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AKLAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Kalibo Campus
Kalibo Aklan

INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY Department

1st Semester, School Year 2020 – 2021

STATISTICS – ADVANCE STATISTICS

MODULE 4
SIMPLE TEST OF HYPOTHESIS
 STATISTICS – ADVANCE STATISTICS

MODULE 4

SIMPLE TEST OF HYPOTHESIS

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 DISCLAIMER

STATISTICS – ADVANCE STATISTICS

Blended Learning Module
Module 2: COLLECTION AND PRESENTATION OF DATA
First Edition: 2020

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Published by the Aklan State University (ASU)

SUC President: Dr. Emily M. Arangote, PhD
Campus Director: Dr. Harley P. Arboleda, DIT, ASU Kalibo

Developed by: Engr. PAUL ERWIN S. SARABIA, PhD

Engineering and Architecture Department
Aklan State University
Kalibo Campus
Kalibo, Aklan

Aklan State University, College of Industrial Technology, Kalibo Campus

Engineering and Architecture Department
Roxas Avenue Extension, Andagao, Kalibo, Aklan
Contact No.: (036) 268-3256
Email: asumail@asu.edu.ph
Website: http://www.asu.edu.ph

3
 All rights reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced, for sale or transmitted in any form or by any means –
electronically or mechanically including photocopying – without written permission from the Aklan State University, First
Edition, 2020.
PROGRAM OUTCOMES OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY

After completion of the program, the students shall have the ability to:

1. Common to all programs in all types of school (a toe).

a. Articulate and discuss the latest developments in the specific field of practice
(PQF level 6 descriptor).
b. Effectively communicate orally and in writing;
c. Work effectively and independently in multi-disciplinary and multi-cultural
teams (PQF level 6 descriptor)
d. Act in recognition of professional, social, and ethical responsibility.
e. Preserve and promote “Filipino historical and cultural heritage” (based on RA
7722)

2. Common to a discipline

Based on CMO 30, Series 2005

f. Perform work activities effectively and efficiently to the standards expected in

the operation required in the tourism/hospitality sectors.
g. Undertakes task, functions, duties and activities in the operation of the hotels,
restaurants, travel, government and non-government agencies in accordance
with the competency standards.
h. Analyses situation, identifies problems, and formulates solutions and
implements corrective and/or mitigating measures and action.

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Course Outcomes Its Relationship to Program Outcomes:

COURSE OUTCOMES PROGRAM OUTCOMES

After completion of the course, the students shall be able to: a b c d e f g h

Define relevant statistical terms, discuss methods in

CO1 E I E E I
collection of data and various sampling techniques

Discuss competently the following concepts: Frequency

Distribution, Measure of Central Tendency, Measures of
CO2 E I E E I
Variation, Probability Distribution, Normal Distribution,
Inferential Statistics.

Legend: I – Introductory – the student gets introduced to concepts/principles

E – Enabling – the student practices the competencies with supervision
D – Demonstrating– the student practices the competencies across different
settings with minimal supervision.

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Learning Outcome:

At the end of the unit, the students will be able to:

1. Define hypothesis and hypothesis testing.

2. Explain the alpha and beta errors in rejecting or accepting the null hypothesis.

3. Distinguish directional from non-directional hypothesis.

4. Apply an appropriate statistical test for the hypothesis: Z-test, t-Test, Chi-square goodness-
of-fit.

5. Perform the procedures in testing hypothesis.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Nature of Mathematics

Page No.

Cover Page 1-2

Disclaimer 3

Program Outcomes of BSIT 4

Course Outcomes in Relation to Program Outcomes 5

Learning Outcomes 6

Table of Content 7

I. NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

Introduction 8

Standard Normal Distribution 10

The t-Distribution 10

II. HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Introduction to Hypothesis Testing 13

Error in Hypothesis Testing 16

Check the assumption of the t-test 20

Two-Sample Hypothesis for Equal Variances 21

Two Dependent Samples Hypothesis Test 22

One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) 24

III. Exercises 29

IV. References 31

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NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

The Normal Distribution

The normal distribution is the pattern of the distribution of a set of data that follows a bell shaped curve. It is important
because:

 Many variables are distributed approximately normally.

 It is easy to work with normal distribution as many kinds of statistical tests can be derived for it. These tests
work very well even if the distribution is only approximately normally distributed.

This distribution is sometimes called the Gaussian distribution in honor of Carl Friedrich Gauss, a famous mathematician.

Properties of the normal curve are as follows:

 The curve has a peak at its center and decreases on either side which shows that extreme values are infrequent.
 Probabilities associated with the normal curve correspond to areas under the curve. The total area under the curve is 1
(i.e. 100%). The probability of a particular point is 0 (since no associated area above a point).
 Most of the values lie towards the center of the curve with the arithmetic mean, median, and mode lying at its very
center.
 The curve is symmetric about a line that extends up from the mean (plotted on the axis) – so the area above the curve
on each side of the line is 0.5.
 The probability of deviations from the mean is comparable in either direction as the curve is symmetric.

 There is a family of distributions; they are all bell shaped but vary based on the mean and standard deviation.

 The greater the standard deviation, the flatter is the curve.

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  The second curve seems to have the greatest standard deviation among the three curves.
 The third curve has the greatest mean value.

Standard Normal Distribution

Every value in a data set can be expressed as a z-value (number of standard deviations from the mean). The
standard normal distribution is formed using these values and it is a particular normal distribution with  =0 and
 =1. Probabilities are usually found by converting to z- values and then using a standard normal table or
appropriate XL function.

z=

The t-distribution
When the sample size is less than 30 and/or the population standard deviation is unknown, the t-distribution is
used instead of the standard normal distribution.
The t-distribution is a family of probability distributions; each separate t-distribution is determined by a
parameter called the degrees of freedom (df). The value of the degrees of freedom is based on the sample size.
As the sample size increases, the t-distribution approaches the z-distribution (the normal curve).

For Discussion

A company pays its employees an average wage of $12.00 an hour with a standard deviation of $2. If the wages
are approximately normally distributed, determine the following.

a. the proportion of the workers getting wages between $10 and $14 an hour;
b. the minimum wage of the 2.5% of the employees receiving the lowest salary;
c. the minimum wage of the 2.5% of the employees receiving the highest salary.
d. What is the salary range for almost all employees

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Is the Distribution Normal?

Many inferential procedures assume that the data is normal. To judge whether your data is normal, try the
following.

1. Review the Boxplot and/or Histogram

2. Look at the coefficient of Skewness to assess symmetry.
3. Compare the mean, median and mode. Are they approximately equal?
4. Consider how the data compares with the Empirical Rule?
5. Examine a normal probability plot.

The following looks at this information in reference to the Salary Data.

1. Review the Boxplot and/or Histogram – Does the data appear to be symmetrical and approximately bell
shaped?

2. Look at the coefficient of Skewness to assess symmetry. (See the document on Measures for value ranges.)
Coefficient of Skewness = 0.370 ← between 0.-5 and 0.5 → approximately symmetrical

3. Compare the mean, median and mode. Are they approximately equal?
Mean = 71.6
← relatively close → indicates symmetry
Median = 71.0

4. Consider how the data compares with the Empirical Rule?

 About 68% of the observations within mean ±1 standard deviation

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  At least 95% % of the observations within mean ±2 standard deviations
 At least 99% + of the observations within mean ±3 standard deviations

The following chart shows how the Salary Experience data relates to the Empirical Rule.

5. Examine a normal probability plot. A probability plot shows the relationship between the given data set
and the z-values of the normal distribution.

 If all the points fall on a line, the distribution is normal.

 If the relationship is not linear, the distributions have different shapes.

The points on this plot form

a nearly linear pattern,
which indicates that the
normal distribution is a
reasonable model for this
data set.

Interpreting Non-linear Patterns for a Probability Plot

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Introduction to Hypothesis Testing

A hypothesis test involves a process of making statement(s) (i.e. hypotheses) about the parameter(s) of one or
more populations and the use of statistical theory and techniques to judge the validity of the statement(s). It
enables us to draw conclusions or make decisions regarding a population parameter from a sample statistic.

Parametric vs. Non-parametric Tests

Hypothesis test methodologies may be grouped into two broad categories – parametric vs. non-parametric
techniques.

 Parametric methods assume that you are testing the value of one or more population parameters, sample
data is measured on an interval or ratio scale and there is an associated sampling distribution related to
the parameter being tested.
 Non-parametric methods are applied if one or more of the above assumptions does not hold e.g. .your
data is ordinal.

Example: One Sample Hypothesis Test Summary / (Two- tailed) ( =0.05)

Some managers believe that the salaries of the employees have changed since the previous year’s salary of
$69,000. To check this view a random sample of 150 employees is obtained and the following sample statistics
are found.

= $72,000; n = 150 and s= $11,000

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A hypothesis test is conducted to see if this data provides evidence of a change in salary.

1. The first step in a hypothesis test is a statement of a null hypothesis and an alternate hypothesis.

 A null hypothesis is a statement about the population – used as a basis for argument - it has not been proved. In
fact, we are typically looking to find evidence that disputes the null.
 The alternate hypothesis is a logical alternative to the null. It is a statement of what the test is set up to establish
and generally, a statement of the anticipated outcome of the test

In this case the hypothesis would be the following.

 The null hypothesis is:
Ho: µ = $69,000 (The mean salary of the population of employees is $ 69,000.)

 The alternate hypothesis is:

Ha: µ ≠ $69,000 (The mean salary of the population of employees is not $ 69,000.)

2. A test statistic is calculated.

A common test statistic is a t-value. In this case, we are testing the value of one population mean, and the
t-value (or sometimes used - a z value) is a measure of “how far” the sample mean is from the population
mean that is specified in the null hypothesis. That is: we want to know how many standard deviations
(called the standard error) the sample mean is from the population mean.

For this data, we get the following output from XL.

In Excel use f(x):

T.DIST.2T(mean,df)
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3. Now we must make a statistical decision. In this case, I am asking the question:
if the null hypothesis is really true, is it likely that I would get a sample mean that is more than 3 standard
deviations from the mean?

The decision rule of acceptance or rejection of null hypothesis is determined using a critical value or the p-
value. This value is a measure of how much evidence we have against the null hypothesis. It tells you
precisely the following: the probability that you would obtain these or more extreme results assuming that
the null hypothesis is true.

The standard for making the decision is called the level of significance and is designated by the letter α. (α
is the probability of rejecting a true null hypothesis). This value is set by the researcher.

 Usually, researchers will reject a hypothesis if the p-value is less than α = 0.05.
 Sometimes researchers will use a stricter cut-off (e.g., α = 0.01) or sometimes researchers will use a
more liberal cut-off (e.g., α = 0.10)
 The general rule is that a small p-value is evidence against the null hypothesis while a large p-value
means little or no evidence against the null hypothesis.

So the sample mean is 3.01 standard deviations from the hypothesized population mean.

Since: p = 0.00303 < 0.05 → reject Ho

We are saying that - if the population mean is really $69000, it is unlikely that we would get a sample
mean of $72000. The probability that we are rejecting a true null hypothesis is 0.003

4. Conclude the starting salaries have changed. In fact, by looking at the data, we can note that they have
increased.
If we get a p-value that is greater than our  = 0.05, we must stick with the null – pending more evidence
to reject. Observe that we have not proved Ho, we just can’t reject it as a possibility.

Note: In statistics, a result is called statistically significant if it is unlikely to have occurred by chance.
 A statistically significant difference" simply means there is statistical evidence to say that there is a
difference;
 It does not mean the difference is necessarily large, important, or significant in the common meaning
of the word.

For Discussion

1. Zeta Corporation is a company has a stable workforce with little turnover. They have been in business for
50 years. It has more than 10,000 employees.

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 The company has always promoted the idea that its employees stay with them for a very long time, and it
has used the following line in its recruitment brochures: "The average tenure of our employees is 20
years."

Since Zeta isn't quite sure if that statement is still true, a random sample of 100 employees is taken and
the average age turns out to be 19 years with a standard deviation of 4 years. Can Zeta continue to make
its claim, or does it need to make a change?

a. State the hypotheses.

b. What is the test statistic? (Note that the sample is randomly selected from a population that is assumed to be
normally distributed and/or we have a large sample)
c. Specify the significance level
In XL use:
d. Calculations: The calculated z value is -2.5
NORM.S.DIST(-2.5,TRUE) or
It has p = 0.0062
NORM.DIST(19,20,0.4,TRUE)
Reject or fail to reject the null?
e. Conclusion?

2. A bank tests the null hypothesis that the mean age of the bank's mortgage holders is equal to 45 years,
versus an alternative that the mean age is not 45 years. The bank’s reps take a sample and calculate a p-
value of 0.0202. Should you reject the null hypothesis? At what level are the results significant?

3. An airline company would like to know if the average number of passengers on a flight in November is
different than the average number of passengers on a flight in December. The results of a hypothesis test
are below. What are the appropriate hypotheses? If p < 0.001 would you reject the null hypothesis using 
= 0.01.

t = -4.62, critical value of t < -2.33, p = 0.009

Errors in Hypothesis Testing

Sometimes you will see a reference to Hypothesis Test errors. They are classified as Type I and Type II errors.

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Note: You set the value of . The value of  depends on the difference between the hypothesized mean and
the true value of the population mean. (To reduce you could increase the sample size or increase .)

For Discussion

A mail-order catalog claims that customers will receive their product within 4 days of ordering. A competitor
believes that this claim is not accurate (an underestimate).

1. State the appropriate null and alternative hypotheses to be tested by the competitor.
2. Describe the Type I error for this problem.
3. Describe the Type II error for this problem.

ANSWER: A Type I error would occur if the competitor would reject the null hypothesis when, in fact, it is true, i.e., if the competitor would conclude the mean
time until the product is received is more than 4 days when, in fact, it is not.

A Type II error would occur if the competitor would not reject the null hypothesis when, in fact, it is false, i.e., if the competitor would not conclude the mean
time until the product is received is more than 4 days when, in fact, it is.

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Assumptions

The validity of the results of a hypothesis test depend on certain assumptions and the specific hypothesis test
should not be use if these assumptions are not satisfied

One Sample Hypothesis Test z-test Assumptions

Use to see if the population
mean is a specified value or
standard.
Two Independent Samples
Hypothesis Test
Use to compare two
population means from
independent samples
 Underlying distribution is normal or the CLT can be
assumed to hold (There is a note on the CLT at the
end of this section.)
 Random sample
 Population standard deviation is known (rarely
known)
t- test Assumptions
 Underlying distribution is normal or sample size is
large so the CLT can be assumed to hold
 Random sample
z-test Assumptions
 Underlying distribution is normal or the CLT can be
assumed to hold
 Random & independently selected samples from 2
populations
 Population standard deviation is known
t- test Assumptions
 Underlying distribution is normal or the CLT can be
assumed to hold
 Random & independently selected samples from 2
populations
 The variability of the measurements in the two
populations is the same and can be measured by a
common variance. (Excel offers a t-test that does not
make this assumption )

Example: Two-Sample Hypothesis using the t-distribution

Problem: For the Salary _ Experience data set, test to see if there is a difference in salaries for employees
who selection into their current position was from within the company (internal employees) versus who were
selected into their position from outside the company (external employees).

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Null Hypothesis

H =   (or  - B = 0)  (The salaries are equal.)

Alternate Hypothesis

Ha:  ≠    (or  - B ≠ 0)  (The salaries are not equal.)

The XL output is as follows.

Comparing Salaries (x$1000)

In XL use: Data/Data Analysis/ t-test: Two-

Sample Assuming Equal Variances.

df stands for degrees of freedom and is

related to the sample size.

p = 0.000 is usually reported as p <

0.001

Test Statistic

x1  x2  0 The reference distribution is a

t = 7.55
1 1 t-distribution: tn1+n2 – 2
sp. 
n1 n2

The critical value of t with df = n1 + n2 – 2 = 148 is 1.976.

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 Note the calculated value of t is greater than the critical value of t.

7.58 > 1.976 or use: p < 0.001

Thus, reject the null hypothesis (with p < 0.001). Conclude that the salaries are different. External employees
have a greater salary than internal employees.

Check the assumptions of the t-test.

Note that the t-test for the difference in means assumes that the samples were randomly and independently
selected. You also assume the populations are normally distributed with equal variances. It is generally held
that, for large samples, the t-test is robust (not sensitive) to moderate departures from the assumption of
normality. A non-parametric test is used if you cannot assume equal variances. Excel offers a t test that does
not assume equal variances.

An examination of the following plots is an informal way to check the assumption of normality and equal
variances. In this case, there is no clear contradiction to this assumption.

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It is possible to use a statistical test to check the assumption of equal variances. The F-test for the differences in
variances should be used to confirm this observation (shown in the following). If variances are not equal, use t-
Test: Two-Sample Assuming Unequal Variances (or use a nonparametric test).

Two-Sample Hypothesis for Equal Variances

The F-test can be used to check the assumption of equal variances.

The null and alternate hypotheses are as follows.

H0: 12 = 22 The population variances are equal.

Ha:  12 >  22 The population variances are not equal.

F = s12/s22

Assuming  = 0.05

p > 0.05; thus, do not reject H0 and conclude that the variability is the same.

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Two Dependent Samples Hypothesis Test

This test is used when you take repeated measures from the same individual/ items or you match
individuals/items by a certain characteristic. Your interest is in the difference between the two related
measures.

The assumption for this test is that the differences between pairs are approximately normally distributed.
Note that the test is considered to be robust to violations of normality,

Example of a Paired Difference t-Test

Assume you send your salespeople to a “customer service” training workshop. Has the training made a
difference in the number of complaints? You collect the following data. (Test at the 0.01 level).

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For Discussion

Suppose you want to know if a training program helped improve participant scores. You administer the test to
a random sample and enroll them in training. You then re-administer an alternate form of the test. You record
the change score.

 State the hypothesis that you could test.

 If the mean change score was +10 points with a standard error of 2 points; what percentage of the
participants raised their score by at least 12 points?

Note:

In testing population means, we apply the Central Limit Theorem (CLT). The CLT specifies a theoretical
distribution that can be thought of as having been formulated by the selection of all possible random samples
of a fixed size n and calculating the sample mean for each sample.

 The mean of the distribution of sample means is equal to the mean of the population from which the
samples were drawn.
 The variance of the distribution is  divided by the square root of n. (it is referred to as the standard
error.)

 As the sample size gets large, the distribution of sample means is approximately normally distributed,
regardless of the distribution of the population.

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One Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Summary
Use the one-way ANOVA to compare multiple means (three or more). It tests for a difference in the population
means - comparing more than 2 groups.

 Compare test scores based on three different instructional methods.

 Compare strength of concrete developed using 6 different forms.
 Compare the yield of beans based on four different varieties.
 Compare sales volume for five different locations.

One Way ANOVA

1. Assume the population means of the groups are equal:

Ho: 1 =  2 = … r (all group means are equal)
2. Write an alternative to the null hypothesis – its logical alternative:
Ha: not all mean are equal. (At least one group mean is not equal to another.)

Note that this test will tell you if there are any differences in the population means; it does not specify which
means are different. (There are post hoc tests that will check – available in XL add-in.)
3. Complete the analysis using one of the following:
 XL - Data/Data Analysis /ANOVA Single Factor
4. Compare p to α = 0.05. If p< 0.05, then reject the null hypothesis and conclude that there is at least one
difference.
5. If there is a significant difference in the means, use the Tukey Kramer procedure to determine which
groups differ. (Note that there are other possible procedures.)
6. Summarize your results.

Assumptions

 r samples of size n1, n2,…,nr samples are independently and randomly selected.
 Normality: values in each group are normally distributed (the model is robust relative to this assumption i.e.
modest departures will not adversely affect the results.)
Review the boxplot and review previous sections of the material which presented ways to check normality.
 Independence of Error: Residuals are independent for each value. Residuals are the differences between the
observed and predicted value (difference between an observation and the mean of the group for that
observation).
Check using a probability plot of residuals.
 Homogeneity of Variance: The variance within each population should be equal for all populations
(12 = 22 = …= r2) Note: This assumption is important to the ANOVA.
You can use Levene’s test to check.

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Initial Investigation

 Calculate and look at the means for each treatment group.

 Compare the variances for each group (are they approximately the same?)
 Examine side-by-side dot plot by treatment – pay attention to the spread to see if variances are approximately equal.
Also consider - Do they overlap?

Example for Discussion

Use the Salary/Experience data set. At the 0.05 significance level, is there a difference in mean salary among
the experience groups of the employees?

High Level Experience: employees with 10 or more years of experience in the field
Moderate Experience: employees with 6 to 9 years of experience in the field
Low Experience: employees with 5 or less years of experience in the field

It is always good to look over the data – the descriptive statistics for the groups - and the boxplot.

Salary (x$1000) by Experience

24
Review the boxplot of salaries by experience. Consider spread and center.

The test would be developed as follows.

1. H0: μ1 = μ2 = μ3
2. Ha: not all population means are equal

3. In XL Use Data/ Data Analysis/ ANOVA: Single Factor to obtain the following output.

In XL, use:
Anova Single-
Factor.

25
4. p = 0.00005 < 0.0005 Reject Ho and conclude there is at least one difference.

5. Tukey Kramer (developed with an XL add-on) is a post hoc test. You have established that at least two
groups differ in salary. Use this test to determine which experience level groups differ in salary.

Note: Look at the boxplot to see if the assumption of equal variances is viable. You can test this hypothesis
using the Levene’s Test (available from XL add-on).

Levene’s Test for Variances:

Tests the following

Ho: σ21 = σ22 = σ23

Ha: Not all σ2j are equal

26
Do not reject Ho with p = 0.912.

The following chart is shows some of the available alternatives in hypothesis testing.

27
Exercises:

1. Beta Company is manufacturing steel wire with an average tensil and strength of 50 kilos. Tha laboratory tests 16
pieces and finds that the mean is 47 kilos and the standard deviation is 15 kilos. Are the results in accordance with the
hypothesis that the population mean is 50 kilos?

2. It is known from the records of the city schools that the standard deviation of mathematics test scores on the XYZ test
is 5. A sample of 200 pupils from the system was taken and it was found out that the sample mean score is 75. Previous
tests showed the population mean to be 70. Is it safe to conclude that the sample is significantly different from the
population?

3. Two types of rice varieties are being considered for yield and a comparison is needed. Thirty hectares were planted
with the rice varieties exposed to fairly uniform growing conditions. The results are tabulated below:

VARIETY A VARIETY B
AVERAGE YIELD 80 SACKS/HECTARE 35 SACKS/HECTARE
SAMPLE VARIANCE 5.9 12.1

At 0.05 significance level, can we conclude that variety A is the better type.

4. A manufacturer of flashlight batteries claims that the average life of his product will exceed 40 hours. A company is
willing to buy a very large shipment of batteries if the claim is true. A random sample of 36 batteries is tested, and found
that the sample mean is 45 hours. If the population of batteries has a standard deviation of 5 hours, is it likely that the
batteries will be bought?

5. A company is trying to decide which of two types of tires to buy for their trucks. They would like to adopt brand C
unless there is some evidence that Brand D is better. An experiment was conducted where 16 tires from each brand
were used. The tires were run under similar conditions until they were out. The results are:

BRAND C: X1 = 40,000 kms S1 = 5,400 kms

BRAND D: X2 = 38,000 kms S1 = 3,200 kms

What condition can be drawn?

6. A sample survey on the average total yearly expenditure included 150 student per year for the sample was PhP3,000
with a standard deviation of PhP500.00. How likely is at that the students spend an average of PhP3,500.00 per year as
claimed by a parent at 0.01 significance level.

7. Incoming freshmen are given entrance examinations in a number of fields including English. Over a period of years, it
has been found that the average score in the English examination is 80 with a standard deviation of 7.8. An English
instructor examines the scores for his class of 30 and finds that their average is 85. Can the Instructor claim that the
average score has increased?

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8. A fisherman decied that he needs a line that will weigh 5 kilos if he is to catch the size of fish he desires. He tests 14
pieces of Brand P line and finds a sample mean of 5.6 kilos. If its known that σ = 0.4 kilos, what he conclude about brand
P?

9. A company shich sells biscuits claims “Contents 880 grams” on the package. A sample of 28 packages yeilds an
average of 800 grams. From past experience, the population standard deviation has been 50 grams. Using 0.05
significance level what conclusions would be drawn concerning the standard which the company is trying to achieve?

10. Two methods of teaching statistics are being tried by a professor. A class of 40 students is taught by method A and a
class of 36 is taught by method B. The two classes are given the same final examination. The scores are: X 1 = 78, X2 = 74.
Using a 0.01 significance level, can we conclude that the average final examination scores produced by the two methods
are different if the population standard deviation is 5?

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References:

Statistics Solutions. (2013). Hypothesis Testing [WWW Document]. Retrieved October 27,
2020 from https://www.statisticssolutions.com/academic-
solutions/resources/directory-of-statistical-analyses/hypothesis-testing/

Borro, R. M. (2015). Basic Statistics A Textbook/Workbook 2015 Edition. RMB Publishing.

Stat Trek (n.d.), What is hypothesis testing?, retrieved October 27, 2020 from
https://stattrek.com/hypothesis-test/hypothesis-testing.aspx.

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