuttanad system is a complex mosaic of
fragmented agricultural landscapes divided in
three structures: wetlands used for paddy
activities and fish catching, garden lands used
for coconut, tubers and food crops plantation
and water areas used as inland fishing and
shells.

 Saffron is mentioned in the 5th century

B.C in Kashmiri records and is still part
of the agricultural economy. Integrated
an annual crop system, Saffron is also a
cash crop. With respect to occupation,
only 1 per cent of saffron growers are
dependent on any other agriculture.

 Saffron is part of the cultural heritage

of the Region, associated with the

Thank You!
famous Kashmiri cuisine, its medicinal
values and the rich cultural heritage of
Kashmir. Looking at the social Keep learning!
organization, Kashmiri women are
behind the whole saffron story being
the custodian of the knowledge.

7
 04-02-2020

Topics covered:-
1) CARBON SEQUESTRATION
2) CARBON SINK
3) Green Carbon
4) Blue Carbon
5) International Cooperation
6) CARBON CREDIT
7) CARBON OFFSETTING
Lecture 12 – Mitigation strategies 8) CARBON FERTILIZATION
9) CARBON TAX
10) GEO-ENGINEERING

Sinks
CARBON SEQUESTRATION  Carbon sequestration may be carried out by pumping
 Carbon capture and storage, also known as CCS or carbon
carbon into ‘carbon sinks’— an area that absorbs carbon.
sequestration, describes the technologies designed to tackle global
 Natural sinks - Oceans, forests, soil etc.
warming by capturing CO2 at power stations, industrial sites or
even directly from the air and permanently storing it underground.
 Artificial sinks - Depleted oil reserves, unmineable mines,
 Carbon sequestration describes long-term storage of carbon etc.
dioxide or other forms of carbon to either mitigate or defer global
warming.  Carbon capture has actually been in use for years. The oil
and gas industries have used carbon capture for decades as
 It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine a way to enhance oil and gas recovery. Only recently have
accumulation of greenhouse gases, which are released by burning
we started thinking about capturing carbon for
fossil fuels.
environmental reasons.
3 4

1
 04-02-2020

There are three main steps to carbon

Types of Sequestration:
capture and storage (CCS)–
 trapping and separating the CO2 from

other gases,  There are number of technologies

 transporting this captured CO2 to a storage under investigation for sequestering
location, and carbon from the atmosphere. These
 storing that CO2 far away from the
can be discussed under three main
atmosphere (underground or deep in the
categories:
ocean).
5 6

OCEAN SEQUESTRATION TERRESTRIAL SEQUESTRATION

 A large amount of carbon is
stored in soils and vegetation,
which are our natural carbon
 Carbon stored in sinks.
oceans through
 Increasing carbon fixation
direct injection or through photosynthesis,
fertilization. slowing down or reducing
decomposition of organic
matter, and changing land use
practices can enhance carbon
uptake in these natural sinks.

2

GEOLOGICAL SEQUESTRATION
 Natural pore spaces in geologic formations serve
as reservoirs for long-term carbon dioxide
storage.
 Geologic Sequestration is thought to have the
largest potential for near-term application.
CARBON SINK
Unlike black and brown carbon that
contribute to atmospheric green house gases,
green and blue carbon sequestrate the
atmosphere green house gases
04-02-2020
Geologic Sequestration Trapping Mechanisms
 Hydrodynamic Trapping: Carbon dioxide can be
trapped as a gas under low-permeability cap rock
(much like natural gas is stored in gas reservoirs).
 Solubility Trapping: Carbon dioxide can be
dissolved into a liquid, such as water or oil.
 Mineral Carbonation: Carbon dioxide can react
with the minerals, fluids, and organic matter in a
geologic formation to form stable
compounds/minerals; largely calcium, iron, and
magnesium carbonates.
 Carbon dioxide can be effectively stored in the
earth’s subsurface by hydrodynamic trapping and
solubility trapping - usually a combination of the
two is most effective.
Green Carbon
 Green carbon is carbon removed by photosynthesis and
stored in the plants and soil of natural ecosystems and is a
vital part of the global carbon cycle.
 Many plants and most crops, have short lives and release
much of their carbon at the end of each season, but forest
biomass accumulates carbon over decades and centuries.
 Furthermore, forests can accumulate large amounts of CO2
in relatively short periods, typically several decades.
 Afforestation and reforestation are measures that can be
taken to enhance biological carbon sequestration.
3
 04-02-2020

Blue Carbon
 Blue Carbon refers to coastal, aquatic and Blue Carbon
marine carbon sinks held by the indicative Furthermore, coastal
vegetation, marine organism and sediments.
ecosystems have been found to
 In particular, coastal ecosystems such as tidal store huge quantities of carbon
marshes, mangroves, and seagrasses remove
carbon from the atmosphere and ocean, storing
in organic rich sediments - up to
it in plants and depositing it in the sediment 5 times more carbon than many
below them by natural processes. temperate and tropical forests.
 These coastal ecosystems are very efficient at
sequestering and storing carbon - each square These ecosystems are found in
mile of these systems can remove carbon from
the atmosphere and oceans at rates higher than
all continents, except Antarctica.
each square mile of mature tropical forests.

Why is Blue Carbon Ecosystem Important?

 Preventing degradation and destruction and

promoting restoration of coastal ecosystems is a The Blue Carbon Initiative
significant tool to mitigate climate change.

 The coastal ecosystems of mangroves, tidal
marshes, and seagrasses are some of the most
rapidly disappearing natural systems on Earth.
 When lost they not only stop sequestering carbon
but also release their stores of carbon and become
new sources of climate change causing carbon
emissions which can last for centuries.
The Blue Carbon Initiative is the first
integrated program with a comprehensive
and coordinated global agenda focused on
mitigating climate change through the
conservation and restoration of coastal
marine ecosystems.

15 16

4

International Cooperation
 Conservation International (CI), the International
Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), and the
Intergovernmental Oceanic Commission (IOC) of
UNESCO is collaborating with governments, research
institutions, non-governmental and international
organizations, and communities around the world to
 Develop management approaches, financial
incentives and policy mechanisms for ensuring
conservation and restoration of coastal Blue Carbon
ecosystems;
 Engage local, national, and international
governments to ensure policies and regulations
support coastal Blue Carbon conservation,
management and financing;
CARBON CREDIT:
 A carbon credit is a tradeable
certificate or permit representing
the right to emit one tonne of
carbon or carbon dioxide
equivalent (tCO2e).
 One carbon credit is equal to one
ton of carbon dioxide, or in some
markets, carbon dioxide
equivalent gases.
04-02-2020
International Cooperation
 Develop comprehensive methods for coastal carbon
accounting;
 Develop incentive mechanisms such as carbon
payment schemes for Blue Carbon projects; and
 Implement projects around the world that
demonstrate the feasibility of coastal Blue Carbon
accounting, management, and incentive agreements;
 Support scientific research into the role and
importance of coastal Blue Carbon ecosystems for
climate change mitigation.
How does one earn a carbon credit?
An organisation which produces one tonne
less of carbon or carbon dioxide equivalent
than the standard level of carbon emission
allowed for its outfit or activity, earns a
carbon credit.
5
 04-02-2020

How does it help? Developing countries

Countries which are signatories to the Kyoto Protocol under
the UNFCCC have laid down gas emission norms for their
companies to be met by 2012. In such cases, a company has
two ways to reduce emissions.
(i) It can reduce the GHG (greenhouse gases) by adopting
new technology or improving upon the existing
technology to attain the new norms for emission of
gases.
(ii) It can tie up with developing nations and help them
set up new technology that is eco-friendly, thereby
helping developing country or its companies ‘earn’
credits. This credit becomes a permit for the company
to emit GHGs in its own country. However, only a
portion of carbon credits of the company in
developing country can be transferred to the company
in developed country.
 Developing countries like India and China are
likely to emerge as the biggest sellers and
Europe is going to be the biggest buyers of
carbon credits.
 Last year global carbon credit trading was
estimated at $5 billion, with India’s
contribution at around $1 billion.
 China is currently the largest seller of carbon
credits controlling about 70% of the market
share.
 Carbon, like any other commodity, has begun
to be traded on India’s Multi Commodity
Exchange.
 MCX has become first exchange in Asia to
trade carbon credits.

CARBON OFFSETTING:
 Carbon offsetting is often the fastest way to achieve the
 Carbon offsets are credits for reductions in
deepest reductions within businesses and it also often
greenhouse gas emissions made at another
delivers added benefits at the project site, such as
location, such as wind farms which create
employment opportunities, community development
renewable energy and reduce the need for
programmes and training and education.
fossil-fuel powered energy.
 For a carbon offset to be credible it must meet essential
 Carbon offsets are quantified and sold in
quality criteria, including proof that it is additional (the
metric tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent
reduction in emissions would not have occurred without
(CO2e).
the carbon finance), that it will be retired from the
carbon market so it cannot be double counted, and that
 Buying one tonne of carbon offsets means
it addresses issues such as permanence (it delivers the
there will be one less tonne of carbon
reductions it stated) and leakage (the emission reduction
dioxide in the atmosphere than there would
in one area doesn’t cause an increase in emissions
otherwise have been.
somewhere else)
24

6

Example:
CARBON FERTILIZATION
 Business A1 is unable to reduce 100 tonnes of its CO2
emissions in the short term.
 There is a project somewhere else in the world which could
save 100 tonnes easily, but they need a cash injection.
 For example, a community in India could swap from carbon
intensive kerosene as an energy source to solar panels –
but they can’t afford the solar panels.
 Through the purchase of carbon offsets, you provide the
financial assistance to subsidise the cost of getting solar
panels onto housing, and through that means you have
enabled a saving of 100 tonnes of CO2.
 Business A1 has therefore reduced global net CO2
emissions by 100 tonnes.
 The added benefit is that Business A1 has helped facilitate a
25
step change in local technology in a developing market.
Positive effects of increased CO2 on plants
 More growth in C3 plants
When the CO2, concentration of the atmosphere is more or less doubled, the
growth of many plants i.e., C3 plants in particular, under favourable
conditions of water, nutrients, light and temperature, could increase by about
thirty percent on average, in the short term of few years or so.
 Plants could grow in regions of water scarcity
Due to increased carbon-dioxide concentration, the rate of photosynthesis
also increases, and the stomatal conductance decreases due to partial closure
of stomata. Hence, the transpiration rate reduces, and water-use efficiency
increases. Such effect allows many species to grow successfully in regions of
water scarcity.
27
04-02-2020
 The enhancement of the growth of plants as a
result of increased atmospheric CO2
concentration is known as carbon fertilization.
 The atmospheric carbon-dioxide concentration
has been rapidly rising since 1959 . If such rising
trend continues, by the end of twenty first
century the atmospheric concentration of CO2
shall increase to a level between 540 and 970
ppm.
 Depending on their mechanism of
photosynthesis, certain types of plants are more
sensitive to changes in atmospheric CO2
concentration.
 C3 plants are those plants where the first product of
photosynthesis is a 3 carbon compound i.e.
phosphoglyceric acid (PGA) while C4 plants are
those plants where the first product of photosynthesis is a
4 carbon compound i.e oxaloacetic acid (OAA).
 About 85% of plant species are C3 plants. They include the
cereal grains: wheat, rice, barley, oats. Peanuts, cotton,
sugar beets, tobacco, spinach, soybeans, and most trees
are C3 plants. Most lawn grasses such as rye and fescue
are C3 plants.
7

Positive effects of increased CO2 on plants
 Plants could grow in poor soils
Under higher atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations, plants allocate, a
greater proportion of photosynthate to roots. However, greater root
production increases development of mycorrhiza and fixation of nitrogen in
root nodules, thus, makes possible the plants to grow in soils which are poor
in nutrition.
CARBON TAX:
“
 Carbon tax is the potential alternative to
the ‘cap and trade’ method currently
used by the protocol. This tax is based
on the amount of carbon contained in a
fuel such as coal, etc.
 The aim of this tax is to cause less fossil
fuel use and hopefully cause an
incentive to use other sources of energy.
 If the carbon tax was implemented it
would be gradual and start at a low
amount and increase over time to allow
better industry and technology to be
31 developed.
04-02-2020
Negative effects of increased CO2 on plants
 There is no real-world situation, in which only CO2 increases, all else remaining
equal. Those other effects of increased atmospheric CO2, namely increased
temperatures and altered moisture regimes, generally have adverse effects on
growth.
Five primary reasons why a carbon tax could prove more
beneficial than the ‘cap and trade’ system.
1. Predictability – the tax could help predict energy
prices which might also help investments in energy
efficiency and alternate fuels.
2. Implementation - a carbon tax could be put into use
much quicker compared to the legalities that go along
with the ‘cap and trade’ method.
3. Understandable – the carbon tax is simpler to
understand and may therefore be embraced more by
everyday people
4. Lack of Manipulation – special interest groups have
less of a chance to manipulate a carbon tax because
of its simplicity.
5. Rebates – like other forms of taxes, the carbon tax
could be open for rebates to the public
8
 04-02-2020

India’s Position on carbon tax:

 India will bring a WTO challenge against any “carbon
taxes” that rich countries impose on Indian imports.
GEO-ENGINEERING:
 Geo-engineering primarily aims at modifying and cooling
 “If they impose such a tax, we will take them to the Earth’s environment, defeating the environmental damage and
WTO dispute settlement forum,” “We will deal [with ensuing climate changes to make the planet more inhabitable.
this] through hard negotiations. Such barriers are not Geoengineering, at this point, is still only a theoretical Concept
going to be WTO-compatible and we will fight it.” - the
minister, MoEF
 Hoisting parasols, placing mirrors in space, whitening the
 Both United States and European Union have discussed stratosphere with sulfate aerosols, whitewashing building roofs
the possibility of imposing tariffs or other forms of to reflect sunlight or flinging iron filings into the ocean to
“border carbon adjustment” on goods imported from promote carbon-gulping algae are some of the modes.
countries with tax regulations on greenhouse gas
emissions.

How Geoengineering Works:

5 Big Plans to Stop Global Warming
2. Shoot Mirrors Into Space
1. Copy a Volcano
 A volcanic eruption can bellow many million tons of
sulfur-dioxide gas into the atmosphere, creating a cloud
In order to deflect enough sunlight
that blocks some of the sun’s radiation. By injecting the to bring the Earth’s climate back to
atmosphere with sulfur, some scientists believe they
could likewise block solar radiation and potentially cool its pre-industrial level, geoengineers
the planet. plan to launch a mirror, the size of
 Those droplets are particularly good at scattering the Greenland and strategically position
sun’s light back out into space. And because sulfur
doesn’t heat the stratosphere as much as other aerosols,
it between the planet and the sun.
it wouldn’t work against the cooling effect. Hydrogen
sulfide is an even better candidate for atmospheric
35
seeding than sulfur dioxide.

9
 04-02-2020

3. Seed the Sea with Iron
 Scientist suggests iron will be the key to turn
things around. Phytoplankton, which dwell
near the surface, prefer iron.
 They are also adapt at pulling carbon out of
the atmosphere during photosynthesis.
 When they die after about 60 days, the carbon
the organisms have consumed falls to the
bottom of the ocean.
 By pumping iron into the sea and stimulating
phytoplankton to grow like crazy, scientist
believe, global warming could be reversed.
4. Whiten the Clouds with Wind-Powered
Ships
 Scientist hopes, like the volcanic eruption,
the tops of clouds also reflect solar
radiation. Spraying a lot of seawater into
the sky by wind powered remotely
activated ships to whiten the clouds and
thus it will reflect solar radiation.

5. Build Fake Trees How sequestrated CO2 can be

 “artificial tree,” a scaled-down version of an earlier prototype
capable of capturing a ton of carbon in the atmosphere per day. commercials used?
 Panels covering the surface of the tree--which would need to be
about 50 square meters--will be made of an absorbent resin  Horticulturists need CO2 in greenhouses for plants to use
that reacts with carbon dioxide in the air to form a solid.
 It can be compared to a furnace filter, capable of pulling
during photosynthesis,
particles out of the air.
 The panels, or “boxes,” can be removed and exposed to 113 F  For dry ice production, and
steam, which effectively cleans the filter.
 The chemical reaction with the steam causes the solid to release  For developing new kinds of plastic and concrete that can
the carbon it has captured, which can then seize as liquid CO2.
 But pulling carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is only half the
be made with CO2.
battle--afterwards it must be sequestered, or permanently
trapped.

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 04-02-2020

Drawbacks
 Scientists have no idea whether they could shut
down some of these geoengineering projects once
they start.
 Geoengineering treats the symptoms of global
warming, and could very well undermine efforts
to address the root cause.
 people may feel as though they don’t need to
reduce their personal carbon emissions and
companies may continue to conduct business as
usual, expecting researchers to clean up the mess.
 The cost, maintenance for geoengineering
41
projects are too high.

11
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45

48

12
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Thank You!
Keep learning!

13

Lecture 13 – India and climate change
Topics covered:-
8) INDIA’S POLICY STRUCTURE
RELEVANT TO GHG MITIGATION
9) INTRODUCTION OF LABELLING
PROGRAMME FOR APPLIANCES
10) ENERGY CONSERVATION
BUILDING CODE
11) Green Building
12) Green Rating for Integrated
Habitat Assessment (GRIHA)
13) ENERGY AUDITS OF LARGE
INDUSTRIAL CONSUMERS
14) MASS TRANSPORT
10-02-2020
Topics covered:-
1) PYQs
2) INDIA’S POSITION ON CLIMATE
CHANGE
3) OBSERVED CLIMATE AND
WEATHER CHANGES IN INDIA
4) CURRENT ACTIONS FOR
ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION
5) INDC
6) INDIAN NETWORK ON CLIMATE
CHANGE ASSESSMENT
7) NATIONAL COMMUNICATION
(NATCOM)
Topics covered:-
15) CLEAN AIR INITIATIVES
16) PROMOTION OF ENERGY SAVING
DEVICES
17) PROMOTION OF BIOFUELS
18) INDIAN SOLAR LOAN PROGRAMME
19) NATIONAL INITIATIVE ON CLIMATE
RESILIENT AGRICULTURE (NICRA)
20) BSE-GREENEX
21) FAME-INDIA PROGRAMME
22) LONG TERM ECOLOGICAL
OBSERVATORIES (LTEO)
23) Enhancing Energy Efficiency in
Industries
24) Some current affairs
25) Practice MCQ’s.
1

Some PYQ’s
5 6
A-b)
 This plant is a native of Mexico, and
spread throughout India.
 It’s an aggressive colonizer, common
weed of wastelands, scrublands and
degraded forests.
 Since it’s mention under the head of
invasive alien species so it’d reduce
biodiversity in the area, Hence Option B.
10-02-2020
Q1) Why is a plant called Prosopis juliflora often
mentioned in news ? [UPSC 2018]
a) Its extract is widely used in cosmetics.
b) It tends to reduce the biodiversity in the area
in which it grows.
c) Its extract is used in the synthesis of pesticides.
d) None of the above
Q2) Consider the following statements
1) Most of the world’s coral reefs are in tropical waters.
2) More than one-third of the world’s coral reefs are
located in the territories of Australia, Indonesia and
Philippines.
3) Coral reefs host far more number of animal phyla than
those hosted by tropical rainforests.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
2
 10-02-2020

A-d)

 Coral reefs are found in tropical and

subtropical regions. so yes #1 is indeed
right.

 Indonesia 18%, Australia: 17% and

Philippines: 9% so collectively that’ll be
more than 33%. Hence #2 is right.

 Coral reefs include a wide range of

diversity with 32 of the 34 animal phyla
present, in contrast to only 9 phyla
represented in tropical rainforest.

 Thus, answer is D: 1, 2 and 3 10

Q3) With reference to solar power production in India,

consider the following statements:
1) India is the third largest in the world in the manufacture
of silicon wafers used in photovoltaic units.
2) The solar power tariffs are determined by the Solar
Energy Corporation of India.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2

11 12

3

A-d)
 There is no significant production
of silicon wafers in India (as of
2011). So unlikely that it became
3rd largest by 2017-18. So, #1 is
wrong.
 Tariffs are determined under the
Electricity Act. Any entity with
“Corporation” word is irrelevant.
so, #2 is wrong.
14
A-a)
 Studies have shown that increased
concentrations of carbon dioxide
increase photosynthesis, spurring
plant growth.
 Results showed that carbon
dioxide fertilization explains 70
percent of the greening effect.
16
10-02-2020
Q4) Which of the following statements best describes
“carbon fertilization”?
a) Increased plant growth due to increased concentration
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
b) Increased temperature of Earth due to increased
concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
c) Increased acidity of oceans as a result of increased
concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
d) Adaptation of all living beings on Earth to the climate
change brought about by the increased concentration of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
Q5) The term “sixth mass extinction/sixth extinction” is often mentioned in
the news in the context of the discussion of
a) Widespread monoculture practices in agriculture and large-scale
commercial farming with indiscriminate use of chemicals in many parts
of the world that may result in the loss of good native ecosystems.
b) Fears of a possible collision of a meteorite with the Earth in the near
future in the manner it happened 65 million years ago that caused the
mass extinction of many species including those of dinosaurs. .
c) Large scale cultivation of genetically modified crops in many parts of
the world and promoting their cultivation in other parts of the world
which may cause the disappearance of good native crop plants and the
loss of food biodiversity.
d) Mankind’s over-exploitation/misuse of natural resources,
fragmentation/loss of natural habitats, destruction of ecosystems,
pollution and global climate change.
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 10-02-2020

A-d)
 Scientists are, in fact, even suggesting that
the sixth mass extinction is underway as
there is a species loss of 100–1000 every INDIA’S POSITION
year.
ON CLIMATE
 The normal background extinction rate is
about 10–25 species per year. Habitat loss, CHANGE
overpopulation of humans, pollution, over-
harvesting and invasive species invasion are
cited as the main reasons.

 India emitted 2,136.84 million tonnes
of CO2 equivalent greenhouse gases in
2010.
 Energy sector was the prime
contributor to emissions and with 71%
of total emissions in 2010. Energy
sector includes - electricity production,
fuel combustion in industries,
transport and fugitive emissions.
 About 12% of emissions were offset by carbon sink action of forests and croplands,
considering which the national GHG emissions are arrived at a total of 1,884.31
million tonnes of CO2 equivalent.
 India’s per capita GHG emission in 2010 was 1.56 tCO2 equivalent, which is less than
one- third of the world’s per capita emissions and far below than many developed
and developing countries.
 A reduction of emission intensity of GDP by about 12% between 2005 and 2010 has
been achieved against our voluntary pledge to reduce the emission intensity of its
GDP by 20–25 per cent by 2020, compared with the 2005 level.

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 10-02-2020

 India will continue to be a low-carbon economy (World Bank study).

 India’s primary focus is on “adaptation”, with specific focus for

“mitigation”. OBSERVED
 India has already unveiled a comprehensive National Action Plan on CLIMATE AND
Climate Change whose activities are in the public domain. WEATHER
 India advocates collaborative research in future lowcarbon technology CHANGES IN INDIA
and access to intellectual property rights (IPRs) as global public goods.

Surface Temperature

 At the national level, increase of — 0.4° C

has been observed in surface air
1)Surface Temperature temperatures over the past century.
2)Rainfall  A warming trend has been observed along
the west coast, in central India, the interior
3)Extreme Weather Events peninsula, and north-eastern India.
4)Rise in Sea Level  However, cooling trends have been
observed in north-west India and parts of
5)Impacts on Himalayan Glaciers south India.

23

6

Rainfall
 While the observed monsoon rainfall at
the all-India level does not show any
significant trend, regional monsoon
variations have been recorded.
 A trend of increasing monsoon seasonal
rainfall has been found along the west
coast, northern Andhra Pradesh, and
north-western India (+10% to +12% of
the normal over the last 100 years)
while a trend of decreasing monsoon
seasonal rainfall has been observed
over eastern Madhya Pradesh, north-
eastern India, and some parts of
Gujarat and Kerala (-6% to —8% of the
normal over the last 100 years).
Rise in Sea Level
 The records of coastal tide gauges
in the north Indian Ocean for
more than 40 years, reports that
sea level rise was between 1.06-
1.75 mm per year.
 These rates are consistent with 1-
2 mm per year global sea level rise
estimates of IPCC.
10-02-2020
Extreme Weather Events
 Instrument records over the past 130
years do not indicate any marked long-
term trend in the frequencies of large-
scale droughts and floods. Trends are
however observed in multi-decadal
periods of more frequent droughts,
followed by less severe droughts.
 There has been an overall increasing
trend in severe storm incidence along
the coast at the rate of 0.011 events per
year. While the states of West Bengal
and Gujarat have reported increasing
trends, a decline has been observed in
Orissa.
Impacts on Himalayan Glaciers
 The Himalayas possess one of the largest resources of snow
and ice and its glaciers form a source of water for the
perennial rivers such as the Indus, the Ganga, and the
Brahmaputra.
 Glacial melt may impact their long-term lean-season flows,
with adverse impacts on the economy in terms of water
availability and hydropower generation.
 The available monitoring data on Himalayan glaciers
indicates that while recession of some glaciers has occurred
in some Himalayan regions in recent years, the trend is not
consistent across the entire mountain chain.
 It is accordingly, too early to establish long-term trends, or
their causation, in respect of which there are several
hypotheses.
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 10-02-2020

 Adaptation, in the context of climate change, comprises the measures taken to

minimize the adverse impacts of climate change, e.g. relocating the communities
living close to the sea shore, for instance, to cope with the rising sea level or
switching to crops that can withstand higher temperatures.
 Mitigation comprises measures to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases that
cause climate change in the first place, e.g. by switching to renewable sources of
energy such as solar energy or wind energy, or nuclear energy instead of burning
fossil fuel in thermal power stations.
CURRENT ACTIONS  Current Indian government expenditure on adaptation to climate variability,
FOR ADAPTATION exceeds 2.6% of the GDP, with agriculture, water resources, health and sanitation,
forests, coastal-zone infrastructure and extreme weather events, being specific
AND MITIGATION areas of concern.

AGRICULTURE
CROP IMPROVEMENT
 Two risk-financing programmes
support adaptation to climate
impacts. The present programmes address
measures such as development of
 The Crop Insurance Scheme sup- arid-land crops and pest
ports the insurance of farmers management, as well as capacity
against climate risks, and the Credit
building of extension workers and
Support Mechanism facilitates the
extension of credit to farmers, NGOs to support better vulnerability
especially for crop failure due to reducing practices.
climate variability.

8

DROUGHT PROOFING
 The current programmes seek to minimize
the adverse effects of drought on production
of crops and livestock, and on productivity of
land, water and human resources, so as to
ultimately lead to drought proofing of the
affected areas.
 They also aim to promote overall economic
development and improve the socio-
economic conditions of the resource poor
and disadvantaged sections inhabiting the
programme areas.
33
WATER
The National Water Policy stresses that
non-conventional methods for
utilization of water, including interbasin
transfers, artificial recharge of
groundwater, and desalination of
brackish or sea water, as well as
traditional water conservation
practices like rainwater harvesting,
including roof-top rainwater
harvesting, should be practised to
increase the utilizable water resources.
Many states now have mandatory
water harvesting programmes in
several cities.
10-02-2020
FORESTRY
 India has a strong and rapidly growing afforestation
programme. The afforestation process was accelerated by
the enactment of the Forest Conservation Act of 1980,
which aimed at stopping the clearing and degradation of
forests through a strict, centralized control of the rights to
use forest land and mandatory requirements of
compensatory afforestation in case of any diversion of
forest land for any non-forestry purpose.
 In addition an aggressive afforestation and sustainable
forest management programme resulted in annual
reforestation of 1.78 mha during 1985-1997, and is
currently 1.1 mha annually. Due to this, the carbon stocks in
Indian forests have increased over the last 20 years (during
1986 to 2005) to 9 -10 gigatons of carbon (GtC).
COASTAL REGIONS
 In coastal regions, restrictions have been
imposed in the area between 200m and
500m of the HTL (high tide line) while special
restrictions have been imposed in the area up
to 200m to protect the sensitive coastal
ecosystems and prevent their exploitation.
 This, simultaneously, addresses the concerns
of the coastal population and their livelihood.
Some specific measures taken in this regard
include construction of coastal protection
infrastructure and cyclone shelters, as well as
plantation of coastal forests and mangroves.
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 10-02-2020

DISASTER MANAGEMENT
HEALTH  The National Disaster
Management programme
The prime objective present of provides grants-in-aid to victims
health programmes is the of weather related disasters, and
surveillance and control of vector manages disaster relief
borne diseases such as Malaria, Kala- operations.
azar, Japanese Encephalitis, Filaria
and Dengue. Programmes also  It also supports proactive disaster
provide for emergency medical relief prevention programmes,
in the case of natural calamities, and including dissemination of
to train and develop human information and training of
resources for these tasks. disaster-management staff.

 Conference of Parties (COP) of United Nations Framework Convention on

Climate Change (UNFCCC) at 19th Session held in Warsaw in November 2013
invited all Parties to initiate domestic preparations for their INDC towards
achieving the objective of the Convention and to communicate them, well in
advance of the 21st session of the Conference of Parties.

 The concept of ‘Nationally Determined Contributions’, taking into account

INDC the outcomes of both Warsaw COP 19 and Lima COP 20 has to
(i) reflect the principles of equity and Common But Differentiated
Responsibilities (CBDR) and
(ii) the Country’s contributions must be seen in a balanced and
comprehensive context.

10
 10-02-2020

 INDC outlines the post-2020 climate actions

they intend to take under a new international
agreement.
The INDC proposals are on the following:
 The INDC centre around India’s policies and
programmes on promotion of clean energy, a. Sustainable Lifestyles
especially renewable energy, enhancement of
energy efficiency, development of less carbon
b. Cleaner Economic Development
intensive and resilient urban centres, promotion c. Reduce Emission intensity of Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
of waste to wealth, safe, smart and sustainable d. Increase the Share of Non Fossil Fuel Based Electricity
green transportation network, abatement of e. Enhancing Carbon Sink (Forests)
pollution and India’s efforts to enhance carbon f. Adaptation
sink through creation of forest and tree cover.
g. Mobilizing Finance
 It also captures citizens and private sector h. Technology Transfer and Capacity Building
41
contribution to combating climate change.

India’s Intended Nationally

In the INDC, the country has focused on adaptation efforts, Determined Contribution: At a Glance
including:
India has submitted its Intended Nationally Determined
a) developing sustainable habitats;
Contribution (INDC) to the United Nations Framework
b) optimizing water use efficiency; Convention on Climate Change. Some of the salient
c) creating ecologically sustainable climate resilient agricultural points of the INDC are:
production systems;  To put forward and further propagate a healthy and
d) safeguarding the Himalayan glaciers and mountain ecosystem; sustainable way of living based on traditions and
values of conservation and moderation.
and,
 To adopt a climate-friendly and a cleaner path than
e) enhancing carbon sinks in sustainably managed forests and the one followed hitherto by others at
implementing adaptation measures for vulnerable species, corresponding level of economic development.
forest-dependent communities and ecosystems.  To reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33 to
35 per cent by 2030 from 2005 level.

11
 10-02-2020

 To achieve about 40 per cent cumulative electric power installed capacity from
non-fossil fuel based energy resources by 2030, with the help of transfer of
technology and low cost international finance, including from Green Climate
Fund.
 To create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent
through additional forest and tree cover by 2030.
 To better adapt to climate change by enhancing investments in development
programmes in sectors vulnerable to climate change, particularly agriculture, INDIAN
water resources, Himalayan region, coastal regions, health and disaster
management. NETWORK ON
 To mobilize domestic and new and additional funds from developed countries to
implement the above mitigation and adaptation actions in view of the resource CLIMATE CHANGE
required and the resource gap.
 To build capacities, create domestic framework and international architecture for ASSESSMENT
quick diffusion of cutting edge climate technology in India and for joint
collaborative R&D for such future technologies.

 The INCCA has been conceptualized as a Network based

 The Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment (INCCA)
was launched in October 2009 by the Ministry of Environment
and Forests (MoEF) in an effort to promote domestic research
on climate change, and build on the country’s climate change
expertise.
 INCCA is a network-based programme of the MoEF, which
consists of over 120 institutions and over 250 scientists country
wide is aimed at bringing in more science-based policy-making,
based on measurements, monitoring and modelling.
Scientific Programme designed to address and assess the
drivers and implications of climate change through scientific
research; climate change assessments on various aspects of
climate change, associated vulnerabilities and adaptation;
devise decision support systems; and build capacity towards
management of climate change related risks and opportunities.
 The INCCA will carry out research on the effects of climate
change in different regions and sectors in India and suggest
suitable adaptation and mitigation steps.

12
 10-02-2020

 Objective - to have an independent body of Indian scientists

who could “prepare scientific reports at the domestic level
about the impact of climate change on various sectors, which
can give a real picture and influence the world debate”. INCCA – First
 Reports prepared by the INCCA will form a part of India’s
Assessment ‘India:
National Communication (Nat Com) to the United Nations Greenhouse Gas
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
Emissions 2007’

 The first publication to come out from the INCCA has been an updated
greenhouse gas emissions inventory for India for the year 2007.

 The first Assessment of the Green House Gas emissions was released on May 11,
2010. INCCA - Second
 INCCA prepared the country’s greenhouse gas (GHG) emission data “India:
Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2007” which said the country’s emissions grew by 58
Assessment
per cent during 1994 to 2007 ‘Climate Change
 It covers the sectors of Energy, Industry, Agriculture, Land Use Land Use Change
and Forest and Waste by sources and removal by sinks presented in this
and India: A 4×4
document. Assessment’

13
 10-02-2020

 A 4×4 Assessment’ addresses the impact of climate change in 2030s to the natural
resources and livelihoods of the people in the four climate sensitive regions of
Himalayan region, North-East region, the Western Ghats and the Coastal plains for Impacts
the 4 key sectors of Agriculture, Water, Health and Natural Ecosystems and  Warmer seasons: Avg. temp rise: 2.0 deg C predicted. 1.0-4.0 deg C
Biodiversity. at extreme ranges
 The 4 region, 4 sectors Assessment in short has been referred to as a 4×4
Assessment.  Increased annual precipitation with lower frequency of rainy days;
increased intensity
 The assessment examines the implications of the climate change scenario in 2030s
using a regional climate model (PRECIS).  Cyclonic disturbances of lower frequency; increased intensity and
 The assessment also brings out the future areas of work to enhance the knowledge
and areas of further improvement in the future assessments.
increased risk of storm surges
 4 Regions: Western Ghats, Himalayan Region, Coastal India, North-East
 Sea-level rise: 1.3mm/year on average
 4 Thrust Areas: Agriculture, Water, Forests, Human Health

Agriculture Forests and natural ecosystems

 Up to 50% reduction in maize yields  Increased net primary
 4-35% reduction in rice yields (with some productivity
exceptions)  Shifting forest borders; species
 Rise in coconut yields (with some mix; negative impact on
exceptions); reduced apple production livelihoods and biodiversity
 Negative impacts on livestock in all
regions Human health
 Fresh water supply  Higher morbidity and mortality
 High variability predicted in water yields from heat stress and
(from 50% increase to 40-50% reduction) vector/water-borne diseases
 10-30% increased risk of floods;  Expanded transmission window
increased risks of droughts for malaria

14

NATIONAL
COMMUNICATION
(NATCOM)
Implementation arrangements
The Ministry of Environment and Forests
(MoEF) is implementing and executing
agency of the project.
10-02-2020
 In pursuance of the implementation of the provisions of the Convention,
India’s Initial National Communication (NATCOM) to the UNFCCC has been
initiated in 2002 funded by the Global Environment Facility under its
enabling activities programme through the United Nations Development
Programme, New Delhi.
 The National Communication process envisages comprehensive scientific
and technical exercises for preparation of inventories of greenhouse gases of
anthropogenic origin, reduction of uncertainities in these estimations and
vulnerability assessment and adaptation due to climate change, besides
other related information of India’s initiatives which address the objectives
of the Convention.
 Towards preparation of National Communication, a broad participatory
approach involving research institutions, technical institutions, universities,
government departments, and non governmental and private organizations
has been adopted, necessitated by vast regional diversity and sector
complexities in India.
Work Programme envisaged
 Development of comprehensive inventory for the base year 1994 and
improvement of its reliability vis-à-vis earlier estimates. This would entail
reducing uncertainties of GHC emission coefficients in key source categories.
 Identification of key steps to be taken towards implementing the Convention.
 Vulnerability and adaptation assessment for presentation of information on
specific needs and concerns arising from the adverse impacts of climate
change.
 Creation of reliable and comprehensive database for all the outputs produced
through the establishment of a ‘Data Centre’ (DC). This information will be
accessible on the Internet.
 Enhancement of capacity to respond to projected climate change through the
preparation of a ‘Targeted Research Proposal’ for developing a medium to long
term action plan.
15

GHG Inventory Estimations
 In accordance with the provisions of Article-4 and 12.1 of UNFCCC, preparation
of inventories of a basket of gases has been started for the areas of energy,
industrial processes, agriculture land use and land use change and forestry
(LULUCF) and waste.
 The gases to be inventoried include carbon dioxide methane, nitrous oxide,
hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbon and sulphur hexafluoride released from
various anthropogenic sources of the base year 1994.
 This is in addition to estimating historical trends of GHG growth as a part of the
initial National Communication to UNFCCC.
 The estimation of national GHG inventories for all sectors is based on the 1996
guidelines of the ‘Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’ (IPCC) and as
good practices guidelines.
1) Integrated Energy Policy
 India has in place a detailed policy, regulatory, and legislative
structure that relates strongly to GHG mitigation: The Integrated
Energy Policy was adopted in 2006.
 Some of its key provisions are:
 Promotion of energy efficiency in all sectors
 Emphasis on mass transport
 Emphasis on renewables including biofuels plantations
 Accelerated development of nuclear and hydropower for clean
energy
 Focused R&D on several clean energy related technologies
10-02-2020
INDIA’S POLICY
STRUCTURE
RELEVANT TO
GHG MITIGATION
The Rural Electrification Policy, 2006
 It promotes renewable energy technologies where grid connectivity is not
possible or cost-effective. The New and Renewable Energy Policy, 2005,
promotes utilization of sustainable, renewable energy sources, and accelerated
deployment of renewables through indigenous design, development and
manufacture.
 The National Environment Policy, 2006, and the Notification on Environment
Impact Assessment (EIA), 2006, reform India’s environmental assessment
regime. A number of economic activities are required to prepare environment
impact assessments, and environment management plans, which are
appraised by regulatory authorities prior to start of construction. The EIA
provisions strongly promote environmental sustainability
16
 10-02-2020

Several other provisions

 It relates to reforming energy markets to ensure that energy markets are
competitive, and energy prices reflect true resource costs. These include:
Electricity Act 2005, Tariff Policy 2003, Petroleum & Natural Gas Regulatory
Board Act, 2006, etc.
INTRODUCTION OF
 The provisions taken together are designed to: LABELLING
 Remove entry barriers and raise competition in exploration, extraction,
conversion, transmission and distribution of primary and secondary energy PROGRAMME FOR
 Accomplish price reform, through full competition at point of sale
 Promote tax reform to promote optimal fuel choices
APPLIANCES
 Augment and diversify energy options, sources and energy infrastructure
 Provide feed-in tariffs for renewables (solar, wind, biomass cogeneration)
 Strengthen, and where applicable, introduce independent regulation

 An energy labelling programme for appliances was launched in

2006, and comparative star-based labelling has been introduced
for fluorescent tube-lights, air conditioners, refrigerators, and
distribution transformers.

 The labels provide information about the energy consumption of

an appliance, and thus enable consumers to make informed
ENERGY
decisions. The Bureau of Energy Efficiency has made it mandatory CONSERVATION
for refrigerators to display energy efficiency label and is expected
to do so for air conditioners as well. The standards and labelling BUILDING CODE
programme for manufacturers of electrical appliances is expected
to lead to significant savings in electricity annually.

17
 10-02-2020

 An Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) was launched in May, 2007,

which addresses the design of new, large commercial buildings to optimize the
buildings’ energy demand based on their location in different climatic zones.
Commercial buildings are one of the fastest growing sectors of the Indian
economy, reflecting the increasing share of the services sector in the economy.

 Nearly one hundred buildings are already following the Code, and compliance
with the Code has been incorporated into the mandatory Environmental
Impact Assessment requirements for large buildings.

 It has been estimated that if all the commercial space in India every year
conform to ECBC norms, energy consumption in this sector can be reduced by
30-40%. Compliance with ECBC norms is voluntary at present but is expected
to soon become mandatory.
Green Building

 A green building depletes as little of the natural resources during its

 Buildings are one of the major pollutants that affect urban air quality and
contribute to climate change.
 Human Habitats (Buildings) interact with the environment in various ways.
Throughout their life cycles, from construction to operation and then
demolition, they consume resources in the form of energy, water, materials,
etc. and emit wastes either directly in the form of municipal wastes or
indirectly as emissions from electricity generation.
construction and operation.
 The aim of a green building design is to:
 Minimize the demand on non-renewable resources and maximize the
utilization efficiency of these resources when in use, and
 Maximize reuse and recycling of available resources
 Utilization of renewable resources.
 It costs a little more to design and construct a green building.

 Green building is the essence of which would be to address all the pollution  However, it costs less to operate a green building that has tremendous
related issues of a building in an integrated and scientific manner. environmental benefits and provides a better place for the occupants to live
and work in.

18

 It maximizes the use of efficient building materials and construction practices;
optimizes the use of on-site sources and sinks by bio-climatic architectural practices;
uses minimum energy to power itself; uses efficient equipment to meet its lighting, air-
conditioning, and other needs; maximizes the use of renewable sources of energy; uses
efficient waste and water management practices; and provides comfortable and
hygienic indoor working conditions.
 It is evolved through a design process that requires all concerned (the architect and
landscape designer and the air conditioning, electrical, plumbing, and energy
consultants) to work as a team to address all aspects of building and system planning,
design, construction, and operation.
 They critically evaluate the impacts of each design decision on the environment and
arrive at viable design solutions to minimize the negative impacts and enhance the
positive impacts on the environment.
Green Rating
for Integrated
Habitat
Assessment
(GRIHA)
10-02-2020
 In sum, the following aspects of the building design are looked
into in an integrated way in a green building:
 Building system designed in a way to efficiently use HVAC (heating
ventilation and air conditioning), lighting, electrical, and water
heating.
 Integration of renewable energy sources to generate energy onsite.
 Selection of ecologically sustainable materials (with high recycled
content, rapidly renewable resources with low emission potential,
etc.) for Water and waste management.
 Indoor environmental quality (maintains indoor thermal and visual
comfort and air quality)
 GRIHA is a Sanskrit word meaning – ‘Abode’.
 GRIHA has been conceived by TERI and developed jointly
with the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy,
Government of India.
 The green building rating system devised by TERI and the
MNRE is a voluntary scheme.
19
 10-02-2020

Rating Tool
 GRIHA is a rating tool that helps people assess the performance of their
building against certain nationally acceptable benchmarks and is suitable for all
Objective kinds of buildings in different climatic zones of the country.
 The primary objective of the rating system is to help  Going by the old adage ‘what gets measured, gets managed’, GRIHA attempts
to quantify aspects such as energy consumption, waste generation, renewable
design green buildings and, in turn, help evaluate the energy adoption, etc. so as to manage, control and reduce the same to the
‘greenness’ of the buildings. best possible extent.
 It will evaluate the environmental performance of a building holistically over its
entire life cycle, thereby providing a definitive standard for what constitutes a
Aim ‘green building’.
 The rating system aims to achieve efficient resource  The rating system, based on accepted energy and environmental principles,
will seek to strike a balance between the established practices and emerging
utilization, enhanced resource efficiency, and better concepts, both national and international.
quality of life in the buildings.  The guidelines/criteria appraisal may be revised every three years to take into
account the latest scientific developments during this period.

The basic features
 The system has been developed to help ‘design and evaluate’
new buildings (buildings that are still at the inception stages).
 A building is assessed based on its predicted performance
over its entire life cycle – inception through operation.
 The stages of the life cycle that have been identified for
evaluation are:
 Eight of these 34 criteria are mandatory, four are partly mandatory, while the
rest are optional. Each criterion has a number of points assigned to it.
 It means that a project intending to meet the criterion would qualify for the
points. Different levels of certification (one star to five stars) are awarded
based on the number of points earned. The minimum points required for
certification is 50.

Rating system The benefits

 GRIHA rating system consists of 34 criteria categorized under  On a broader scale, this system, along with the activities and processes that
4 categories. lead up to it, will benefit the community at large with the improvement in the
environment by reducing GHG (greenhouse gas) emissions, reducing energy
 They are consumption and the stress on natural resources.
1. Site Selection and Site Planning,
 Reduced energy consumption without sacrificing the comfort levels
2. Conservation and efficient utilization of resources,
 Reduced destruction of natural areas, habitats, and biodiversity, and reduced
3. Building operation and maintenance, and
4. Innovation points. soil loss from erosion etc.
 Reduced air and water pollution (with direct health benefits)

20
 10-02-2020

The challenges
 The Indian building industry is highly de-centralized
with people and/ or groups engaged in design,
construction, equipment provision, installation, and
 Reduced water consumption renovation working together.

 Each group may be organized to some extent, but there

 Limited waste generation due to recycling and reuse is limited interaction among the groups, thus disabling
the integrated green design and application process.
 Reduced pollution loads
 Hence, it is very important to define and quantify
sustainable building practices and their benefits.
 Increased user productivity
 It is also important to separate the role of different
participants in ensuring that the building consumes
 Enhanced image and marketability minimal resources over its entire life cycle and leaves
behind a minimal environmental footprint.

 In March 2007 the conduct of energy audits

ENERGY was made mandatory in large energy-
consuming units in nine industrial sectors.
AUDITS OF
 These units, notified as “designated
LARGE consumers” are also required to employ
INDUSTRIAL “certified energy managers”, and report
energy consumption and energy conservation
CONSUMERS data annually.

21
 10-02-2020

 The National Urban Transport Policy emphasizes extensive public

transport facilities and non-motorized modes over personal
vehicles.

 The expansion of the Metro Rail Transportation System in Delhi

and other cities (Chennai, Bangalore, Jaipur, etc) and other mass
transit systems, such as the Metro Bus project in Bangalore, are
MASS steps in its implementation.

TRANSPORT  The state government of Maharashtra recently announced that it

will impose a congestion tax to discourage the use of private cars
in cities where it has created “sufficient public transport
capacity”.

 In urban areas, one of the major sources of

air pollution is emissions from transport
vehicles.
 Steps taken to reduce such pollution include
(i) introduction of compressed natural gas
(CNG) in Delhi and other cities;
CLEAN AIR (ii) Retiring old, polluting vehicles; and
(iii) Strengthening of mass transportation.
INITIATIVES
 Some state governments provide subsidies
for purchase and use of electric vehicles. For
thermal power plants, the installation of
electrostatic precipitators is mandatory. In
many cities, polluting industrial units have
either been closed or shifted from
residential areas.

22
 10-02-2020

 The Bureau of Energy efficiency has

introduced “The Bachat Lamp Yojana”, a
programme under which households
may exchange incandescent lamps for
CFLs (compact fluorescent lamps) using
clean devel¬opment mechanism (CDM)
PROMOTION OF credits to equate pur¬chase price.

ENERGY SAVING  Some states have made mandatory the

installation of solar water heaters in
DEVICES hospitals, hotels and large government
and commercial buildings. Subsidy is
provided for installation of solar water
heaters in residential buildings.

 The Biodiesel Purchase Policy mandates biodiesel

procurement by the petroleum industry.
PROMOTION
 A mandate on Ethanol Blending of Gasoline requires 5%
OF BIOFUELS blending of ethanol with gasoline from 1st January,
2003, in 9 States and 4 Union Territories.

23
 10-02-2020

 In April 2003, the United Nations Environment

Programme (“UNEP”) initiated a, three-year Programme,
credit facility in Southern India to help rural households
finance the purchase of Solar Home Systems.

 Canara Bank and Syndicate Bank, along with their eight

associate Regional Rural Banks, partnered with UNEP to
establish and run a Loan Programme through their
branch offices across Karnataka State and part of the
neighbouring Kerala State.

INDIAN SOLAR LOAN  In addition to providing financial support in the form of

interest rate subsidies for borrowers, UNEP provides
PROGRAMME assistance with technical issues, vendor qualification and
other activities to develop the institutional capacity for
this type of finance.

 The ICAR has launched National Initiative on Climate

Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) during 2010-11 with an outlay
NATIONAL of Rs.350 crores for the XI Plan.
 This initiative will primarily enhance the resilience of Indian
INITIATIVE ON Agriculture covering crops, livestock and fisheries.
CLIMATE RESILIENT Objective
AGRICULTURE  To enhance the resilience of Indian agriculture covering
crops, livestock and fisheries to climatic variability and
(NICRA) climate change through development and application of
improved production and risk management technologies

24

Project Components
 The project is comprised of four components.
1) Strategic research on adaptation and mitigation
2) Technology demonstration on farmers’ fields to
cope with current climate variability.
3) Sponsored and competitive research grants to fill
critical research gaps.
4) Capacity building of different stake holders.
The major research themes are:
 Vulnerability assessment of major production zones.
 Linking weather based agro-advisories to contingency planning.
 Assessing the impacts and evolving varieties tolerant to key climatic stresses
(drought, heat, frost, flooding, etc.) in major food and horticulture crops.
 Continuous monitoring of greenhouse gases in open field conditions in
major production systems.
 Evolving adaptation and mitigation strategies through enhancing water and
nutrient use efficiency and conservation agriculture.
 Studying changes in pest dynamics, pest/pathogencrop relationships and
emergence of new pests and pathogens under changing climate.
 Adaptation strategies in livestock through nutritional and environmental
manipulations.
 Harnessing the beneficial effects of temperature in inland and marine
fisheries through better understanding of the spawning behaviour.
10-02-2020
Strategic Research
 The strategic research has been planned at leading
research institutes of ICAR in a network mode covering
crops, horticulture, livestock, natural resource
management and fisheries sectors.
 To begin with, the project is focusing on crops like wheat,
rice, maize, pigeonpea, groundnut, tomato, mango and
banana; cattle, buffalo and small ruminants among
livestock and both marine and freshwater fish species of
economic importance.
 Seven major research institutes of the ICAR will work in unison to evolve
coping technologies with Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture
(CRIDA), Hyderabad as the lead centre.
 Best-bet and cost-effective technologies to cope with climate variability will
be demonstrated on farmers’ fields in 100 most vulnerable districts of the
country.
 The technologies include rain water harvesting and its judicious use, in-situ
moisture conservation, drought management strategies, seed and fodder
banks, timely and precision agriculture, effective agro-advisory system using
Information Communication Technology kiosks.
 Small and marginal farmers in rain-fed, coastal and hill areas will benefit
more in view of the focused attention in these regions.
 Capacity building of scientists in frontier areas is another core activity of the
project.
 To prepare all stakeholders to face challenges, multipronged awareness
generation programs on issues of climate change are planned.
25
 10-02-2020

 The BSE-GREENEX Index is a veritable first step in creating a

credible market based response mechanism in India, whereby
both businesses and investors can rely upon purely quantitative
and objective performance based signals, to assess “carbon
performance”.
BSE-GREENEX  gTrade Carbon Ex Ratings Services Private Limited (gTrade) is a
company based in India, which has codeveloped the BSE-
GREENEX Index in close association with the BSE.

Index Description
 The BSE-GREENEX Index includes the top 20 companies which are good in terms
of Carbon Emissions, Free-Float Market Capitalization and Turnover.

 The Index is a Cap Weighted Free-Float Market Capitalization weighted Index

comprising from the list of BSE-100 Index.

 The Index has been back-tested from 1stOctober, 2008 (Base Date) with the base
index value of 1000. FAME-INDIA
 The Index is rebalanced on a bi-annual basis i.e. end of March and September PROGRAMME
quarters.

 The September quarter review will be based on the fresh set of carbon emission
numbers and the March quarter review will be based on the existing carbon
emission numbers but latest financial data.

26
 10-02-2020

 Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid)

and Electric Vehicles (FAME India) scheme rolled
out in april, 2015 by Union Minister for Heavy
Industries and Public Enterprises The scheme
will help promote use of electric and hybrid
vehicles, and initially, a subsidy of 30% will be
provided to the buyers.
LONG TERM
 Phased replacement of fossil fuel-based vehicles
with those based on latest technologies will lead
ECOLOGICAL
to a net saving of Rs 14,000 crore.
OBSERVATORIES
 The scheme is proposed to be implemented
over six years, till 2020, which looks at sales of (LTEO)
electric and hybrid vehicles up to 60-70 lakh
units per year.

 Long Term Ecological Observatories (LTEO) for Climate Change Studies are one of
the components under the ‘Climate Change Action Programme’ with an outlay of
Rs. 40 crores in the 12th Plan Period.
 A Science Plan of LTEO was released during the 21st Conference of Parties to the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at Paris in December
2015.
 First phase of the LTEO Programme includes creating a network of field sites to
assess the health of eight different biomes of the country namely; Western
Himalaya, Eastern Himalaya, North-Western Arid Zone, Central Indian Forests,
Western Ghats, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Jammu & Kashmir and Sundarbans.
 LTEO Programme aims to understand the biophysical and
anthropogenic drivers of ecosystem change in the selected biomes
and their effects on social- ecological responses through a network
of scientific institutions.
 Activities include experimental work to assess the change of
structure and function in the natural ecosystems, identification of
patterns and drivers of change in the natural ecosystems by
monitoring populations of fresh water fish, birds, mammals,
herbivores & carnivores, animal movements, soil processes in
forests & grasslands, biophysical climatic variables, etc.

27
 10-02-2020

 The National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC) is a Central Sector
Scheme set up in 2015-16.

 The aim of NAFCC is to support concrete adaptation activities which mitigate the
THE NATIONAL adverse effects of climate change.

ADAPTATION FUND  The activities under this scheme are implemented in a project mode.

FOR CLIMATE  The projects related to adaptation in sectors such as agriculture, animal
husbandry, water, forestry, tourism etc. are eligible for funding under NAFCC.
CHANGE (NAFCC)  National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) is the National
Implementing Entity (NIE).

Recent initiatives like Make in India, Digital India, creating

National Industrial Corridors, streamlining environment and
forest approvals, labour reforms and undertaking other
measures for the ease of doing business have also fuelled
Enhancing the spurt in the growth rates of Infrastructure sectors, viz.
Energy Efficiency electricity, coal and cement. Amidst all this, policies to
enable industries reduce their energy consumption play a
in Industries critical role as an instrument for sustainable environment
through various interventions like:

28
 10-02-2020

Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) Zero Effect, Zero Defect (ZED)
 The mandated decrease in the specific energy consumption under  It is a policy initiative to rate Medium
PAT programme has led to a decline of 4 to 5% in their specific & Small Industries on quality control
energy consumption in 2015 as compared to that in 2012. and certification for energy efficiency,
enhanced resources efficiency,
 Energy Saving Certificates (ESCerts) are issued to consumers who pollution control, use of renewable
overachieve the target. energy, waste management etc. using
ZED maturity assessment model.

 The scheme is to be widened and deepened to include additional  The scheme launched in 2015,
sectors like railways, electricity distribution and refineries in the envisages coverage of about 1 million
next cycle and would cover more than half the commercial energy medium and small enterprises.
consumed in India.

Government of India has launched a number

of schemes for transformation and
rejuvenation of urban areas including smart
cities mission, atal mission for rejuvenation
Developing and urban transformation (AMRUT) and
climate resilient national heritage city development and
augmentation yojana (HRIDAY).
urban centers

29
 10-02-2020

 100 smart cities are planned with the

objective to develop new generation cities,
which will provide core infrastructure and a
decent quality of life to its citizens by
building a clean and sustainable
environment.

 Smart solutions in recycling and reuse of

waste, use of renewables, protection of
sensitive natural environment will be
incorporated to make these cities climate
resilient.
Smart Cities Mission

AMRUT, a new urban renewal

mission been launched by
Government of India for 500 cities
with focus on ensuring basic
infrastructure services such as water
supply, sewerage, storm water
drains, transport and development
of green spaces and parks by
adopting climate resilient and energy
efficient policies and regulations.

30
 10-02-2020

 HRIDAY seeks to preserve and rejuvenate the rich

cultural heritage of the country.

National Heritage  HRIDAY seeks to promote an integrated, inclusive

and sustainable development of heritage sites,
Development and focusing not just on maintenance of monuments
Augmentation but on advancement of the entire ecosystem
including its citizens, tourists and local businesses.
Yojana (HRIDAY)
 He said, with 32 UNESCO recognized natural and
cultural heritage sites, the tourism potential of
the country is still to be fully harnessed and the
new scheme will help in this regard.

ELECTRIC VEHICLES
Why in news?
Recently a panel headed by Y S Malik, has presented a 15 point plan
to aid car manufacturers to switch from Internal Combustion Engines
(IECs) to Electric Vehicles (EVs).

Some current Need for electric vehicles

affairs  Fulfilling INDC 2030 goals and combatting increasing air pollution
load in Indian Cities as Fossil fuel based transportation is second
largest source of carbon dioxide emission.

 Cut oil imports and generation of jobs in India both upstream and
123
downstream supply chain.

31

Government steps
 National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP) 2020
with an aim to achieve national fuel security by
promoting hybrid and electric vehicles in the country.
It set an ambitious target to achieve 6-7 million sales
of hybrid and electric vehicles year on year from 2020
onwards.
 FAME-India (Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of
(hybrid &) Electric vehicles in India) scheme: To
support the hybrid/electric vehicles market
development and its manufacturing eco-system to
achieve self-sustenance by subsidizing electric vehicle
purchases on an annual basis. o Scheme is proposed
to be implemented till 2020. o The scheme has four
focus areas viz. technology development, demand
creation, pilot projects and charging infrastructure.
Some Practice
MCQ’s
127
10-02-2020
Automotive Mission Plan 2026:
 It aimed at bringing the Indian Automotive Industry
among the top three of the world in engineering,
manufacture and exports of vehicles &
components; growing in value to over 12% of India
GDP and generating an additional 65 million jobs.
Green Urban Transport Scheme:
 It focuses to reduce the emission of harmful
carbon gas from the transportation, especially
from government owned transport facilities.
 Under this scheme, government plans to launch
the eco–friendly transportation facilities in urban
areas across the nation which run without
damaging climatic conditions.
Q1) With reference to the ‘National Adaptation Fund for
Climate Change (NAFCC)’, consider the following statements:
1) It is a Central Sector Scheme.
2) Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) is the National
Implementing Entity (NIE).
3) The overall aim of NAFCC is to support concrete
adaptation activities which mitigate the adverse effects of
climate change.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
128
32
 10-02-2020

A-b) Q2) Consider the following statements regarding “The

 The National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change
(NAFCC) is a Central Sector Scheme which was set
up in the year 2015-16. The overall aim of NAFCC is
to support concrete adaptation activities which
mitigate the adverse effects of climate change. The
activities under this scheme are implemented in a
project mode.
 National Bank for Agriculture and Rural
Development (NABARD) is the National
Implementing Entity (NIE).
 The projects related to adaptation in sectors such
as agriculture, animal husbandry, water, forestry,
tourism etc. are eligible for funding under NAFCC.
Climate and Clean Air Coalition”
1) It is a voluntary partnership of governments and
intergovernmental organizations, businesses,
scientific institutions and civil society organizations.
2) India is a state partner of this coalition.
3) Coalition’s initial focus is on pollutants like methane,
black carbon and HFCs.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
130

A-c)
Q3) Which of the following statements is/are correct
 The Climate and Clean Air Coalition is a voluntary
about HRIDAY Scheme?
partnership of governments, intergovernmental
organizations, businesses, scientific institutions and
1. The National Advisory Committee is the apex advisory
civil society organizations committed to improving
body for the HRIDAY Scheme.
air quality and protecting the climate through
2. The Ministry of Tourism launched the National
actions to reduce short-lived climate pollutants.
Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana
 Global network currently includes over 120 state
(HRIDAY) scheme.
and non-state partners, and hundreds of local
actors carrying out activities across economic
a. Only 1
sectors.
b. Only 2
 India is not a partner of it.
c. Both
 It focuses on short lived pollutants like methane,
d. None
black carbon, HFC’s etc. 132

33
 10-02-2020

A-a)
- The Ministry of Urban Development launched the National
Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana
(HRIDAY) scheme

- Action Plans under Heritage City Development and

Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY) for eight missions cities have
been approved at a total cost of Rs.431 cr. - Mathura, Ajmer,
Dwaraka(Gujarat), Badami (karnataka), Warangal(Telangana),
Amaravati(Andhra Pradesh) and Vellankini(Tamil Nadu)

- The action plans approved broadly seek to conserve and

develop core heritage assets of respective cities besides
Thank You!
improving sanitation through solid waste management, easy Keep learning!
access through signages and better mobility, interpretation
centers, landscaping, provision of green spaces etc.

34
 12-02-2020

Topics covered:-
1) PYQs
2) Nutrient Cycling

3) Gaseous Cycles
 Water Cycle (Hydrologic)
 The Carbon Cycle
 The Nitrogen Cycle

Lecture 14 – Bio – Geochemical cycle 4) Sedimentary Cycle

 Phosphorus Cycle
 Sulphur Cycle

5) Practice MCQ’s

Q1) The term M-STRIPES’ is sometimes seen in the

news in the context of

(a) Captive breeding of Wild Fauna

(b) Maintenance of Tiger Reserves
Some PYQ’s (c) Indigenous Satellite Navigation System
(d) Security of National Highways

3 4

1
 12-02-2020

A-b)
Q2) Recently there was a proposal to translocate
National Tiger Conservation Authority
some of the lions from their natural habitat in
(NTCA) is planning to implement a new
Gujarat to which one of the following sites ?
computerized tiger monitoring protocol
in all tiger reserves of the country
(a) Corbett National Park
known as Monitoring System for Tiger,
(b) Kuno Palpur Wildlife Sanctuary
Intensive Patrolling and Ecological
(c) Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary
Status (MSTrIPES).
(d) Sariska National Park

A-b) Q3) In India, if a species of tortoise is declared

 Even if you eliminate Corbett
(Uttrakhand) and Mudumalai
(Tamilnadu) for climatic reasons for Lion
relocation, still you’re left with Sariska
(Rajasthan).
 Sariska being a tiger reserve, would
sound unfit for lion immigration.
 So by elimination answer would be “B”.
 But first you must have the ability to
recollect the locations of these other
reserves- otherwise guess mastergiri
can’t be applied.
8
protected under Schedule I of the Wildlife
(Protection) Act, 1972, what does it imply ?
(a) It enjoys the same level of protection as the
tiger.
(b) It no longer exists in the wild, a few individuals
are under captive protection; and now it is
impossible to prevent its extinction.
(c) It is endemic to a particular region of India.
(d) Both (b) and (c) stated above are correct in this
context.

2
 12-02-2020

A-a)
 Tiger is given as Schedule I animal.
Schedule I Q4) According to the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, which
 This Schedule covers endangered species. of the following animals cannot be hunted by any person
 These species need rigorous protection and except under some provisions provided by law?
therefore, the harshest penalties for violation 1. Gharial
of the law are for species under this
2. Indian wild ass
Schedule.
 Species under this Schedule are prohibited to 3. Wild buffalo
be hunted throughout India, except under
threat to human life. Select the correct answer using the code given below:-
 Absolute protection is accorded to species in (a) 1 only
this list. (b) 2 and 3 only
 Trade of these animals is prohibited. (c) 1 and 3 only
 Examples: tiger, blackbuck, Himalayan Brown (d) 1, 2 and 3
Bear, Brow-Antlered Deer, Blue whale,
Common Dolphin, Cheetah, Clouded
Leopard, hornbills, Indian Gazelle, etc. 10

Wild buffalo (Gaur)

A-d)
 Schedule 5 vermin- crow, fruitbat,
mice and rat can be killed.

 Since the animals given in above

MCQ are outside that’ Venn
Diagram’, so by deduction, the
answer is “D”.

3
 12-02-2020

Q5) If you want to see gharials in their

natural habitat, which one of the following A-b)
is the best place to visit?
 Gharials are river dwelling fish-
(a) Bhitarkanika Mangroves eaters and their only viable
(b) Chambal River population is in the Chambal
(c) Pulicat Lake Sanctuary.
 So “B” should be the answer.
(d) Deepor Beel

13

 The living world depends upon the energy flow and the nutrients circulation

Bio –
that occurs through ecosystem. Both influence the abundance of organisms,
the metabolic rate at which they live, and the complexity of the ecosystem.

Geochemical  Energy flows through ecosystems enabling the organisms to perform various
kinds of work and this energy is ultimately lost as heat forever in terms of the
cycle usefulness of the system. On the other hand, nutrients of food matter never
get used up. They can be recycled again and again indefinitely.

 For e.g. when we breathe we may be inhaling several million atoms of elements
that may have been inhaled by our ancestors or other organisms.

4
 12-02-2020

 Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus as elements and

compounds make up 97% of the mass of our bodies and are more
than 95% of the mass of all living organisms. In addition to these
about 15 to 25 other elements are needed in some form for the
survival and good health of plants and animals.
 These elements or mineral nutrients are always in circulation moving
from non-living to living and then back to the non-living components
of the ecosystem in a more or less circular fashion. This circular
Nutrient Cycling
fashion is known as biogeochemical cycling (bio for living; geo for
atmosphere).

 The nutrient cycle is a concept that describes

how nutrients move from the physical
environment to the living organisms, and
subsequently recycled back to the physical
environment.
 This movement of nutrients from the
environment into plants and animals and
again back to the environment is essential for
life and it is the vital function of the ecology of
any region.
 Nutrient cycling is typically studied in terms of
specific nutrients, with each nutrient in an
environment having its own particular pattern of
cycling.
 Among the most important nutrient cycles are the
carbon nutrient cycle and the nitrogen nutrient
cycle. Both of these cycles make up an essential part
of the overall soil nutrient cycle.

 In any particular environment, to maintain its  There are many other nutrient cycles that are
organism in a sustained manner, the nutrient important in ecology, including a large number of
cycle must be kept balanced and stable. trace mineral nutrient cycles.
20

5
 12-02-2020

Types of Nutrient Cycle

 Based on the replacement period a nutrient cycle is
referred to as Perfect or Imperfect cycle.
 A perfect nutrient cycle is one in which nutrients are
replaced as fast as they are utilised. Most gaseous
cycles are generally considered as perfect cycles.
 In contrast sedimentary cycles are considered
relatively imperfect, as some nutrients are lost from
the cycle and get locked into sediments and so become
unavailable for immediate cycling.

Gaseous Cycles
 Based on the nature of the reservoir, there are two
types of cycles namely Gaseous and sedimentary cycle
Gaseous Cycle – where the reservoir is the atmosphere
or the hydrosphere, and
 Sedimentary Cycle – where the reservoir is the earth’s
crust.

Water Cycle (Hydrologic)

 The hydrologic cycle is the continuous

circulation of water in the Earth-
atmosphere system which is driven by
solar energy.
Let us first study some of  Water on our planet is stored in major
the most important reservoirs like atmosphere, oceans,
lakes, rivers, soils, glaciers, snowfields,
gaseous cycles; namely – and groundwater.

water, carbon and nitrogen.  Water moves from one reservoir to

another by the processes of
evaporation, transpiration,
condensation, precipitation, deposition,
runoff, infiltration, and groundwater
flow.

6

Water as an important
ecological factor determines
the structure and function of
the ecosystem. Cycling of all
other nutrients is also
dependent upon water as it
provides their transportation
during the various steps. It
acts as a solvent medium for
their uptake of nutrients by
organisms.
 Some carbon also enters a long term cycle.
 It accumulates as un-decomposed organic matter in the
peaty layers of marshy soil or as insoluble carbonates in
bottom sediments of aquatic systems which take a long
time to be released.
 In deep oceans such carbon can remained buried for
millions of years till geological movement may lift these
rocks above sea level.
 These rocks may be exposed to erosion, releasing their
carbon dioxide, carbonates and bicarbonates into streams
and rivers.
 Fossil fuels such as coals, oil and natural gas etc. are
organic compounds that were buried before they could be
decomposed and were subsequently transformed by time
and geological processes into fossil fuels.
 When they are burned the carbon stored in them is released
back into the atmosphere as carbon-dioxide.
12-02-2020
The Carbon Cycle
 Carbon is present in the atmosphere,
mainly in the form of carbon dioxide
(CO2).
 Carbon cycle involves a continuous
exchange of carbon between the
atmosphere and organisms.
 Carbon from the atmosphere moves to
green plants by the process of
photosynthesis, and then to animals. By
process of respiration and
decomposition of dead organic matter it
returns back to atmosphere.
 It is usually a short term cycle.
Carbon is a minor constituent of the
atmosphere as compared to oxygen and
nitrogen. However, without carbon dioxide life
could not exist, because it is vital for the
production of carbohydrates through
photosynthesis by plants. It is the element that
anchors all organic substances from coal and
oil to DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid: the
compound that carries genetic information).
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 12-02-2020

The Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen fixation on earth is accomplished in
 Nitrogen is an essential constituent of
three different ways:-
protein and is a basic building block of
all living tissue.
(i) By microorganisms (bacteria and blue-
 It constitutes nearly 16% by weight of all
green algae)
the proteins.

 There is an inexhaustible supply of (ii) By man using industrial processes

nitrogen in the atmosphere but the
(fertilizer factories) and
elemental form cannot be used directly
by most of the living organisms.
(iii)To a limited extent by atmospheric
 Nitrogen needs to be ‘fixed’, that is,
phenomenon such as thunder and lighting
converted to ammonia, nitrites or
nitrates, before it can be taken up by
plants.

 The nitrates synthesised by bacteria in the soil

 Certain microorganisms are capable of fixing
atmospheric nitrogen into ammonium ions.
 These include free living nitrifying bacteria (e.g.
aerobic Azotobacter and anaerobic Clostridium) and
symbiotic nitrifying bacteria living in association with
leguminous plants and symbiotic bacteria living in non
leguminous root nodule plants (e.g. Rhizobium) as well
as blue green algae (e.g. Anabaena, Spirulina).
 Ammonium ions can be directly taken up as a source of
nitrogen by some plants, or are oxidized to nitrites or
nitrates by two groups of specialised bacteria:
Nitrosomonas bacteria promote transformation of
ammonia into nitrite. Nitrite is then further transformed
into nitrate by the bacteria Nitrobacter.
are taken up by plants and converted into
amino acids, which are the building blocks of
proteins.
 These then go through higher trophic levels of
the ecosystem. During excretion and upon the
death of all organisms nitrogen is returned to
the soil in the form of ammonia.
 Certain quantity of soil nitrates, being highly
soluble in water, is lost to the system by being
transported away by surface run-off or ground
water.

8

 In the soil as well as oceans there are special
denitrifying bacteria (e.g. Pseudomonas),
which convert the nitrates/nitrites to
elemental nitrogen.
 This nitrogen escapes into the atmosphere,
thus completing the cycle.
 The periodic thunderstorms convert the
gaseous nitrogen in the atmosphere to
ammonia and nitrates which eventually reach
the earth’s surface through precipitation and
then into the soil to be utilized by plants.
Phosphorus, calcium and magnesium
circulate by means of the sedimentary
cycle. The element involved in the
sedimentary cycle normally does not
cycle through the atmosphere but
follows a basic pattern of flow through
erosion, sedimentation, mountain
building, volcanic activity and
biological transport through the
excreta of marine birds.
12-02-2020
Sedimentary
Cycle
Phosphorus Cycle
 Phosphorus plays a central role in
aquatic ecosystems and water
quality. Unlike carbon and nitrogen,
which come primarily from the
atmosphere, phosphorus occurs in
large amounts as a mineral in
phosphate rocks and enters the
cycle from erosion and mining
activities.
 This is the nutrient considered to
be the main cause of excessive
growth of rooted and free-floating
microscopic plants in lakes.
9

 The main storage for phosphorus is in the earth’s crust.
On land phosphorus is usually found in the form of
phosphates.
 By the process of weathering and erosion phosphates
enter rivers and streams that transport them to the
ocean.
 In the ocean once the phosphorus accumulates on
continental shelves in the form of insoluble deposits.
 After millions of years, the crustal plates rise from the
sea floor and expose the phosphates on land.
 After more time, weathering will release them from
rock and the cycle’s geochemical phase begins again.
 Sulphur enters the atmosphere from several sources
like volcanic eruptions, combustion of fossil fuels, from
surface of ocean and from gases released by
decomposition.
 Atmospheric hydrogen sulphide also gets oxidised into
sulphur dioxide.
 Atmospheric sulphur dioxide is carried back to the
earth after being dissolved in rainwater as weak
sulphuric acid.
 Sulphur bound in living organism is carried back to the
soil, to the bottom of ponds and lakes and seas through
excretion and decomposition of dead organic material.
40
12-02-2020
Sulphur Cycle
 The sulphur reservoir is in the soil and
sediments where it is locked in organic
(coal, oil and peat) and inorganic
deposits (pyrite rock and sulphur rock)
in the form of sulphates, sulphides and
organic sulphur.
 It is released by weathering of rocks,
erosional runoff and decomposition of
organic matter and is carried to
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in
salt solution.
 The sulphur cycle is mostly sedimentary
except two of its compounds hydrogen
sulphide (H2S) and sulphur dioxide
(SO2) add a gaseous component to its
normal sedimentary cycle.
Some Practice
MCQ’s
10
 12-02-2020

Q1) With reference to agricultural soils, consider A-b)

the following statements :
1) A high content of organic matter in
soil drastically reduces its water holding capacity.
2) Soil does not play any role in the Sulphur cycle.
3) Irrigation over a period of time can contribute to
the salinization of some agricultural lands.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
41 d) 1, 2 and 3
 Organic matter helps improving water retention
capacity.
 The process of decay, added by bacterial action,
transforms organic matter into humus. Humus
enhances water retention capacity of the soil. So, #1 is
wrong. By elimination we are left with Answer B: 3
only.
 Sulphur Cycle: The Sulphur reservoir is in the soil and
sediments where it is locked in organic and inorganic
deposits. Sulphur bound in living organisms is carried
back to the soil, through excretion and decomposition.
So, soil does play a role in this cycle. #2 is wrong. This
eliminates A and D. In the remaining options B and C,
statement#3 is common, so you must accept without
any proof that irrigation can contribute to salinization.

A-c)
Q2) Consider the following :
1. Photosynthesis  Photosynthesis by plants removes about 120
2. Respiration. billion tons of carbon from the air per year, but
3. Decay of organic matter plant decomposition returns about the same
amount.
4. Volcanic action.  When the organic matter is oxidized through
respiration, the reverse of photosynthesis takes
Which of the above add carbon dioxide to the place.
carbon cycle on earth ?  Respiration releases CO2 into the atmosphere.
(a) 1 and 4 only Respiration and photosynthesis occur at nearly
equal rates over one year.
(b) 2 and 3 only  Volcanic eruptions and metamorphism release
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only gases into the atmosphere. Volcanic gases are
(d) 1 and 4 primarily water vapor, carbon dioxide and sulphur
43 dioxide.

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Thank You!
Keep learning!

12
 15-02-2020

Topics covered:-
1) PYQs
2) Environmental impact
assessment (EIA)
3) ENVIRONMENT
SUPPLEMENT PLAN (ESP)
4) Strategic Environmental
Lecture 15 – Environmental Assessment (SEA)

Monitoring

Q1) The formation of ozone hole in the Antarctic region has

been a cause of concern. What could be the reason for the
formation of this hole ?
(a) Presence of prominent tropo-spheric turbulence; and
inflow of chlorofluorocarbons.
(b) Presence of prominent polar front and stratospheric
clouds; and inflow of chlorofluorocarbons.
Some PYQ’s (c) Absence of polar front and stratospheric clouds; and
inflow of methane and chlorofluorocarbons.
(d) Increased temperature at polar region due to global
warming.

3 4

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 15-02-2020

Q2) Two important rivers–one with its source in

Jharkhand (and known by a different name in
Odisha), and another, with its source in Odisha–
merge at a place only a short distance from the
A-b)
coast of Bay of Bengal before flowing into the sea.
This is an important site of wildlife and biodiversity
The nitric acid in polar stratospheric
and a protected area. Which one of the following
clouds reacts with CFCs to form
could be this ?
chlorine, which catalyzes the
photochemical destruction of ozone.
(a) Bhitarkanika
(b) Chandipur-on-sea
(c) Gopalpur-on-sea
6
(d) Simlipal

Q3) Three of the following criteria have contributed to the

recognition of Western Ghats, Sri Lanka and Indo Burma
regions as hotspots of biodiversity :
A-a) 1. Species richness
2. Vegetation density
 The Bhitarkanika Mangroves are a 3. Endemism
mangrove wetland in India's Orissa state. 4. Ethno-botanical importance
 The Bhitarkanika Mangroves cover an 5. Threat perception
area of 650 km2 in the river delta of the 6. Adaption of flora and fauna to warm and humid
Brahmani and Baitarani rivers. conditions

Which three of the above are correct criteria in this context?

(a) 1, 2 and 6
(b) 2, 4 and 6
(c) 1, 3 and 5
8
(d) 3, 4 and 6

2

A-c)
To qualify as a hotspot, a region must meet two
strict criteria: it must contain at least 1,500 species
of vascular plants (> 0.5 percent of the world’s total)
as endemics, and it has to have lost at least 70
percent of its original habitat. So we choose Species
richness as well as Endemism. Along with this Threat
perception is necessary to take , because it makes
the base of this concept. Adaptation of flora is an
arbitrary option, Ethno-botanical importance does
nothing with the Biodiversity Hotspot selection
criteria, vegetation Density is also discarded.
10
A-b)
 Himalayas and its adjoining areas
are marked as a confluence of
several biogeographical realms.
 It has varity of forest type and is
rich in zoobiogeographic region.
12
15-02-2020
Q4) The Himalayan range is very rich in species
diversity. Which one among the following is the
most appropriate reason for this phenomenon ?
(a) It has a high rainfall that supports luxuriant
vegetative growth
(b) It is a confluence of different bio-geographical
zones.
(c) Exotic and invasive species have not been
introduced in this region.
(d) has less human interference.
Q5) There is a concern over the increase in harmful
algal blooms in the seawaters of India. What could
be the causative factors for this phenomenon ?
1. Discharge of nutrients from the estuaries.
2. Run-off from the land during the monsoon.
3. Upwelling in the seas.
Select the correct answer from the codes given
below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
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 15-02-2020

A-d)
Algea multiply rapidly when
nutrients are present there. So,
discharge of nutrients favour algea
Environmental
growth from estuaries to sea. The
run off the land during the monsoon
Impact
bring salts which favours the Assessment (EIA)
growth of algea. Upwelling of the
sea water from the sea flow brings
the nutrients on tap level leading in
fast algea multiplication.

Environmental Protection and Sustainable

Development has been the cornerstones of the
policies and procedures governing the industrial
and other developmental activities in India.

4

 Every anthropogenic activity has some impact
on the environment.
 More often it is harmful to the environment
than benign.
 However, mankind as it is developed today
cannot live without taking up these activities
for his food, security and other needs.
Consequently, there is a need to harmonise
developmental activities with the
environmental concerns.
 It is desirable to ensure that the development
options under consideration are sustainable.
In doing so, environmental consequences
must be characterised early in the project
cycle and accounted for in the project design.
20
15-02-2020
The Need for EIA
Environmental impact assessment (EIA)
 Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is one of the
tools available with the planners to achieve the goal
of harmonising development activities with the
environmental concerns.
 EIA integrates the environmental concerns in the
developmental activities right at the time of initiating
for preparing the feasibility report. In doing so it can
enable the integration of environmental concerns and
mitigation measures in project development. EIA can
often prevent future liabilities or expensive
alterations in project design.
5

 The objective of EIA is to foresee the potential
environmental problems that would arise out
of a proposed development and address them
in the project’s planning and design stage.
 EIA/ Environment Management Plan (EMP)
should assist planners and government
authorities in the decision making process by
identifying the key impacts/ issues and
formulating the mitigation measures.
INDIAN POLICIES
REQUIRING EIA
15-02-2020
 EIA is a planning tool which is accepted as an integral
component of sound decision-making.
 Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoE&F) has taken
several policy initiatives and enacted environmental
and pollution control legislations to prevent
indiscriminate exploitation of natural resources and to
promote integration of environmental concerns in
developmental projects.
 One such initiative is the “Notification on
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of
developmental projects 1994” under the provisions of
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
 The environmental impact assessment in India
was started in 1976-77 when the Planning
Commission asked the then Department of
Science and Technology to examine the river-
valley projects from environmental angle.
 This was subsequently extended to cover those
projects, which required approval of the Public
Investment Board.
 These were administrative decisions, and
lacked the legislative support.
 The Government of India enacted the
Environment (Protection) Act on 1986. To
achieve the objectives of the Act, one of the
decisions that were taken is to make
environmental impact assessment statutory.
6
 15-02-2020

Besides EIA, the Government of India under Environment
(Protection) Act 1986 issued a number of other notifications,
which are related to environmental impact assessment. These
are limited to specific geographical areas. They are
 Restricting location of industries and
regulating other activities in Dahanu Taluka
in Maharashtra (1991).

 Prohibiting location of industries except those related to  Restricting certain activities in specified
Tourism in a belt of 1 km from high tide mark from the
areas of Aravalli Range in the Gurgaon
Revdanda Creek up to Devgarh Point (near Shrivardhan) as
well as in 1 km belt along the banks of Rajpuri Creek in district of Haryana and Alwar district of
Murud Janjira area in the Raigarh district of Maharashtra Rajasthan (1992).
(1989).
 Restricting location of industries, mining operations and
regulating other activities in Doon Valley (1989).  Regulating industrial and other activities,
 Regulating activities in the coastal stretches of the country by which could lead to pollution and congestion
classifying them as coastal regulation zone and prohibiting
in an area north west of Numaligarh in
certain activities (1991).
Assam (1996).

The EIA process in India is made up of the

following phases:
 Screening
 Scoping
 Baseline data collection

THE EIA CYCLE

 Impact prediction
 Assessment of alternatives, delineation of
mitigation measures and environmental

AND impact statement

 Public hearing
 Environment Management Plan

PROCEDURES  Decision making

 Monitoring the clearance conditions

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 15-02-2020

Screening
 Screening is done to see whether a project
requires environmental clearance as per the
statutory notifications. Screening Criteria are
based upon:
• Scales of investment;
• Type of development; and,
• Location of development.
 A Project requires statutory environmental
clearance only if the provisions of EIA
notification and/or one or more statutory
notification cover it.
Scoping
 Scoping is a process of detailing the terms of reference
of EIA. It has to be done by the consultant in
consultation with the project proponent and guidance,
if need be, from Impact Assessment Agency.
 The Ministry of Environment and Forests has published
sector-wise guidelines (Comprehensive terms of
reference) which outline the significant issues which
has to be addressed in the EIA studies.

Baseline Data
 Quantifiable impacts are to be assessed on the basis of
magnitude, prevalence, frequency and duration and
non-quantifiable impacts (such as aesthetic or  Baseline data describes the existing
recreational value), significance is commonly
determined through the socio-economic criteria.
environmental status of the identified
study area.
 After the areas, where the project could have
significant impact, are identified, the baseline status of
these should be monitored. And then the likely changes  The site-specific primary data should
in these on account of the construction and operation be monitored for the identified
of the proposed project should be predicted.
parameters and supplemented by
secondary data if available.

8

Impact Prediction
 Impact prediction is a way of mapping the
environmental consequences of the
significant aspects of the project and its
alternatives.
 Environmental impact can never be predicted
with absolute certainty and this is all the
more reason to consider all possible factors
and take all possible precautions for reducing
the degree of uncertainty.
Water
 availability to competing users
 changes in quality
 sediment transport
 ingress of saline water
Land
 changes in land use and drainage pattern
 changes in land quality including effects of
waste disposal
 changes in shoreline/riverbank and their
stability
15-02-2020
The following impacts of the project should be
assessed:
Air
 changes in ambient levels and ground level
concentrations due to total emissions from
point, line and area sources
 effects on soils, materials, vegetation, and
human health
 Noise changes in ambient levels due to noise
generated from equipment and movement of
vehicles
 effect on fauna and human health
Biological
 deforestation/tree-cutting and shrinkage of
animal habitat.
 impact on fauna and flora (including aquatic
species if any) due to
contaminants/pollutants.
 impact on rare and endangered species,
endemic species, and migratory path/route of
animals.
9

Impact on breeding and nesting grounds
Socio-Economic
 impact on the local community including
demographic changes.
Impact on economic status
 impact on human health.
 impact of increased traffic
37
 Once alternatives have been reviewed, a
mitigation plan should be drawn up for the
selected option and is supplemented with an
Environmental Management Plan (EMP) to
guide the proponent towards environmental
improvements. The EMP is a crucial input to
monitoring the clearance conditions and
therefore details of monitor should be
included in the EMP.
 An EIA report should provide clear
information to the decision-maker on the
different environmental scenarios without
the project, with the project and with
project alternatives. Uncertainties should be
clearly reflected in the EIA report.
15-02-2020
Assessment of Alternatives, Delineation of
Mitigation Measures and Environmental
Impact Assessment Report
 For every project, possible alternatives
should be identified and environmental
attributes compared.
 Alternatives should cover both project
location and process technologies.
Alternatives should consider no project
option also.
 Alternatives should then be ranked for
selection of the best environmental option
for optimum economic benefits to the
community at large.
Public Hearing
Law requires that the public must be informed and
consulted on a proposed development after the completion
of EIA report.
Any one likely to be affected by the proposed project is
entitled to have access to the Executive Summary of the EIA.
The affected persons may include:
 bonafide local residents;
 local associations;
 environmental groups: active in the area
 any other person located at the project site / sites of
displacement
 They are to be given an opportunity to make oral/ written
suggestions to the State Pollution Control Board.
40
10

Environment
Management
Plan
Decision Making
 Decision making process involve consultation
between the project proponent (assisted by a
consultant) and the impact assessment
authority (assisted by an expert group if
necessary)
 The decision on environmental clearance is
arrived through a number of steps including
evaluation of EIA and EMP.
43
15-02-2020
Environment Management Plan should include:
 Delineation of mitigation and compensation measures for
all the identified significant impacts
 Delineation of unmitigated impacts
 Physical planning including work programme, time
schedule and locations for putting mitigation and
compensation systems in place
 Delineation of financial plan for implementing the
mitigation measures in the form of budgetary estimates
and demonstration of its inclusion in the project budget
estimates.
42
Monitoring the Clearance Conditions
 Monitoring should be done during both construction and
operation phases of a project.
 This is not only to ensure that the commitments made
are complied with but also to observe whether the
predictions made in the EIA reports were correct or not.
Where the impacts exceed the predicted levels,
corrective action should be taken.
 Monitoring will enable the regulatory agency to review
the validity of predictions and the conditions of
implementation of the Environmental Management Plan
(EMP).
44
11
 15-02-2020

Q. What are the main principles of

environmental impact assessment (EIA)? Is
EIA central to various infrastructure projects
in India? Examine.

पयावरणीय भाव मू ांकन (ईआईए) के मु

िस ांत ा ह? ा भारत म िविभ बुिनयादी ढांचा
प रयोजनाओं के िलए ईआईए क ीय है ? जांच कर।

45

12
 16-02-2020

Topics covered:-
1) PYQs
2) Environmental impact
assessment (EIA)
3) ENVIRONMENT
SUPPLEMENT PLAN (ESP)
4) Strategic Environmental
Lecture 15.2 – Environmental Assessment (SEA)

Monitoring

 Environment Impact Assessment Notification of 2006

has decentralised the environmental clearance
projects by categorizing the developmental projects
in two categories, i.e., Category A and Category B.

Salient  ‘Category A’ projects are appraised at national level

by Impact Assessment Agency (IAA) and the Expert
Features of Appraisal Committee (EAC) and Category B projects
are apprised at state level.

2006  State Level Environment Impact Assessment

Authority (SEIAA) and State Level Expert Appraisal

Amendment Committee (SEAC) are constituted to provide

clearance to Category B process.

1
 16-02-2020

After 2006 Amendment the EIA cycle comprises of four

stages
1. Screening
2. Scoping
3. Public hearing
4. Appraisal Category A projects require mandatory
environmental clearance and thus we do not
undergo the screening process.
Category B projects undergoes screening process and
they are classified into two types.
1. Category B1 projects (Mandatory requires EIA).
2. Category B2 projects (Do not require EIA).
COMPONENTS
Thus Category A projects and Category B1 projects
undergo the complete EIA process whereas Category B2
OF EIA
projects are excluded from complete EIA process.

 The difference between Comprehensive EIA and Rapid EIA is

in the time-scale of the data supplied. Rapid EIA is for
speedier appraisal process. While both types of EIA require
inclusion/ coverage of all significant environmental impacts
and their mitigation, Rapid EIA achieves this through the
collection of one season (other than monsoon) data only to
reduce the time required where comprehensive EIA collects
data from all four seasons.
 Rapid EIA is acceptable if it does not compromise on the
quality of decision-making. The review of Rapid EIA

Air
submissions will show whether a comprehensive EIA is
warranted or not.
 It is, therefore, clear that the submission of a professionally

Environment
prepared Comprehensive EIA in the first instance would
generally be the more efficient approach. Depending on
nature, location and scale of the project EIA report should
contain all or some of the following components.

2

 Determination of impact zone (through a screening
model) and developing a monitoring network.
 Monitoring the existing status of ambient air quality
within the impacted region (7-10 km from the
periphery) of the proposed project site.
 Monitoring the site-specific meteorological data, viz.
wind speed and direction, humidity, ambient
temperature and environmental lapse rate.
 Estimation of quantities of air emissions including
fugitive emissions from the proposed project.
Noise
Environment
16-02-2020
 Identification, quantification and evaluation of other
potential emissions (including those of vehicular
traffic) within the impact zone and estimation of
cumulative of all the emissions/impacts
 Prediction of changes in the ambient air quality due to
point, line and areas source emissions through
appropriate air quality models
 Evaluation of the adequacy of the proposed pollution
control devices to meet gaseous emission and
ambient air quality standards
 Delineation of mitigation measures at source, path
ways and receptor
 Monitoring the present status of noise levels
within the impact zone, and prediction of
future noise levels resulting from the
proposed project and related activities
including increase in vehicular movement.
 Identification of impacts due to any
anticipated rise in noise levels on the
surrounding environment.
 Recommendations on mitigation measures
for noise pollution.
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 Study of existing ground and surface water

resources with respect to quantity and
quality within the impact zone of the
proposed project

 Prediction of impacts on water resources due

to the proposed water use/pumping on
account of the project

Water  Quantification and characterisation of waste

water including toxic organic, from the
Environment proposed activity

 Evaluation of the proposed pollution

prevention and wastewater treatment system
and suggestions on modification, if required

 Prediction of impacts of effluent discharge on

the quality of the receiving water body using
appropriate mathematical/simulation models

 Assessment of the feasibility of water

recycling and reuse and delineation of
detailed plan in this regard.
Biological
Environment

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Survey of flora and fauna clearly delineating

season and duration.
 Assessment of flora and fauna present within  Assessment of damage to aquatic and marine
the impact zone of the project flora and fauna (including commercial fishing)
due to physical disturbances and alterations.
 Assessment of potential damage to terrestrial
and aquatic flora and fauna due to discharge  Prediction of biological stresses within the
of effluents and gaseous emissions from the impact zone of the proposed project.
project
 Delineation of mitigation measures to
 Assessment of damage to terrestrial flora and prevent and / or reduce the damage.
fauna due to air pollution, and land use and
landscape changes

 Studies on soil characteristics, existing land

use and topography, landscape and drainage
patterns within the impact zone.
 Estimation on impacts of project on land use,
landscape, topography, drainage and
hydrology.
 Identification on potential utility of treated
effluent in land application and subsequent
impacts.
 Estimation and Characterisation of solid
Land wastes and delineation of management
options for minimisation of waste and
Environment environmentally compatible disposal.

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 Collection of demographic and related socio-economic

data

Socio-  Collection of epidemiological data, including studies

on prominent endemic diseases (e.g. fluorosis,

economic
malaria, fileria, malnutrition) and morbidity rates
among the population within the impact zone

and Health  Projection of anticipated changes in the socio-

economic and health due to the project and related
activities including traffic congestion and delineation

Environment of measures to minimise adverse impacts

 Assessment of impact on significant

historical, cultural and archaeological
sites/places in the area

 Assessment of economic benefits arising

out of the project
Risk
 Assessment of rehabilitation requirements
with special emphasis on scheduled areas, Assessment
if any.

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 Hazard identification taking recourse to hazard indices,

inventory analysis, dam break probability, Natural
Hazard Probability etc.

 Maximum Credible Accident (MCA) analysis to identify

potential hazardous scenarios

Environment
 Consequence analysis of failures and accidents
resulting in fire, explosion, hazardous releases and dam
breaks etc.

 Hazard & Operability (HAZOP) studies

 Assessment of risk on the basis of the above
Management
evaluations.
 Preparation of an onsite and off site (project affected Plan
area) Disaster Management Plan

 Delineation of mitigation measures

including prevention and control for
each environmental component and
rehabilitation and resettlement plan. ENVIRONMENTAL
 Delineation of monitoring scheme for IMPACT ASSESSMENT IN
compliance of conditions. THE INDIAN SYSTEM –
DRAWBACKS AND
 Delineation of implementation plan
including scheduling and resource
RECOMMENDATIONS
allocation. 28

7

DRAW BACKS
Applicability:
1) There are several projects with
significant environmental impacts that
are exempted from the notification
either because they are not listed in
schedule1, or their investments are less
than what is provided for in the
29
notification.
Quality:
1. One of the biggest concerns with the environmental
clearance process is related to the quality of EIA report that
are being carried out. The reports are generally incomplete
and provided with false data.
2. EIA reports ignore several aspects while carrying out
assessments and significant information is found to
omitted.
3. Many EIA report are based on single season data and are
not adequate to determine whether environmental
clearance should be granted. All this makes the entire
exercise contrary to its very intent.
31
16-02-2020
Composition of expert committees and standards:
1. It is being found that the team formed for conducting EIA studies is
lacking the expertise in various fields such as environmentalists,
wild life experts, Anthropologists and Social Scientists (to study the
social impact of the project).
2. There is a lack of exhaustive ecological and socio-economic
indicators for impact assessment.
Public hearing:
1. Public comments are not taken into account at the early stage,
which often leads to conflict at the later stage of project clearance.
2. A number of projects with significant environmental and social
impacts have been excluded from the mandatory public hearing
process.
3. The documents which the public are entitled to are seldom
available on time.
4. The data collectors do not pay respect to the indigenous
30 knowledge of local people.
Quality:
4. As things stand today, it is the responsibility of the project
proponent to commission the preparation of the EIA for its
project. The EIA is actually funded by an agency or individual
whose primary interest is to procure clearance for the project
proposed. There is little chance that the final assessment
presented is un biased, even if the consultant may provide an
unbiased assessment that is critical of the proposed project. Some
times it is found that a consultancy which is working in the project
area has no specialization in the concerned subject. For example
for the preparation of EIA report of the proposed oil exploration in
coast of Orissa by the reliance group has been given to the life
science Dept of Berhampur university which has no expertise on
the study of turtles and its life cycle.
5. The EIA document in itself is so bulky and technical, which makes
it very difficult to decipher so as to aid in the decision making
32 process.
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 16-02-2020

Quality:
6. There are so many cases of fraudulent EIA studies where
erroneous data has been used, same facts used for two totally
different places etc. This is due to the lack of a centralized
baseline data bank, where such data can be crosschecked.

7. There is no accreditation of EIA consultants, therefore any such ENVIRONMENT

SUPPLEMENT
consultant with a track record of fraudulent cases cannot be held
liable for discrepancies. It is hard to imagine any consultant after
being paid lakh of rupees, preparing a report for the project
proponents, indicating that the project is not viable.

8. In nearly every case, the consultants try to interpret and tailor the
PLAN (ESP)
information looking for ways and means to provide their clients
with a report that gives them their moneys worth.
33 34

 An Environmental Supplemental Plan (ESP) is

an environmentally beneficial project or
activity that is not required by law, but that an Proposals under ESP:-
alleged violator of Environmental Impact
Assessment Notification, 2006 agrees to
undertake as part of the process of
 ESP would allow violator companies to continue their
environmental clearance. activities by paying a financial penalty.

 “Environmentally beneficial” means an  This would then be invested in an “environmentally

Environmental Supplemental Plan must beneficial project or activity” for an affected target group
remediate, improve, protect the environment of stakeholders.
or reduce risks to public health or the
35 environment.

9

Positives:-
Many developmental projects have been
currently been stalled to non-compliance
with EIA regime or for preparing an
improper EIA. ESP would enable reviving
these projects.
The “Bad Loans” issue currently plaguing the
Banking sector can be substantially resolved
through reviving the stalled projects.
37
Negatives:
 MoEFCC stated the notification has legal basis in two
judgments, one by the NGT and the other by the
Jharkhand High Court. But neither of the two
judgments condones EIA violations to be regularized
post facto nor does it prescribe a way out of these for
violators.
 Valuation of environmental loss cannot be just
compensated by pecuniary payment by the violator.
 Whether the fine amount would be collected properly
and utilized for restoration is doubtful. No mechanism
has been proposed to utilize the collected funds.
 ESP provides an escape mechanism to violators.
Instead of following the path of an EIA clearance, they
can get away by paying a penalty through specific
investment activities.
16-02-2020
Negatives:
 ESP is a clever attempt to legalize EIA violation and gain
corporate confidence, thereby allowing violator to
damage the environment and circumvent the EIA
process.
 Among all cases filed in the National Green Tribunal
(NGT), around 41% are cases where the NGT found
faults with an EIA assessment. Thus, EIA violation is a
major in developmental projects. Allowing such
violators to carry on, defeats the ultimate purpose of
EIA.
 Many experts argue that this indirectly allows
pardoning of violations. Rather than building upon the
“Polluters Pay Principle”, the ESP looks like an attempt
to promote corporate development by using a
contradictory “Pay and Pollute” principle.
Strategic
Environmental
Assessment (SEA)
40
10

SEA is defined as the formalized, systematic and
comprehensive process of evaluating the
environmental impacts of a policy, plan or
programme (PPP) and using the findings in
publicly accountable decision – making.
Rationale
and Scope
16-02-2020
 A hierarchy exists between policies,
plans and programs with policies are
at the top level of conceptualization.
 Programs make plans more specific by
including a time schedule for specific
activities.
 Implementation of a program involves
carrying out specific projects, which
can be subjected to traditional EIA.
In broad terms, the rationale for
SEA of policies, plans and
programmes falls into three main
categories:
1) Strengthening project EIA;
2) Advancing the sustainability
agenda;
3) Addressing cumulative and large-
scale effects:
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The Environmental Impact Assessment is constrained by

certain limitations and weaknesses. These include
structural weaknesses centred on high-order questions of
whether, where and what type of development should
take place are decided, often with little or no
environmental analysis. SEA can be used as a complement
to project-level EIA to incorporate environmental
considerations and alternatives directly into policy, plan
and programme design. Thus, when applied systematically

Benefits
in the upstream part of the decision a cycle and to the
economic, fiscal and trade policies guide the overall
course of development, SEA can lead to a sustainable
approach to planning and decision making.

i. promoting integrated environment and development

decision-making;
ii. facilitating the design of environmentally-sustainable
policies and plans;
iii. providing for consideration of a larger range of
alternatives than is normally possible in project EIA;
iv. taking account, where possible, of cumulative effects
(particularly by focusing on the consequences of
sectoral or regional-level developments) and global
change;
v. enhancing institutional efficiency (particularly, where

Constraints
ElA related skills, operational funds and institutional
capacities are limited) by obviating the need for
unnecessary project level EAS;
vi. providing a mechanism for public engagement in
discussions relevant to sustainability at a strategic
level.

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SEA requires a certain level of institutional maturity for

effective inter-sectoral dialogue so that environmental
considerations are taken into account in formulating,
revising and implementing policies, plans and
programmes effectively, and to influence decision-
making.

Appropriate skills are needed, within government

departments/ agencies and private sectors (e.g.,
industry, environmental consulting companies) and
amongst academics and NGOs. There is a need for
adequate Capacity in these sectors (both human and
financial resources).
Conclusion

In practice, the extent to which the

benefits of SEA are achieved will also
depend on a number of other important
factors such as existing legal and
administrative provisions made for SEA,
prior record of implementation and
acceptance by decision makers, degree
to which overall strategies of sustainable
development are in place.

13
 16-02-2020

Thank You!
Keep learning!

14
 21-02-2020

Topics covered:-
1) Some Previous year’s questions
(2016)

2) UN conference on environment
and development
i. Agenda 21
ii. Rio declaration
iii. UNCBD
Lecture 16 – Environment Conventions iv. UNFCCC
v. UNCCD.

Q-1) Consider the following pairs:

Wildlife: Naturally found in
1) Blue finned mahseer : Cauvery river
2) Irrawaddy dolphin : Chambal river
3) Rusty spotted cats : Eastern ghats

Some questions Which one of the pair given above are

from 2019 UPSC correctly matched?

(a) 1 and 2 only

Prelims (b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
3 4

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Q-2) Consider the following states :

1) Chhattisgarh
2) Madhya Pradesh
A-c) 3) Maharashtra
4) Odisha
Gangetic river dolphin (Platanista
gangetica) is found in Chambal river With reference to the states mentioned above, in terms
of percentage of forest cover to the total area of State,
Irrawaddy Dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris) which one of the following is the correct ascending
is a different species. It’s found in Chilika order?
lagoon and salt-water estuaries of Odisha (a) 2-3-1-4
(b) 2-3-4-1
(c) 3-2-4-1
(d) 3-2-1-4
6

A-c) Q-3) Consider the following statements:

1) As per law, the Compensatory Afforestation Fund
Management and Planning Authority exists at both
Madhya Pradesh: 25% National and State levels.
Odisha: 31% 2) People’s participation is mandatory in the
(1) Chattisgarh: 42% compensatory afforestation programmes carried
(3) Maharashtra: 15% out under the Compensatory Afforestation Fund
Act, 2016.
Thus Maharashtra (3) is lowest and Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Chattisgarh (1) is highest forest (a) 1 only
cover in % term. So, pattern should (b) 2 only
be 3-2-4-1. There is only one such (c) Bth 1 and 2
option C. (d) Neither 1 nor 2
8

2
 21-02-2020

A-a) Q-4) In the context of which of the following

 The Bill also establishes the National
and State Compensatory Afforestation
Fund Management and Planning
Authorities to manage the National
and State Funds. So, #1 is right.
 There is no mention of mandatory
People’s participation so, #2 is wrong.
Thus answer A: only 1 correct.
10
do some scientists suggest the use of cirrus
cloud thinning technique and the injection of
sulphate aerosol into stratosphere?
(a) Creating the artificial rains in some regions
(b) Reducing the frequency and intensity of
tropical cyclones
(c) Reducing the adverse effects of the solar
wind on the earth
(d) Reducing the global warming

UN Conference
A-d) on Environment
Sulphate aerosol particles are very good and Development
reflectors of sunlight, and it has been shown,
through various climate models, that even if
1% of current incident solar radiation is
reflected back in space, a very significant
amount of temperature rise on earth can be
offset. So, D is the closest match.

3
21-02-2020

4
 21-02-2020

 Twenty years after the first global environment

UNCED
⊷ United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED), also known as Earth Summit is
a conference held at Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) to reconcile
worldwide economic development with protection to
the environment.
⊷ The conference was held in June 1992 and was further
known as Rio Earth Summit.
⊷ The objective of the conference was to build upon
expectations and findings of the Brundtland Report,
1987 and to respond to pressing global environmental
problems through major agreements and cooperation
on biodiversity, climate change and forest
management.
17
conference, the UN sought to help Governments
rethink economic development and find ways to halt
the destruction of irreplaceable natural resources
and pollution of the planet.
 Few of the important outcomes of Earth Summit
are as under:
a) Agenda 21
b) Rio declaration on environment and development.
c) United nations framework convention
on climate change.
d) United nations convention on biological diversity.
e) United Nation Convention to Combat
Desertification
18

Agenda 21
 Agenda 21 is a non-binding action plan of the United
Nations (UN) related to sustainable development.

 It was an outcome of the Earth Summit 1992.

 The number 21 refers to an agenda for the 21st

century.

 Its aim is achieving global sustainable development.

 Since 2015, Sustainable Development Goals are

included in the Agenda 2030.

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 21-02-2020

RIO DECLARATION ON
 In addition, it recognizes the integral and
ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
interdependent nature of the Earth.
 Rio declaration on environment and development
was an outcome of the united nations conference on  Rio declaration is a series of principles
environment and development, held at rio de janerio
in 1992.
defining the rights and responsibilities of
 The objective of the declaration was to establish a
countries towards environment.
new and equitable global partnership through the
creation of new levels of cooperation among states,  The Rio Declaration proclaims 27
key sectors of societies and people. principles. Of these, important principles
 It also worked towards international agreements have been mentioned below:-
which respect the interests of all and protect the
integrity of the global environmental and
23 developmental system.

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 21-02-2020

Principle Title Remarks Principle Title Remarks

1 Healthy and Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable
harmonious development. They are entitled to a healthy and productive
life life in harmony with nature.
2 Prudent use States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United
of natural Nations and the principles of international law, the
resources sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to
their own environmental and developmental policies, and
the responsibility to ensure that activities within their
jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the
environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits
of national jurisdiction.
3 Equitable The right to development must be fulfilled so as to
development equitably meet developmental and environmental needs of
25 present and future generations.
6 Priority to The special situation and needs of developing countries,
vulnerable particularly the least developed and those most environmentally
and needy vulnerable, shall be given special priority. International actions in
countries the field of environment and development should also address the
interests and needs of all countries.
15 Precautionary In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach
principle shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities.
Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of
full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing
cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.
16 Polluter pays National authorities should endeavour to promote the
principle internalization of environmental costs and the use of economic
instruments, taking into account the approach that the polluter
should, in principle, bear the cost of pollution, with due regard to
the public interest and without distorting international trade and
26 investment.

Principle Title Remarks

17 Environmental Environmental impact assessment, as a national
impact assessment instrument, shall be undertaken for proposed UNFCCC
activities that are likely to have a significant
adverse impact on the environment and are
subject to a decision of a competent national United nations framework convention on climate change
authority. (UNFCCC) is an international treaty for reducing greenhouse gas
emissions.
Countries meet every year to discuss climate change strategy
20 Inclusion of Women have a vital role in environmental which are called conference of the parties (COP).
women in management and development. Their full UNFCCC provides the basis for concerted international action to
environmental participation is therefore essential to achieve mitigate climate change and to adapt to its impacts.
development sustainable development.
It was adopted at the UN summit conference on environment
27
and development, held at Rio De janeiro in 1992.

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 21-02-2020

Annex – I:-
⊷ Parties include the industrialized countries that were
members of the OECD (organization for economic co –
operation and development) in 1992, plus countries with

Annex Parties economies in transition (the EIT parties), including the

Russian federation, the Baltic states, and several central
and eastern European states.

The convention divides countries Annex – II:-

⊷ Parties consist of the OECD members of Annex – I, but not
into three main groups according the EIT Parties. They are required to provide financial
to differing commitments: resources to enable developing countries to undertake
emissions reduction activities under the convention and
to help them adapt to adverse effects of climate change.
Funding provided by annex – II parties is channeled mostly
through the convention’s financial mechanism.
30

Non annex – I:-

 Parties are mostly developing countries. Certain groups of developing countries are
recognized by the convention as being especially vulnerable to the adverse impacts
of climate change, including countries with low lying coastal areas and those
prone to desertification and drought. Others (such as countries that rely heavily on
income from fossil fuel production and commerce) feel more vulnerable to the
potential economic impacts of climate change response measures.

 The convention emphasizes activities that promise to answer the special needs and
concerns of these vulnerable countries, such as investment, insurance and
technology transfer, examples: India, Brazil, China etc.
Conference of
 The 49 parties classified as least developed countries (LDCs) by the united nations Parties (COP)
are given special consideration under the convention on account of their to its
adverse effects.

 Parties are urged to take full account of the special situation of LCDs when
31 considering funding and technology – transfer activities.

8
 21-02-2020

COP Place Decisions

1. Berlin (1995) Agreement that commitments contained in the Convention for
industrialized countries were inadequate and launched the
"Berlin Mandate" talks on additional commitment.
Kyoto Protocol
3. Kyoto (1997)  It brought individual, legally binding targets for industrialized ⊷ The Kyoto Protocol was adopted
(entered into countries prepared to take positive steps to curb emissions of in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997.
force on 16 carbon dioxide and other GHGs.
February,  Recognised that developed countries are principally ⊷ India ratified Kyoto Protocol
2005) responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in in 2002.
the atmosphere, the Protocol placed a heavier burden on
developed nations under the principle of "common but ⊷ The Kyoto Protocol came into force
differentiated responsibilities.“ in February 2005.
 Under the Protocol, countries must meet their targets
primarily through national measures. However, the Protocol
⊷ There are currently 192 Parties.
also offered them an additional means to meet their targets ⊷ USA never ratified Kyoto Protocol.
by way of market-based mechanisms (discussed in the
following pages) ⊷ Canada withdrew in 2012.
34

Kyoto Protocol Annex A in Kyoto Protocol:-

⊷ Goal: Fight global warming by reducing
greenhouse gas concentrations in the It is a list of six greenhouse gases and the source of
atmosphere to “a level that would prevent emissions covered under the Kyoto Protocol. The targets
dangerous anthropogenic interference with for the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol
the climate system.” cover emissions of the six main greenhouse gases,
⊷ Kyoto protocol aimed to cut emissions of namely:-
greenhouse gases across the developed world
by about 5 per cent by 2012 compared with 1990  Carbon dioxide (CO2);
levels.  Methane (CH4);
⊷ The Protocol is based on the principle  Nitrous oxide (N2O);
of common but differentiated responsibilities.  Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs);
 Perfluorocarbons (PFCs); and
⊷ Kyoto Protocol is the only global treaty with
 Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)
binding limits on GHG emissions.
35

9
 21-02-2020

Annex B:-
 It is list of countries in the Kyoto protocol
which identical to annex I parties listed in the
Flexible Market
convention except that it does not include Mechanisms –
Belarus or Turkey.
 This gives the Annex I countries (developed Kyoto Protocol
countries) – compulsory binding targets to
reduce greenhouse gas emission.

•Countries bound to Kyoto targets have to

meet them largely through domestic action —
that is, to reduce their emissions onshore.

•But they can meet part of their targets

through three “market-based mechanisms”.

The Kyoto Flexible Market Protocol

mechanisms include:
1.Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
2.Emission Trading
3.Joint Implementation (JI)
39 40

10

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) – Kyoto
Protocol
 CDM allows a country with an emission-reduction or emission-
limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party)
to implement an emission-reduction project in developing
countries.
 Hypothetical E.g. of CDM: Australia takes up or finances
some environment benefitting project in India (solar power
projects, wind power projects, afforestation etc.) and earns
some carbon credits (certified emission reduction credits). Now it
shows these earned carbon credits to the world and tells them
how it is working towards meeting its Kyoto targets.
 Such projects can earn saleable certified emission reduction (CER)
credits, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can be
41
counted towards meeting Kyoto targets.
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) – Kyoto Protocol
 In simple terms: Developed countries emit more and lose carbon
credits. They provide financial assistance to developing and least
developed countries to create clean energy (solar, wind energy etc.)
and gain some carbon credits thereby meeting their Kyoto Quota
(Kyoto units) of emissions without violations.
 Suppose a developed country has a Kyoto Quota of 100 Carbon
Credits, it can emit 100 tonnes of CO2.
 Due to negligence it emits 110 tonnes of CO2, i.e. 10 carbon credits are
lost (Kyoto Quota violation).
 Now the country has to make up for its lost carbon credits to avoid
penalty.
 So, it invests some money (equal to 10 carbon credits) in developing
and LDCs to build clean energy infrastructure like solar plants, wind
farms etc. and will make up for its 10 lost carbon credits and avoid
43 penalty.
21-02-2020
Joint Implementation (JI) – Kyoto
Protocol
 The mechanism known as “joint implementation,”
allows a country with an emission reduction
commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party)
to earn emission reduction units (ERUs) from an
emission-reduction project in another Annex B Party,
each equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can be
counted towards meeting its Kyoto target.
 Joint implementation offers Parties a flexible and cost-
efficient means of fulfilling a part of their Kyoto
commitments, while the host Party benefits from
42 foreign investment and technology transfer.
Emission trading/’cap-and-trade’
 Emissions trading allows countries to sell unused
emission units to countries that have exceeded their
targets.
 Carbon is tracked and traded like any other commodity
in a “carbon market.”
Other trading units in the carbon market:
 A removal unit (RMU) by reforestation.
 An emission reduction unit (ERU) generated by a joint
implementation project.
 A certified emission reduction (CER) generated from a
clean development mechanism project activity.
44
11
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[UPSC 2016]

12
 21-02-2020

[UPSC 2016]

13
 21-02-2020

Thank You!
Keep learning!

14
 22-02-2020

Topics covered:-
1) Some Previous year’s questions
(2016)

2) UN conference on environment
and development
i. Agenda 21
ii. Rio declaration
iii. UNCBD
Lecture 17 – Environment Conventions iv. UNFCCC
v. UNCCD.

Offset Trading/Carbon Project/’baseline-and

credit’ trading
 Another variant of carbon credit is to be earned by a country by
investing some amount of money in such projects, known as carbon
projects, which will emit lesser amount of greenhouse gas in the
atmosphere.
 For example, suppose a thermal plant of 800 megawatt capacity emit
400 carbon-equivalent in the atmosphere. Now a country builds up an
800 megawatt wind energy plant which does not generate any
amount of emission as an alternative of the thermal plant. Then by
investing in this project the country will earn 400 carbon-equivalent.
 Offset Trading is a variant of Emission Trading or Carbon Trading.
Non-Compliance of Kyoto And Penalties
 If a country does not meet the requirements for measurements and
reporting, the country loses the privilege of gaining credit through
joint implementation projects.
 If a country goes above its emissions cap and does not try to make up
the difference through any of the mechanisms available, then said
country must make up the difference plus an additional thirty
percent during the next period.
 The country could also be banned from participating in the ‘cap and
trade’ program.

1
 22-02-2020

What is commitment period – Kyoto Protocol?
 Under Kyoto Protocol, there are two commitment periods:
1. 2008 – 2012 and
2. 2013 – 2020.
 The second commitment period was agreed on in 2012, known as the Doha Amendment to
the protocol.
 Each commitment period has its own binding targets set for developed countries to reduce
their GHG emissions.
 Nations that miss their Kyoto target in 2012 will incur a penalty of an additional third added
to whatever cut they agree under a new treaty in Copenhagen.
 During first commitment period (2008-12), more than 35 countries had binding targets.
 Canada withdrew in 2012 after the first commitment period.
What is commitment period – Kyoto Protocol?
 Japan, New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto’s first-round but have
not taken on new targets in the second commitment period.
 As of January 2019, 124 states have accepted the Doha Amendment, while entry
into force requires the acceptances of 144 states.
 Thus, the second commitment period is a failure.
 Negotiations were held in Lima in 2014 to agree on a post-Kyoto legal framework
that would obligate all major polluters to pay for CO2 emissions.
 China, India, and the United States (three big villains) have all signalled that they
will not ratify any treaty that will commit them legally to reduce CO2 emissions.

COP Place Decisions COP Place Decisions

8. New Delhi Reiterated the need to build on the outcomes of the world summit on 13. Bali (2007) Adopted the Bali road Map as a two-year process towards a
(2002) sustainable development. strengthened international change agreement. The Bali Road Map
10. Buenos Aires Adopted numerous decisions and conclusions on issues relating to:- included:
 Development and transfer of technology  The Bali Action Plan to enable the implementation of the
 Land use changes and forestry Convention through long-term cooperative action up to and
 UNFCCC’s financial mechanism beyond 2012.
 Capacity building  Commitments for Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol
 Adaptation and response measure.
negotiations and their 2009 deadline.
11. Montreal (2005) Addressed issues such as:-  Launch of the Adaptation fund. (next page)
(CMP - 1)  Capacity building and transfer of technologies,  Decisions on technology transfer and on reducing emission from
 Adverse effects of climate change on developing and least developed deforestation.
countries, and All developed country Parties agreed to "quantified emission
 Financial and budget – related issues, including guidelines to the global
limitation taking into account differences in their national
environment facility (GEF), which serves as the convention’s financial
mechanism. circumstances.
 Agreement on a process for considering future action beyond 2012 under Developed countries stressed developing countries including India
the UNFCCC. and China also undertake some kind of emission cuts.

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COP Place Decisions

Adaptation Fund (Bali, 2007) 15. Copenh

-agen
(2009)
 The Adaptation Fund (AF) was established in 2001 to finance concrete adaptation
projects and programmes in developing country Parties to the Kyoto Protocol that
are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change.
 The Adaptation Fund is financed with a share of proceeds from the clean
development mechanism (CDM) project activities and other sources of funding.
The share of proceeds amounts to 2 % of certified emission reductions (CERs)
issued for a CDM project activity.
 The Adaptation Fund is supervised and managed by the Adaptation Fund Board
(AFB). The AFB is composed of 16 members and 16 alternates and meets at least
twice a year (Membership of the AFB).
 It was later launched in COP14 – Poland under Kyoto Protocol.
This Accord was an agreement between developing nations block called BASIC (Brazil, Africa,
India and China). As per the accord, all countries should pledge voluntary limit (no binding
obligations) to reduce GHG emissions.
 Under the accord, Annex I (developed) countries committed to reduce the emission and
targets for the reduction for 2020, and non-Annex I (developing) countries will implement
mitigation actions.
Binding obligations could not be reached due to discord between developed and developing
countries.
 Agreement on the long-term goal of limiting the maximum global average temperature
increase to not more than 2 degrees Celsius about pre-industrial levels, subject to a
review in 2015.
 A number of developing countries agreed to communicate their efforts to limit
greenhouse gas emissions every two years.
 Developed countries promised to provide US$30 billion for the period 2010-2012, and to
mobilize long-term finance of a further US$100 billion a year by 2020 from a variety of
sources.
 Laid the groundwork for financial commitments from developed countries to developing
countries.
 Established a new Technology Mechanism to accelerate technology development and
transfer for both adaptation and mitigation.

COP Place Decisions

16. Cancun (2010)  Committed to a maximum temperature rise of 2 degrees celsius above
pre – industrial level;
The Green Climate Fund (GCF)
 Make fully operational by 2012 a technology mechanism to boost the
development and spread of new climate – friendly technologies.
 Establish a Green Climate Fund(GCF) to provide financing for action in  The Green Climate Fund (GCF) is the world’s largest dedicated fund helping
developing countries via, thematic funding windows.
developing countries reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and enhance their
17. Durban (2011)  Adopted a universal climate agreement by 2015, with work beginning
ability to respond to climate change.
under a new group called the Ad Hoc working Group on the Durban  It was set up by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
Platform for enhanced action. (UNFCCC) in 2010.
 Parties also agreed to a second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol  GCF has a crucial role in serving the Paris Agreement, supporting the goal of
from 1 January 2013.
 A significantly advanced framework for the reporting of emission
keeping average global temperature rise well below 2 degrees C.
reductions for both developed and developing countries was also agreed,  It does this by channelling climate finance to developing countries, which have
taking into consideration the principle of common but differentiated joined other nations in committing to climate action.
responsibilities.
Approved the Governing Instrument for the Green Climate Fund

3

The Green Climate Fund (GCF)
 GCF invests in adaptation and mitigation activities in developing countries, managing
a project portfolio that is implemented by its partner organisations, known as Accredited
Entities.
 The Fund aims for a 50:50 balance between mitigation and adaptation investments over
time.
 It also aims for a floor of 50 percent of the adaptation allocation for particularly vulnerable
countries, including Least Developed Countries (LDCs), Small Island Developing States (SIDS),
and African States.
Amendment of the Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol, as the only existing and binding agreement under which
developed countries undertake quantitative commitments to cut greenhouse gases,
was amended so that it could seamlessly continue.
1. Governments decided on an 8 year second commitment period that started on
January 1st 2013.
2. The legal requirements that will allow a smooth continuation of the Protocol were
agreed, and the valuable accounting rules of the Protocol were preserved.
3. Countries that are taking on further commitments under the Kyoto Protocol agreed
to review their emission reduction commitments at the latest by 2014, with a view
to increasing their respective levels of ambition.
22-02-2020
COP Place Decisions
18. Doha (2012)  Governments set out a timetable to adopt a universal climate agreement
by 2015, to come into effect in 2020.
 They completed the work under the Bali Action Plan to concentrate on
new work towards a 2015 agreement under a single negotiating stream.
 Governments emphasized the need to increase their ambition to cut
greenhouse gases and to help vulnerable countries to adapt.
 COP 18 also saw the launch of a second commitment under the Kyoto
Protocol, from 1 January 2013 to 31 December 2020, with the adoption
of the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol.
 Finalised the host for Green Climate Fund.
 Japan, Russia and Canada refused to join the second commitment period
under the Kyoto Protocol.
19. Warsaw (2013)  Parties set a loose timeline for proposing their “intended nationally
determined contributions” to the 2015 agreement.
 Developed countries, which had previously promised to mobilize a total a
$100 billion a year by 2020, refused to set a quantified interim goal for
ramping up climate finance.
Amendment of the Kyoto Protocol
4. The Kyoto Protocol's Market Mechanisms – the Clean Development Mechanism
(CDM), Joint Implementation (JI) and International Emissions Trading (IET) – will
continue.
5. Access to the mechanisms remains uninterrupted for all developed countries that
have accepted targets for the second commitment period.
6. Surplus assigned amount units (AAUs) can be carried over without limit from the first
to the second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol by Parties included in Annex I
that have a target for the second commitment period.
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COP Place Decisions

20. Lima, Peru  Nations concluded by elaborating the elements of the new agreement
(2014) scheduled to be agreed in Paris in late 2015, while also agreeing the
ground rules on how all countries can submit contributions to the new
agreement during the first quarter of next year.
 These Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) will form
the foundation for climate action post 2020 when the new agreement is
set to come into effect.
 Pledges were made by both developed and developing nations prior to
and during the COP that took the capitalization of the new Green Climate
Fund (GCF) past an initial $10 billion target. ये खबर छपवा दो
अखबार म
21. Paris (2015)  Central aim is to strengthen the global response to the threat of climate पो र लगवा दो
change by keeping a global temperature rise this century well below 2°C बाजार म
above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature
increase even further to 1.5°C.
 The agreement aims to increase the ability of countries to deal with the
impacts of climate change, and at making finance flows consistent with a
low GHG emissions and climate resilient pathway.

COP Place Decisions

21. Paris  No agreement was reached in Lima. Climate Neutral Now

(2015)  All agreements and decisions were reserved for Paris Summit 2015.
 Paris Summit is one of the most important environmental conference
because of the INDC commitments made by major polluters.
 The conference objective is to achieve a legally binding and universal
agreement on climate to be signed in 2015 and implemented by 2020.
 Prior to the conference, 146 national climate panels publicly presented
draft national climate contributions (so-called Intended Nationally
Determined Contributions, INDCs).
 However, no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions
were incorporated into the Paris Agreement – as opposed to the
previous Kyoto Protocol.
 There will be neither a mechanism to force a country to set a target by a
specific date nor enforcement measures if a set target is not met.
 The UNFCCC secretariat launched its Climate Neutral Now initiative in 2015.
 The following year, the secretariat launched a new pillar under its Momentum for Change
initiative focused on Climate Neutral Now.
 Climate Neutral Now is aiming at encouraging and supporting all levels of society to take
climate action to achieve a climate neutral world by mid-century, as enshrined in the Paris
Agreement.
 Climate neutrality is a three step process, which requires individuals, companies and
governments to:
1. Measure their climate footprint;
2. Reduce their emissions as much as possible;
3. Offset what they cannot reduce with UN certified emission reductions.

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India’s INDC objectives How?

 Announced in October 2015 (Lima summit urged every country to announce its
 Install 175 GW of solar, wind and
INDCs by Nov 2015)
biomass electricity by 2022, and scale
 Reduce emission intensity by 33 to 35 per cent by 2030 compared to 2005 levels.
up further in following years.
How?
 Aggressively pursue development of
 Introduce new, more efficient and cleaner technologies in thermal power
hydropower.
generation.
 Achieve the target of 63 GW of installed
 Reducing emissions from transportation sector.
nuclear power capacity by 2032.
 Promote energy efficiency, mainly in industry, transportation, buildings and
 Create an additional carbon sink of 2.5
appliances
to 3 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide
 Develop climate resilient infrastructure.
equivalent by 2030 through additional
 Pursue Zero Effect, Zero Defect policy under Make in India programme.
forest and tree cover.
 Produce 40 per cent of electricity from non-fossil fuel based energy resources by
2030, if international community helps with technology transfer and low cost
finance.

How?

How?  Redesign National Water Mission and National

 Full implementation of Green India
Mission and other programmes of
afforestation.
 Develop 1,40,000 km long tree line on
both sides of national highways.
 Sustainable development.
 Develop robust adaptation strategies
for agriculture, water and health
sectors.
23
Mission on Sustainable Agriculture.
 Active implementation of ongoing programmes like
National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture,
setting up of 100 mobile soil-testing laboratories,
distribution of soil health cards to farmers.
 Additional impetus on watershed development
through Neeranchal scheme.
 Effective implementation of National Mission on
Clean Ganga.
 Early formulation and implementation of National
Health Mission.
 Complete Integrated Coastal Zone Management
plan. Mapping and demarcation of coastal hazard
lines.
24

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Q. With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of
the following statements is/are correct? (2016)
1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into
effect in 2017.
2. The Agreement aims to limit the greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in
average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2 °C or even Momentum for Change: Climate Neutral Now” is an initiative launched by (2018)
1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels.
3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming a) The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
and committed to donate $ 1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing b) The UNEP Secretariat
countries to cope with climate change. c) The UNFCCC Secretariat
Select the correct answer using the code given below. d) The World Meteorological Organisation

a) 1 and 3 only
b) 2 only
c) 2 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

COP Place Decisions

COP Place Decisions
23.
22. Marrakech  A crucial outcome of the Marrakech climate conference was to move
(2016) forward on writing the rule book, or operational manual, of the Paris
Agreement.
 Announcement of the Global Environment Facility (GEF), a multilateral
funding arm, as a capacity building initiative for transparency backed by 11
developed country donors providing $50 million-worth of funding.
 Countries pledged more than $81 million to the Adaptation Fund,
surpassing its target for the year.
 Countries pledged over $23 million to the Climate technology centre and
Network which supports developing countries with climate technology
development and transfer. As the implementation arm of the Technology
Mechanism, the CTCN is a key institution to enable nations realize their
commitments under the Paris Agreement.
 The Green Climate Fund (GCF) announced the approval of the first two
proposals for the formulation of National Adaptation Plans: Liberia for
$2.2 million and Nepal for $2.9 million. Another 20 countries are expected
to have their proposals approved soon with up to $3 million each.
Bonn (2017)  The COP was organized in Bonn Germany and was presided by
Fiji.
 Agendas included financial support, mitigation action and loss
and damage.
 Made progress on framing rules for implementing the Paris
Agreement.
 Key demands centered on getting agreed upon and including in
the official agenda the ‘pre 2020 actions’.
 Developing countries stood together and negotiated strongly to
get the Developed countries report their progress under the
Doha Amendment by May 2018.
 There was also a demand for fixing a deadline for the
ratification of 2012 Doha amendments to the Kyoto Protocol to
give a legal shape to the 'pre-2020' commitments.
 The differences over climate financing continued.
 Issue of phasing out coal was not addressed.

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COP Place Decisions What is talanoa?

23. Bonn (2017) An important outcome was the 'Talanoa Dialogue’.
 The countries prepared a road-map to assess the countries' progress on climate
actions.
 It was agreed that the coming two conferences of 2018 and 2019 will have
stock-taking sessions.
 The stock-taking action would focus on the ‘pre-2020 actions’ being taken by
different countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
 In addition, it will include the progress made by developed nations in their
obligations to provide finance and technology support to the developing
countries.
24. COP – 24  Participating nations agreed on the rules to implement the Paris agreement
(Katowice – that will come into effect in 2020.
Poland)  The rules are regarding how the member nations will measure the carbon
emissions and report on their emission cutting efforts.
 This rulebook can be called as the detailed 'Operating manual of 2015 Paris
Agreement’.
 Members of conference did not agree to 'welcome' the IPCC report on 1.5°C.
The U.S, Saudi Arabia, Russia and Kuwait refused to welcome the IPCC report.
 In Fiji, “talanoa” means to hold a conversation in an inclusive, receptive space. It is traditional
method of solving differences in the Pacific.
 The Talanoa Dialogue seeks to break the climate deadlock by drawing participants closer
together through sharing their stories of climate change. Governments, but also civil society,
NGOs, businesses, cities and others have been invited to submit stories responding to three
questions:
 Where are we now?
 How do we want to go?
 How do we get there?
 To date, hundreds of countries, organisations and people have submitted their stories. These
were read out in April and May at Bonn for a first exchange, and have rung through dozens of
conference rooms since the procedure was initiated in January.
 Talanoa, originally known as the facilitative dialogue, seeks to sidestep the power struggle
inherent to negotiations. Confrontation and criticisms of other participants are forbidden,
and round tables abound.

COP Place Decisions

24. Katowice –  The parties to the conference agreed to record the pledges in a public
Poland registry, as per the existing interim portal.
(2018)  It was also agreed among members that future pledges should cover a
'common time frame' from 2031,
 Questions like different ways of providing financial aid to poor nations,
wording that prevents double counting, however still remains
unanswered.
25. Madrid -  The prime objective of the conference is to complete the rule-book to  The 25th edition of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework
Spain the 2015 Paris Agreement that will Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) or COP25 has begun from December 2 in Madrid
(2019) become effective in 2020 to replace the 1997 Kyoto Protocol (comes to (Spain).
an end in 2020).
 The issues like the creation of new carbon markets, emission reduction  Originally, the Summit was scheduled to be held at Chile (South America) but violent mass
targets, country’s individual targets, etc. remained movement across the country made Chile reluctant from hosting the event.
unresolved during COP24 at Katowice (Poland) 2019. Thus the rulebook
under the Paris Agreement could not be finalized.  The location of this conference is rotated every year in different regions of the world. This
year it was the turn of South America to host the event.

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 22-02-2020

 It will consider the Annual Emissions Gap Report, produced by the UN Environment
Programme (UNEP) and a series of reports from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Green Deal
Change (IPCC).
 Both the reports summarise that the goal of keeping average temperatures within 1.5°C  In the background of the failure of the
from pre-industrial times is “on the brink of becoming impossible.'' As the overall global community to reach any
emissions are still increasing worldwide. agreement in the recently concluded
COP 25, the European Union (EU) has
 The processes and methods of reporting information about climate change would be fixed come up with a climate action plan
during the summit. Specifically, the developing countries will try to ensure that there are
known as the European Green Deal.
greater appreciation and recognition of the issue of loss and damage due to climate change.
 There is a demand to institute a mechanism to compensate countries that suffer major
losses due to climate change-induced events like cyclones or floods.  The European Union is the third-largest
emitter of greenhouse gases in the
 It puts into efforts for committing to a long-term action plan to fight climate change. world after China and the United
 So far only 71 countries, most of them small emitters, have committed themselves to States.
achieve net-zero emissions by 2050.

Major Decisions under Green Deal
Achieving Climate Neutrality
 To become “climate neutral” by 2050 and to achieve this, a law will be
brought which will be binding on all member countries. A law will turn the
political commitment into a legal obligation and will trigger the investments
as well.
 The EU is now the first major emitter to agree to the 2050 climate neutrality
target laid down in the Paris Agreement.
 Climate neutrality is achieved when a country’s emissions are balanced by
absorptions and removal of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere. It is
also expressed as a state of net-zero emissions.
 Absorption can be increased by creating more carbon sinks like forests,
while removal involves technologies like carbon capture and storage.
Increasing 2030 Emission Reduction Targets
 Increase the reduction in its emissions to at least 50% and work towards 55% in the
near future.
 Earlier, the EU had committed to reduce its emissions by 40% by 2030 from 1990
levels under the Paris Agreement. This was already the most ambitious emission
reduction targets among developed countries.
 For example, USA had agreed to cut emissions by 26-28% by 2030 from 2005 levels
but after withdrawing from the Paris Agreement, it is under no obligations now.
 The EU is one of the major emitters to retain the 1990 baseline for emission cuts
which were originally mandated under the Kyoto Protocol for all developed countries.
Most other countries have shifted their baselines to 2005 or even later under the
2015 Paris Agreement.
 Sectoral Plans: It includes sectoral plans to achieve these targets which include
making the steel industry carbon-free by 2030, new strategies for transport and
energy sectors, a revision of management of railway and shipping to make them
more efficient and more stringent air pollution emission standards for vehicles.

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“
Achievements
India’s Agenda
 The EU has been doing better than other developed countries on reducing
emissions.
 India is unlikely to announce
 In terms of emission reductions, it probably is on track to meet the target of
any enhanced targets during the summit.
20% by 2020, unlike any developed country outside the EU.
 India’s current efforts are already much
 Canada reported a 4% reduction from 2005 levels. Japan reported an 8%
more compared to even rich and
reduction from the 2013 baseline.
developed countries. Thus, India will
Concerns
reiterate its stand for ”Common but
 The EU has not been fulfilling all its climate obligations because Kyoto
Differentiated Responsibilities”.
Protocol requires rich and developed countries to provide finance and
technology to developing countries to help them fight climate change. EU
 Developed countries are major
is helping very less, especially for adaptation needs of developing
contributors to climate change and
countries.
they are doing proportionately less,
 This is the main reason why developing countries like India and China, have
especially when it comes to providing
been repeatedly raising the issue of unfulfilled obligations of developed
finance and technology to the less
countries.
developed world.

39

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 22-02-2020

Consider the following statements:

1. Paris Climate Agreement is a long-term goal is to keep the increase in global

average temperature to well below 2°C above preindustrial levels.
2. The agreement will enter into force from 2020.
3. It was formulated within the framework of the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 1 and 3 only
Thank You!
Keep learning!
c) 2 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

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